Human Systems

Unit D
Chapter 8 - pgs 240 - 276
Chapter 9
Chapter 10
Chapter 11
Chapter 12
 General Knowledge Outcome #1
• Students will:
explain how the human digestive system and
respiratory exchange energy and matter with the
environment
20 - D1.2k
20 - D1.3k
20 - D1.4k
20 - D1.5k
 Nutrients, Enzymes & Digestion
• Digestive system
– Responsible for converting parts of our diet into
molecules
– Molecules can be taken up & used by cells
– Supply body with energy sources
 What Do you Know Already?
Undergoes Components after Used by the Body to …
Nutrient Digestion? Digested
Yes No

Protein Build structure

Vitamins Coenzymes; assist

enzymes, bind to
substrate molecules
Fats Fatty acid + glycerol

Polysaccharides

Water
 What Do you Know Already?
• Make a list of essential
nutrients that must be
included in every diet

• Make a list of the digestive

organs that you know of
already
 Essential Nutrients ( Sec. 8.1 )
• Living things are
composed of non-living
chemicals
• Foods classified into 3
major groups of nutrients:
carbohydrates, proteins &
lipids
• Vitamins & minerals make
up smaller amount
required
• Water is essential though
not considered a nutrient
Essential Nutrients ( Sec. 8.1 )
Lipids (Fats)

