9.2 Maintaining a balance: 1.

Temperature range Background: All organisms are adapted to a particular environment with its characteristic temperature range. The temperature range allows the organism's enzymes to control its metabolism by operating at their optimum efficiency within this range. Some organisms are adapted to live at high temperatures (80 - 100oC) and these are called thermophiles. At the other end of the scale, there are organisms that are adapted to extremely cold temperatures (0-4oC), termed psychrophiles. Most mammals and microbes are adapted to a temperature range 30 - 45oC, averaging around 37oC. The optimum temperature for plants is around 25oC. identify the role of enzymes in metabolism, describe their chemical composition and use a simple model to describe their specificity on substrates
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Enzymes are biological catalysts. This means that they lower the energy required to start a chemical reaction within a cell but do not get used up by that reaction. Every reaction and process within a cell (metabolism) is controlled by a specific enzyme. Enzymes are globular proteins whose shapes are specialised so that other chemicals (substrates) can form a temporary bond with them. There are two models used to show how an enzyme work: One model used to illustrate the action of an enzyme is the lock-key model. This is where only one small part of the enzyme molecule can form a complex with the substrate. This part of the molecule is called the active site. Only a specific substrate(s) can bond in that site and this makes the enzyme specific to that substrate.

The induced fit model, a more recent modification on the lock-key model, proposes that the active site slightly changes its shape to accommodate the substrate perfectly.

identify the pH as a way of describing the acidity of a substance

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pH is a scale related to the concentration of hydrogen ions in a solution. A pH value of 0 - 6 indicates an acid solution, where 0 is more acidic than 6, e.g. lemon juice has a pH value of 2, hydrochloric acid has a pH value of 1. A pH value of 7 indicates a neutral solution, e.g. water. A pH of 8 - 14 indicates a basic solution, where 14 is far more basic than 8, e.g. sodium hydroxide (drain cleaner) has a pH of 14, sodium bicarbonate has a pH of 8.

identify data sources, plan, choose , equipment or resources and perform a first-hand investigation to test the effect of: o increased temperature o change in pH o change in substrate concentration on the activity of named enzyme(s)
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For this investigation, you need data that will assist you to determine appropriate ways in which each aspect may be researched. Enzymes that could be used include salivary amylase, trypsin and rennin.

Rennin is an enzyme found in the stomachs of young mammals that are still being fed on milk. The rennin 'curdles' or sets the protein in the milk separating it into curds (solids) and whey (liquid).
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Plan your investigation using the procedure provided below. When choosing resources, you should be able to buy rennin as a junket tablet from supermarkets.

Procedures to investigate the activity of an enzyme A. To demonstrate the effect of increased temperature: 1. Make a rennin solution by dissolving a junket tablet in distilled water. 2. Add the same amount of rennin solution to a number of test tubes of milk, eg 7 test tubes. 3. Place test tubes in different water baths at temperature ranges such as 0oC, 10oC, 20oC, 30oC, 40oC, 50oC and 60oC. Make sure each water bath is kept at the temperature it has been allocated. 4. Time the interval between adding the rennin and curdling of the milk for each temperature. 5. Note that the variables kept constant in each test tube are the junket solution, the pH of the solution, the type of milk and the quantity of milk in each test tube. 6. Comment on which temperature is the most effective in curdling the milk. Could a different temperature be better?

