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Philosophy 1021 PREMISES 1 Chapter 1 Statement: a sentence that is capable of being true or false (not all sentences are

statements). Argument: group of statements, one of which (conclusion) is supposed to be supported by the remaining statements (premises). Truth Value: a true statement has the truth-value True. A false statement has the truth-value False. (This is only true of how things actually are) Deductively Valid: an argument is valid if and only if it is impossible for all premises to be true and conclusion false. Modal notion Sound: an argument is sound if and only if 1) it is deductively valid and 2) premises are all true (the conclusion must be true). Inductively valid: an argument is only inductively valid if and only if the conclusion is probably true and its premises are true. I bet probably (pg. 45) Called inductively strong in the book Cogent Argument: an argument is cogent if and only if 1) it is inductively valid and 2) all of its premises are true. 6.1 Symbols and Translation Simple Statement(atomic statement): a statement that contains no other statement as a part (component, constituent) Compound Statement(molecular): contains at least one simple statement that is a part of the entire statement (also called molecular) Statement letters may only stand for simple statements (uppercase)

Natural languages include English, Japanese, etc. However, formal languages work on symbols, such as letters, and combining them for expression. Statement Letters: Uppercase letters used to represent simple statements. Logical Operators: b Tilde; negations; used for words like not, it is not the case that y Dot; conjunction; used for words like and, also, moreover Wedge; disjunction; used for words like or/unless Horseshoe; implication; used for if then, only if - if in case, Provided that, given that, on condition that Triple bar; equivalence; used for if and only if Tilde The tilde symbol is used to translate not, it is not the case that, it is false that

Conjunction - The dot symbol is used to translate and, also, but, however, yet, still,moreover,although, and nevertheless,both,additionally,furthermore Disjunction - The wedge symbol is used to translate or and unless Conditional (material implications)

The horseshoe symbol is used to translate if.then., only if if can also be expressed as in case, Provided that, given that, on condition that

AB is called conditional. A is called the antecedent and B is the consequent. Hint: the statement that follows if is always the antecedent, and the statement that follows only if is always the consequent. - i.g. Thus C only if H is translated C H, whereas C if H is translated H C. Necessary condition: A is a necessary condition on B if and only if B cannot obtain without A also obtaining. Sufficient condition: A is a sufficient condition if and only if B obtains whenever A obtains. SUN translates to SN A if B is sufficient; BA A only if B is necessary AB A if and only if B is necessary and sufficient A B Biconditionals (material equivalences) - the triple bar symbol is used to translate the expressions if and only if and is a sufficient and necessary condition for Parenthesis and Brackets: - Can be determined by commas, semicolons, etc. - Words like both or either - Main operator works on the main or most complex part of the statement Examples:If Atlanta is beautiful, then either Boston is interesting or Chicago and Detroit are cold. A(B[CyD])

Either and Both - Not both will look like - Bothnot - Not either - Eithernot

~(AyB) ~A y ~B ~ (AB) [neither nor/either or] ~A ~B [think one is

Demorgans Rule: ~(pyq) = ~p ~q [not both means one is] Ex. ~(pq) = ~p y ~q [neither is means both are not] Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz 1646 1716 - Polymath - Attended University of Altdorf - Father of symbolic logic for developing universal characteristics, Examples : Pg. 299 I. 10. The Colts winning most of their games implises that Peyton Manning is a great quarterback.

25. Either Rado does not make a sapphire watch or if Movado makes one then so does Pulsar 28. Mercury is a planet given that both Pluto and Ceres are not. 40. It is not the case that both Kobe Bryant or Shaquille ONeal plays professional tennis and LaDainian Tomlinson or Brett Farve plays professional basketball. II. 1. Unless we reduce the incidence of child abuse, future crimes rates will increase 13. Cooling a group of atoms to absolute zero and keeping them bunched together is a necessary and sufficient condition for producing a Bose-Einstein condensate. 16. Three-strikes laws will be enforced and longer sentences imposed only if hundreds of new prisons are built, and that will happen only if taxes are increased. 6.2 Truth Functions Truth function: is any compound position whose truth value is completely determined by the truth values of its components Statement variable: lower case letter that can stand for any statement Statement form: an arrangement of statement variables and operators such that uniform substitution of statements for statement variables result in a statement. Truth Table: arrangement of truth-values that shows the truth-value of a compound statement in every possible case as determined by the truth-values of its component simple statements Negation p ~p T F F T Conjunction pyq T F F F Disjunction pq T T T F Implication pq T F T T