Nucleic
Proteins
Acids

Chemicals
of Life

Vitamins &
Carbohydrates
Minerals
 Carbohydrates
• A molecule composed of sugar subunits
– Contains carbon, hydrogen & oxygen in a 1:2:1 ratio
• Provide fast source of energy
– Make up largest component in most diets
 Carbohydrates
• Human body cannot make carbohydrates
– Rely on plants as the source of
carbohydrates
– Plants convert solar energy to
chemical energy
• Sound familiar??
• 6CO2 + 6H2O + light energy
Æ C6H12O6 + 6O2
• Process known as photosynthesis!!
 Carbohydrate Chemistry
• Can be single sugar units or polymers of many
sugar units
– Is a polymer when three or more subunits are linked
• Recall the 1:2:1 ratio and glucose C6H12O6
– Is a hexose sugar Æ six-carbon sugar chain
– Also have triose sugars (three-carbon sugar chain) and
pentose (five-carbon sugar chain)
• Identify a sugar by the -ose suffix
 Carbohydrate Chemistry
• Classified according to number of sugar subunits
– Monosaccharide - single sugar unit
– Disaccharide - joining of 2 sugar subunits
– Polysaccharide - carbohydrate composed of >2 sugar
subunits
 Carbohydrate Chemistry
• Disaccharides are formed by dehydration
synthesis
– Water molecule is removed from two monosaccharide
sugars
• Hydrolysis breaks apart one larger molecule into
smaller molecules
– Water is added and breaks the bond
Dehydration Synthesis
 Carbohydrate Chemistry
• Plants store carbohydrates as a polysaccharide of
multiple glucose subunits
– Starch, stored in a helix shape
• Amylose - contains up to 1000 or more glucose subunits
– 1st carbon in one molecule linked to 4th carbon in next molecule
• Amylopectin - contains between 1000 - 6000 glucose
subunits
– Has short branching chains between 24-36 unit long, extending from
main branch
 Carbohydrate Chemistry
• Animals store carbohydrates as a polysaccharide
called glycogen
– Similar to amylopectin, but branched chains only
16-24 glucose subunits long
• Excess quantities of carbohydrates stored as fat
– Excess intake of carbohydrates under normal
circumstances not a good idea
 Lipids
• Non-polar molecules, insoluble in polar solvents
such as water
– Think of washing dishes … does oil dissolve in the
water?
• Composed of two structural units
– Glycerol
– Fatty acids
• Can be combined by dehydration synthesis
 Lipids
• Important function is storage of energy
– Limited glycogen supplies in most mammals
– Once glycogen stores are built up, carbohydrate is
converted into fats
 Lipids
• Also serve as:
– Key components in cell membranes
– Cushions for delicate organs in the body
– Carriers for vitamins A, D, E and K
– Raw materials for synthesis of hormones
– Insulation against cold
 Lipids - Triglycerides
• Formed by union of glycerol and 3 fatty acids
– Those solid at room temperature are fats
• Saturated Æ only single bonds exist between carbon atoms
(most of the animal fats)
– Those liquid at room temperature are oils
• Unsaturated Æ double bonds exist between carbon atoms
(most of the plant fats)
– If one double bond, monounsaturated
– If two or more double bonds, polyunsaturated
 Lipids - Phospholipids
• Phosphate group bonded to glycerol backbone
• Negatively charged phosphate group - polar
– Polar end soluble in water, non-polar end is non-
soluble
 Lipids - Waxes
• Long-chain fatty acids joined with long-chain
alcohols or to carbon rings
– Insoluble in water
– Well-suited for waterproof coating on plant leaves,
animal feathers and fur
 Liposome Technology
• Lipids assemble into
double-layered spheres
approx. the size of a cell
– Liposomes
• Can fuse with a cell &
deliver contents
– Used with cancer fighting
drugs
 Cholesterol Case Study pg 248
• Low-Density Lipoproteins (LDL)
• High-Density Lipoproteins (HDL)
• Trans Fats
1. Why should fat consumption be limited?
2. Differentiate between “good” and “bad” cholesterol
3. What are trans fats? Why are they concerning?
 Proteins
• These are not primarily energy compounds,
although they can do it
– Different than lipids or carbohydrates
• Whenever cells are damaged & need repair,
proteins are manufactured
– Also builds structures for new cells
 Proteins
• What is composed of protein?
– Cytoplasmic organelles Æ mitochondria, ribosomes
– Major part of muscles, nerves, skin, and hair
– Antibodies
– Enzymes
 Proteins
• Composed of building blocks Æ amino acids
(20 different kinds)
– A chemical that contains nitrogen - can be linked
together
– NH2 group - amino group
– COOH group - carboxyl group
– R group - differentiates one
amino acid from another
 Proteins
• Limited number of carbohydrates and lipids
• Array of proteins is almost infinite
– A small protein may contain only a few amino acids
– A large protein may have more than 250,000 amino
acids
• Order and number of amino acids determines the
type of proteins
 Proteins
• Protein eaten is digested, absorbed, and
individual amino acids are delivered to the
cells
• Cell rearranges the amino acids as dictated by
your genes
– Joined by a peptide bond between a carboxyl group
of one amino acid and the amino group of a second
– Chain of amino acids (≥3 amino acids) is called a
polypeptide
 Proteins
• Body is capable of making most amino acids
• However must obtain 8 from diet
– Essential amino acids Æ cannot be synthesized in
the body
– Lack of these leads to specific protein deficiencies and
diseases
 Structure of Proteins
• Polypeptides folded into three-dimensional
shapes
– Shape or structure determines its function
– Structure is determined by amino acid sequence
• Change of one amino acid can change entire protein
structure
 Structure of Proteins
• Four levels of protein structure
1. Primary
2. Secondary
3. Tertiary
4. Quaternary
 Primary Structure
• Unique sequence of amino acids in the chain
 Secondary Structure
• Determined by primary structure
• Folds & coils occur along chain
– Hydrogen binding pulls chain into coils and pleated
sheets
 Tertiary Structure
• Additional folding of the polypeptide chain
• Occurs due to interactions between R groups
 Quaternary Structure
• Large, globular proteins from 2 or more
polypeptides
• ex. Hemoglobin - contains
4 individual polypeptide
chains which combine
to form the functional
model
 Denaturation & Coagulation
• Exposing protein to excess heat, radiation or pH
changes will alter its shape
– Physical or chemical factors disrupt bonds and cause
changes in configuration
– May uncoil or assume new shape
• Changes physical properties and biological
activity - temporary - when removed the proteins
return to original state (denaturation)
 Denaturation & Coagulation
• Coagulation refers to permanent change in
protein shape
– ex. cooking an egg
• Coagulation occurs because no matter how long the egg
cools, it never returns to its previous state
 Work Check Questions
Fill in the following table Nutrient Sources Function
using your notes and in Humans
textbook Carbohydrates