B. To demonstrate the effect of change in pH: 1. Make a rennin solution the same as was done in A and add pH solution to each with known concentrations of pH solutions from for example pH 3, pH 4, pH 5, pH 6, pH 7 and pH 8. 2. Add the same amount of rennin solution with the varying pH to six test tubes of milk. 3. Place in a water bath kept at a constant temperature of 37oC. 4. Time the interval between adding the rennin and curdling of the milk in each test tube. 5. Note that the variables kept constant in each test tube are the junket solution, the type of milk, the temperature of 37oC, and the quantity of milk in each test tube. 6. Comment on which pH is the most effective in curdling the milk. C. To demonstrate the effect of change in substrate concentration: 1. Make different concentrations of the substrate by diluting the milk using different amounts of powdered milk to get different concentrations. 2. Add the same amount of rennin solution to each test tube of milk. 3. Place in a water bath kept at a constant temperature of 37oC. 4. Time the interval between adding the rennin and curdling of the milk. 5. Note that the variables kept constant in each test tube are the type of milk, the temperature of 37oC, and the quantity of milk in each test tube. 6. Should smaller increments of milk concentrations have been used? y Perform the investigation by using the procedures above and carrying them out, recognising where and when modifications are needed and analysing the effect of any adjustments that you make. explain why the maintenance of a constant internal environment is important for optimal metabolic efficiency
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Enzymes control all the metabolic processes in the body. Enzymes work optimally in an environment where their optimum temperature and pH conditions are met. At temperatures and pH values other than the optimum, the enzymes fail to work as efficiently as they should or not at all.

describe homeostasis as the process by which organisms maintain a relatively stable internal environment
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Homeostasis is the process by which the internal environment is kept within normal limits regardless, of the external environmental conditions. This includes conditions, such as temperature, pH, gas levels, water and salt concentrations. This allows the enzyme's optimal conditions to be met and the body to work efficiently and kept as stable as possible.

explain that homeostasis consists of two stages: o detecting changes from the stable state o counteracting changes from the stable state Background

For a state of homeostasis to exist, the body must have some way of detecting stimuli that indicate a change in the body's internal or external environment.
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A receptor detects a change in some variable in the organism's internal environment, for example, sensory neurons in the skin pick up a decrease or increase in temperature of air surrounding the body. An appropriate response occurs that counteracts the changes and thus maintains the stable environment, for example, shivering to generate heat in muscles.

outline the role of the nervous system in detecting and responding to environmental changes
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The nervous system consists of the central nervous system (CNS) and the peripheral nervous system (PNS). The CNS consists of the brain and spinal cord and the PNS consists of the sensory nerves and the effector nerves. When the environmental temperature begins to exceed a comfortable level for the body, temperature sensors in the skin detect the temperature change and a sensory neuron conducts a nervous impulse to the hypothalamus found in the brain. Nerve impulses pass this information from the receptors to effector neurons then onto effectors, such as blood vessels, sweat glands, endocrine glands and muscles.

gather, process and analyse information from secondary sources and use available evidence to develop a model of a feedback mechanism Background The body has some effective mechanisms to alter body temperature. To reduce temperature, heat can be expelled by sweating or radiation of heat from the skin. To increase heat, the body can respond by shivering or by contracting the skin. These responses can be activated by heat receptors. If a mechanism is activated, it will operate until receptors indicate that the optimum temperature has been reached. If receptors in the skin detect heat, they relay information via the nerves to the hypothalamus, which also contains receptors sensitive to the heat of passing blood. This triggers the sympathetic nervous system to dilate skin capillaries and activate sweat glands. When receptors in the skin detect a low temperature, a negative feedback mechanism is activated to stop the original action. If skin temperature is still low, the hypothalamus may activate thyroid hormones to increase metabolic rate, activate the sympathetic nervous system to shut down skin capillaries and sweat glands and activate food metabolism in the liver to produce heat. In this way, the body can maintain a stable body temperature.
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Gather samples of feedback mechanisms from biology texts, from scientific journals or from the Internet. Often, analogies, such as the operation of a thermostat in a refrigerator or an air conditioning system, are used. Process the samples to identify the common elements of each system. Evaluate the validity of your sources by checking the reputation of the sources and by looking to see how consistently the information compares. Analyse and use the information to design a creative model to represent a feedback mechanism. The model might be a physical model, e.g. may be based on a see-saw action, or it might be a conceptual model, based on an analogy.

identify the broad range of temperatures over which life is found compared with the narrow limits for individual species
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Life, in some form, can be found at extremes ranging from - 40oC to +120oC. However, the great majority of living organisms are found in the - 2oC to +40oC range and for each individual species the range is even narrower. Below 0oC, cells risk ice crystals forming in them and above 45oC, proteins within cells may denature.