pq TT TF FT FF

pq TT TF FT FF

pq TT TF FT FF

pq TT TF FT FF

Equivalence p q T F F T

Main operator: of a compound statement (or statement form) is that operator that governs the largest or most complex statement If p is a compound statement, we can compute its truth-value from the truth-values of the simple statements occurring in it as follows: Computing Truth Values: 1. Enter the appropriate truth-values for all simple statements occurring in p. [all upper case letters] 2. Enter the appropriate truth-values for all tildes operating on simple statements (i.e. immediately preceding simple statements) occurring in p. [all tildes before simples] 3. Enter the appropriate truth-values for all binary connectives operating on simple statements or negated simple statements occurring in p. [any operator connecting simples] 4. Enter the appropriate truth-values for all tildes operating on compound statements occurring in p for which a truth-value has been entered. [Negated compound statements] 5. Enter the appropriate truth-values for all binary connectives operating on statements occurring in p for which truth-values have been entered. [binary connectors] 6. Repeat 4 and 5 until a truth-value is entered for the main connective (operator) of p. Not every statement of English has a truth-functional translation. In particular, some uses of the English expressions, which often express truth-functional operators(e.g., and and if.then), do not express such operators. Things are even worse for conditionals and biconditionals. Truth-functional logic captures enough of what we normally say to be a valuable tool as well as a valuable object of study. Examples on Pg. 311 I. 1. ~(AM) y ~ (C E) 4. ~(Ky~O) ~(R~B)

10. ~[(X T) y (N F)] v (K L) II. 13.

19.

22.

III. 7.

10.

13

6.3 Truth Tables for Propositions A truth table for a proposition (p) tells us the value of p for every possible combination of truth values of its component simple statements. Each row of a propositions truth table represents how things would stand for p for every single combination of truth values of its component simple statements. The number of rows is determines by the number of simple statements. Line = 2n Constructing the table: 1. Write down p then draw a vertical line to its left and a horizontal one through that. 2. Identify each distinct simple statement and write them left to the vertical line. 3. Write half the number of rows to the most left n as Ts and the second have as Fs. Go one to the right and write down half the Ts as the most left, then the same number of Fs (2X). Continue this until the right most n and this column should alternate Ts and Fs. Example: (A~C) B ACB TTT TTF TFT TFF FTT FTF FFT FFF (A~C) B F F T F F F T T T T T T T F T T F T T T T T T T

Easier way: 1. Notice C is being negated so you know each truth value under C is going to be opposite 2. Then look at the horseshoe and remember truth tables for conditional statements. The only time it is false is T F 3. Look at more tildes (none here).

4. Compare the horseshoe and wedge because we have left with the main operator and most complex statement. The truth values under the main connective of p lists all the possible truth values of p, correlated with the possible combinations of truth values for the simple statement. We use these to classify tautologys, selfcontradictions, contingents, and all logical relations. Classifying Statements Tautology: no matter the simples truth value, the main operators are all true (said to be logically true). Contradictory: no matter the simples truth value, the main operators are all false (said to be logically false) Contingent: truth value under the main operator depends on the truth values of simple statements. Truth tables can also show logical relations between two statements:

Comparing Statements Logically Equivalent: there is no situation in which the two statements differ in truth value (if p and q always agree) Mutually Contradictory: there is no situation in which two statements have the same truth value (if p and q always disagree) Mutual consistency: at least one situation where both are true (one row where p and q are both true) Mutual inconsistency: no situation where they are both true (at no point are both a row of p and q true). To build this table do the same as a single proposition but join it to another statement.