On page 253 answer

Lipids
questions 2, 4, & 5

Work Check Tomorrow Proteins

Enzymes (sec. 8.2)
Pages 254 - 258
 Reactions in the Cells
• Within cells reactions must occur at relatively low
temperatures
– Heat is dangerous, destructive
 Reactions in the Cells
• A catalyst is a chemical that increases the rate of
chemical reactions without altering the products,
or being altered itself
 What is an Enzyme?
• A protein catalyst which permits a chemical
reaction to proceed at low temperatures
– Regulates reactions occurring in living things
What is an Enzyme?
• Lowers activation
energy required for
reaction to occur
• Permits reactions to
occur at lower
temperatures
 What is an Enzyme?
• Molecules which enzymes work on are called
substrates
– Combines with specific enzymes
• Lock & Key Model
– Are changed during the reactions
• Some enzymes need assistance to bind with the
substrate
– Cofactors
• Inorganic ions
– Coenzymes Æ this word should ring a bell; CoA?
• Organic molecules
 What is an Enzyme?
• Identified by suffix “-ase” added to name of
substrate bonded to
– Carbohydrases
– Proteases
– Lipases
 Factors Affecting Enzymes -
pH
• Enzymes function best within certain pH ranges
– Example: PEPSIN
• Located in the stomach
• Functions optimally in areas of low pH
– Example: TRYPSIN
• Located in the small intestine
• Functions optimally in areas of higher pH (~9)
Factors Affecting Enzymes -
pH
• Within the digestive tract
there are optimal pHs for
the enzymes located
throughout
 Factors Affecting Enzymes -
Concentration
• Increase number of
substrate molecules,
increases number of
collisions
• Greater reaction rate
• Will plateau over time
- level off
Factors Affecting Enzymes -
Temperature
 Factors Affecting Enzymes -
Temperature
• Increasing temperature increases rate of reactions
– When energy is added, molecules move faster
– Faster molecules creates greater rate of collision
 Factors Affecting Enzymes -
Temperature
• In humans, peaks at ~37°C
– WHY??
• Recall denaturation & coagulation conversation
– At higher temperatures, proteins change chapes
– Changes the active site
– Greater temperature change, greater change in active
site = less effective enzyme
Factors Affecting Enzymes -
Competitive Inhibition
• Have similar shape to substrate
• Compete with substrate for
binding site
• As long as competitor remains
bound, substrate cannot bind and
the enzyme does not function
properly
 Regulation of Enzyme Activity
• Metabolic pathways follow particular steps
– One step in the chain initiates the next step and so on
• Must have a way to regulate the steps
– Called feedback
Regulation of Enzyme Activity
• Feedback inhibition Æ the inhibition of an enzyme
in the metabolic pathway by the final product of
that pathway
 Regulation of Enzyme Activity
• Precursor activity Æ the activation of the last
enzyme in a metabolic pathway by the initial
substrate
 Regulation of Enzyme Activity
• Allosteric activity Æ a change in an enzyme
caused by the binding of a molecule
Work Check Questions
Page 258
#s 1, 2, 3, 12, 13
These will be taken up
tomorrow for marks
Ingestion (Sec 8.3)
Pages 259 - 263
 The Digestive Process
• Four parts to the digestive process
– Ingestion - taking in of nutrients
– Digestion - breakdown of complex organic molecules
into smaller components; done via enzymes
– Absorption - transport of nutrients through the body
to the cells
– Egestion - removal of waste from the body
 The point of digestive tract…
Hydrolyze macromolecules to molecules that are small
enough to be absorbed through the gut wall into the blood
stream
Examples:
• Proteins
• Carbohydrates
• Lipids
• Nucleic Acids
• Vitamins and minerals small enough to be absorbed
directly

Adapted by A deBeaudrap from S Ferbey

 Evolutionary development of the
modern gut

Adapted by A deBeaudrap from S Ferbey

 Cnidarians (Hydra)
• Gastrovascular cavity – one
opening.
• Gastrodermis lining of cavity
– secretes dig. enzymes for
extracell.digestion
– have flagellae that mix food and
enzymes - have pseudopods that
engulf food particles
– absorption of digested particles

Adapted by A deBeaudrap from S Ferbey

Adapted by A deBeaudrap from S Ferbey
 Earthworm (Lumbricus terrestris)
Long straight tube open at both ends.
Eats its way through the dirt.
• mouth
• esophagus
• crop (storage)
• gizzard: grit filled muscular walled
chamber grinds food
• intestine – chemical (enzymatic)
hydrolysis and absorption into blood.
• absorption improved by typhlosole fold
increasing surface area
• anus

Adapted by A deBeaudrap from S Ferbey

Adapted by A deBeaudrap from S Ferbey
 Grasshopper
• 2 ended long tube

• Crop (storage)
• Gizzard made of chitin
plates for grinding
• Specialized mouth parts
(modified appendages) for
tasting, biting, crushing
• Removes nitrogenous
waste (uric acid) from
animal

Adapted by A deBeaudrap from S Ferbey

 Grasshopper mouthparts

Adapted by A deBeaudrap from S Ferbey

 Grasshopper Digestive Tract

Adapted by A deBeaudrap from S Ferbey

 Human digestion
• Long highly coiled gut to
increase time for
digestion/absorption
• Outpocketings (glands) off
main tube for secretion of
enzymes,etc
• Part of external environment

Adapted by A deBeaudrap from S Ferbey

 Salivary Glands
• Amylase enzymes to
break down starches
into simpler
carbohydrates
– Recall amylose and
amylopectin
• Lubricates food so it
can be swallowed
• Starch Æ maltose (2
glucose units)
 Salivary Glands
• Detect flavor when:
– Food particles dissolved in saliva penetrate taste buds
 Teeth
• Important for
physical digestion
MASTICATION
– Incisors
specialized for
cutting
– Canines Æ
tearing
– Premolars Æ
ginding
– Molars Æ
crushing
 In-Class Assignment:
1.Design an experiment to determine if the starch in a
chewed cracker has been hydrolyzed to maltose

2.Pencil draw and label the gut from top to bottom:

NO TRACING!

Adapted by A deBeaudrap from S Ferbey

 Swallowing
• Bolus to pharynx.
• Epiglottis – flap which covers the
trachea
• Soft palate - stops food from entering
nasal cavity
http://people.eku.edu/ritchisong/epiglottis.gif

Adapted by A deBeaudrap from S Ferbey

Esophagus
• Food must travel from the
mouth to the stomach via the
esophagus
– Peristalsis Æ rhythmic, wavelike
contractions of muscle that move
food along the gastrointestinal
tract
The initial act of
swallowing is a
voluntary
process, however
the movement
afterwards is
involuntary and
controlled by
nerves
Stomach
 Stomach
• Site of food storage and initial protein digestion
• Contains 3 layers of muscle
– Run in different
directions
• Allows for churning
of food
 Stomach
• Control of food
movement done
by sphincters
– Allows food to
enter but keeps
food and acid
from being
regurgitated
– Moves food
into the small
intestine
 Layers of the gut
• Mucosa: protective,
mucus-secreting cells
and glands that secrete
digestive enzymes
• Submucosa –
contains nerve and
blood and lymph
vessels
• Muscularis externa –
smooth muslce
• Serosa – covers outer
surfaces of the
digestive tract organs
(fibrous)
Adapted by A deBeaudrap from S Ferbey
Adapted by A deBeaudrap from S Ferbey
Stomach - Ruminants
4-chambers
 ENZYMATIC DIGESTION by gastric juice
from gastric pits in stomach wall.
GASTRIC JUICE:
1. HCl from parietal cellsÆ denatures
protein. Stomach ph = 1-3 is antiseptic