Ask these 4 questions: 1. Is the statements logically equivalent (same truth values on each line)? If yes, complete. If no, continue. TF FF TT TT 2. Is the statements mutually contradictory(opposite truth value on each line? If yes, complete. If no, continue. TF FT TF TF 3. Is the statements mutually consistent(there is at least one line on which the truth values are both true)? If yes, complete. If no, continue. TT TF TF FF 4. Is the statements mutually inconsistent(there is no line on which the truth values are both true)? If yes, complete. If no, continue. TF FT FF TF

Examples pg. 319

I. 7.

10

13

II. 7.

10.

13.

III. 4.

7.

6.4 Truth Tables for Arguments Group of statements including premises that support a conclusion We can use truth tables to test arguments formalizing in propositional logic for deductive validity. Constructing the table: 1. Symbolize the argument (if it isnt already) 2. Draw a vertical row. To the right, give the premises (each one separated by a single line. To the right of the premises, give the conclusion, which should be separated by a double line. 3. Identify simple statements and put their letter to the left of the vertical line. 4. Reference columns 5. Compute truth values for each premise. 6. Check to see if any row shows all true premises and a false conclusion. If there is at least one case, then the argument is deductively invalid. If not, the argument is deductively valid.

Corresponding Conditional: conditional statement with the antecedent conjunction of the premises of the argument and consequent of the conclusion of the argument. [(P1 y P2 y Pn C)] An argument is valid if and on if the corresponding conditional for the argument is a tautology because for the conjunctions, there truth value must all be true for the proposition to be true. Therefore, the conclusion must be true or it would be invalid. Examples on Pg. 324 I. 4.

7.

II. 4.

7.

13.

6.8 Argument Forms and Fallacies Argument Form: an arrangement of statement variables and main operators such that uniform substitution of statements for variables ends in an argument. Arguments form creates patterns of reasoning. Common Valid argument forms: 1. Disjunctive Syllogism (DS) pq ~p . q 2. Hypothetical Syllogism (HS) pq qr pr 3. Modus Ponens (MP) method of affirming pq p q 4. Modus Tollens (MT) method of denying pq ~q ~p 5. Constructive Dilemma (CD) (pq) y (rs) pr qvs 6. Destructive Dilemma (DD) (pq) y (rs) ~q ~s ~p ~r The conjunctive (/disjunctive) premises of either dilemma (constructive or destructive) are called the horns of the dilemma. (The dilemmas occur so frequently in various types of debates that specific strategies for resisting them have been developed): Resisting the logic of an argument is impossible because it is valid. Therefore, the soundness (all premises are true and it is deductively valid) must be attacked: If any conjunctive premise is proven false, then the opponent has grasped the dilemma by the horns. If any disjunctive premise is proven false, then the opponent has escaped between the horns of the dilemma. Invalid argument forms: 1. Similar to Disjunctive Syllogism (SDS) pq p q 2. Denying the Antecedent (DA) The consequent may still happen if the antecedent did not pq ~p ~q 3. Affirming the Consequent (AC) The consequent is not necessarily a direct result of the antecedent

pq q p BEWARE DA and AC will be easily confused with MP and MT. DA and AC are INVALID. Every substitution of a valid argument form is a valid argument. pq p q However, an invalid argument form can have valid and invalid substitution instances. AC: G N = (FD) (FyD) FyD N G ~T (invalid) (valid) Convention: an argument has a deductively invalid form if it is a substitution instance of an invalid argument and it is not also a substitution instance of a valid argument form. (pq) (pyq) pyq pq Guidelines to determine if an argument is valid: y Symbolize A y The order of the premises does not affect the form of the argument y Compound statements (including ~) may be substituted for statements variables in argument forms; substitution is not restricted to simple statements. y p is logically equivalent to ~~p so they can be substituted for each other in any argument form. y p q is logically equivalent to q p so they can be substituted for each other in any argument form. 1. 1.

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