2. Pepsinogen = inactive enzyme from Chief

cells: HCl activates pepsinogen into pepsin
enzyme
– Pepsin enzyme. Æ hydrolyzes proteins into
polypeptides

3. Mucus from neck cellsÆ protects stomach

wall from pepsin and acid
Adapted by A deBeaudrap from S Ferbey
Stomach Lining
 Gastric pit cells
containing
-mucous neck cells
(mucus)
-parietal cells (HCl)
-chief cells (pepsinogen)

Adapted by A deBeaudrap from S Ferbey

Pepsin - an Enzyme
 Steps to protein digestion
pepsin
Gastric juice

HCl
Gastric
juice
3-D globular
protein Denatured protein

Polypeptide
chain

Carboxypeptidase,
dipeptidase trypsin,
aminopeptidase,
Amino acids Small peptides chymotrypsinm,
Adapted by A deBeaudrap from S Ferbey
 Draw a graph showing the effect of pH on
pepsin activity
• The effect of pH on pepsin activity
Pepsin
activity
(% yield
amino
acids)

0 7 14
pH

Adapted by A deBeaudrap from S Ferbey

 ULCER
commonly due to
Heliobacter
pylori bacteria

Adapted by A deBeaudrap from S Ferbey

 Summary: STOMACH FUNCTION?
• MECHANICAL BREAKDOWN OF FOOD
• DENATURATION OF PROTEINS
• HYDROLYSIS OF PROTEINS TO SHORTER
PEPTIDES
• Stomach stores food
What would be the effects of the removal of the stomach
and explain why for each effect?

Adapted by A deBeaudrap from S Ferbey

 In-Class Assignment:
1.Design an experiment to determine if the starch in a
chewed cracker has been hydrolyzed to maltose

2.Pencil draw and label the gut from top to

bottom: NO TRACING!

Adapted by A deBeaudrap from S Ferbey

Digestion (Sec 8.4)
Pages 264 - 270
 Small Intestine
• Most responsible for
absorption of nutrients
into bloodstream

• Pyloric sphincter
allows passage of food
from stomach into the
duodenum
 Small Intestine
• Is ~ 2.5 cm x 6 m in length
• Consists of three main
segments
– Duodenum (pH ~6)
– Jejunum (pH ~7-8)
– Ileum (pH ~7-8)
 Small Intestine
• Surface is covered with millions of projects called
villi - problems here relates to Celiac disease
 Absorption of digested end products
• Small
intestine is
lined with
villi which
have
microvilli to
increase
surface
area for
absorption
Adapted by A deBeaudrap from S Ferbey
Microvilli on Villi
Small Intestine
Blood Vessels of the Small Intestine
Pancreas
• Endocrine and
exocrine roles
• Exocrine
involved in
digestion
– Production of
digestive
enzymes
 Pancreatic Secretions
• Trypsin, erepsin, pancreatic
lipase & pancreatic amylase

• Bicarbonate- and salt-rich solution

secreted into small intestine
Liver & Gallbladder
• Helps manufacture
proteins
• Synthesizes, stores
and metabolizes fats
• Stores and
metabolizes
carbohydrates
• Forms and secretes
bile
Liver & Gallbladder
• Bile drains into
common bile duct
– Joins with cystic duct
from gall bladder
• Bile drains into the
duodenum or is
temporarily stored in
cystic duct of gall
bladder
Liver & Gallbladder
• Helps manufacture
proteins
• Synthesizes, stores
and metabolizes fats
• Stores and
metabolizes
carbohydrates
• Forms and secretes
bile
Liver & Gallbladder
Liver & Gallbladder - Problems
Liver & Gallbladder - Problems
• Common bile duct carries
secretions from liver and
pancreas into small intestine.

• So, small intestine contains

a. intestinal juice from
intestine wall
b. bile from liver
c. pancreatic juice from
pancreas
d. food
SI is BASIC due to sodium bicarbonate
from pancreas
Adapted by A deBeaudrap from S Ferbey
Small intestine
 Absorption into blood stream
By the end of the small intestine, digestion complete:
• carbohydrates Æ monosaccarides
• fats Æ fatty acids and glycerol
• proteins Æ amino acids

Now end-products are ready for absorption through the wall

of the small intestine into the bloodstream

Adapted by A deBeaudrap from S Ferbey

 Absorption of the End Products from the Villi in
the Small Intestine
Lacteal
• takes in partially digested fat droplets, FATTY ACIDS AND
GLYCEROL and fat soluble vitamins by endocytosis
– into lymph ducts
– lymph nodes for screening
– returned to general blood circ.
Capillary
• Water soluble end products (glu, aa, nucleotides) diffuse
through villus epithelium into blood capillary

Rich blood from villi Æ hepatic portal veinÆ liver for

screening:
• excess glucoseÆ into liver glycogen.
• excess amino acids Æ deaminated (– NH2 portion becomes
urea) remainder becomes fat.
Adapted by A deBeaudrap from S Ferbey
 Summary of small intestine
• Almost all digestion and all absorption of
nutrients into the blood is finished by end of S.I.

• Remainder entering large intestine is:

cellulose, water, dissolved minerals, vitamins, un-
digestible matter

Adapted by A deBeaudrap from S Ferbey

Large Intestine aka Colon
 Large Intestine
• Last part of digestive system in
vertebrates
• Functions to remove water
from remaining indigestible
food matter
– Pass this waste from the body
• Takes 12-25 hours to complete
digestion
• Can house over 700 species of
bacteria
• Cecum and appendix
contain cellulose
digesting microbes
• Vestigal organs in
humans - they have
no function
Large Intestine
 Function of Colon:
.
• Absorbs water and dissolved minerals into the
bloodstream

• Constipation – too long in the colon (no fibre or

water)
• Diarrhea – not enough time in the colon.

Adapted by A deBeaudrap from S Ferbey

 Egestion
• Rectum: very muscular, last 10 cm, 2 inner and 2
outer sphincters.
• Stretch reflex (fibre, water) in the large intestine
causes peristaltic wave Æegestion (defecation)

Adapted by A deBeaudrap from S Ferbey

 Coprophagy
• In animals which do not have a complex ruminant
system like cattle and sheep
• First round - soft fecal pellets of partially digested
food
• Second round - harder, very little nutrient content
 HORMONAL control of digestion:
Enzyme release is controlled by hormones
HORMONE The STIMULUS for SITE OF Hormone causes
production of the PRODUCTION of this effect…
hormone is hormone
GASTRIN PROTEIN IN STOMACH WALL GASTRIC JUICE
STOMACH ; FROM gastric PITS
Stretching stomach
muscles
SECRETIN PRESENCE OF DUODENAL WALL Stimulates
ACID IN secretion of
DUODENUM PANCREATIC
JUICE from
pancreas
CHOLECYSTO FAT IN SMALL DUODENAL WALL STIMULATES GALL
KININ (CCK) INTESTINE BLADDER TO
RELEASE BILE

Adapted by A deBeaudrap from S Ferbey

Human Systems
Unit D
Chapter 8
Chapter 9 - pages 280 - 309
Chapter 10
Chapter 11
Chapter 12