analyse information from secondary sources to describe adaptations and responses that have occurred in Australian organisms to assist temperature regulation Background Endotherms derive most of their body heat from cell metabolism. Mammals and birds are endothermic animals. Australian endotherms include: the kangaroos and the platypus (temperate regions); the rabbit-eared bandicoot (desert dweller); and the alpine pygmy possum (alpine dweller) Ectotherms derive most of their body heat from their surroundings. All invertebrates and fish, reptiles and amphibians are ectothermic. Australian ectotherms include the blue-tongued lizard, the green tree frog and barramundi. Some sites to get you started are: A land of lizards University of Texas, Austin, Texas, USA Alpine Pygmy possum University of Michigan, Museum of Zoology, Ann Arbor, Michigan, USA Crocodilian Biology Crocodile Specialist Group Website, IUCN (The World Conservation Union), Species Survival Commission
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You can analyse the information by designing a table like the one below. Describe adaptations or responses of the organisms that assist temperature regulation. Endotherm or ectotherm Adaptation or response to temperature regulation

Australian organism

compare responses of named Australian ectothermic and endothermic organisms to changes in the ambient temperature and explain how these responses assist temperature regulation Endotherms
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In hot conditions, the red kangaroo licks the inside of its paws, where skin is thinner, and blood supply is closer to surface, so that heat can be easily dumped to the outside. Evaporation from saliva promotes the loss of heat from the blood. The large ears of the rabbit-eared bandicoot provide a large surface area to pass excess heat when it is burrowing during the heat of day and when it is active at dusk.

Ectotherms
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Magnetic termites (Amitermes meridionalis) pack the walls of their mounds with insulating wood pulp and align their mounds north-south to maximize exposure to the sun in the mornings and evenings when the air is cooler and to minimize exposure during heat of day. Bogong moths are able to avoid their bodies freezing by supercooling their tissues. This process involves reducing the temperature of body fluids below their usual point of freezing and as a result, ice crystals do not form and destroy the cells. Insects in alpine areas, as a rule, tend to be smaller, darker and use basking behaviours to absorb what heat is available. Antarctic ice fish produce antifreeze (glycoproteins) that prevent ice formation.

identify some responses of plants to temperature change

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Plants can be damaged at temperature extremes when enzyme structures are altered or membranes change their properties. As many important enzymes that are involved in photosynthesis and respiration are embedded in plant membranes, extremes of temperature can be a major problem. In cold conditions, extracellular ice formation causes dehydration. Some plants can tolerate freezing temperatures as low as - 50oC by altering their solute concentrations and through the lack of ice-nucleating sites in cells to prevent intracellular freezing. In hot desert conditions, plants have to develop a compromise between access to gases for photosynthesis and access to gases for respiration by keeping their stomates open and cooling by evaporation. This risks dehydration of the plant.

9.2 Maintaining a balance: 2. A watery medium Background: Blood is the transport medium of mammals. It maintains the internal environment of all organs as it supplies material to every cell in the body and removes the unwanted substances that cannot be allowed to accumulate in cells. From the Preliminary course, recall that blood consists of 55% plasma, a straw-coloured liquid of which 90% is water. The other components of the blood are red and white blood cells and platelets. Red blood cells are unique in that they do not contain a nucleus and have a biconcave shape. They are much smaller than white blood cells and more numerous. They contain the protein haemoglobin, a complex protein molecule consisting of four polypeptides, each containing an iron atom. The iron atom has an affinity for oxygen molecules. When haemoglobin is combined with an oxygen molecule, it is called oxyhaemoglobin. Plants carry dissolved mineral nutrients in the xylem vessels and carry food (mostly glucose) in phloem tubes.

identify the form(s) in which each of the following is carried in mammalian blood: o carbon dioxide o oxygen o water o salts o lipids o nitrogenous waste o other products of digestion
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Most carbon dioxide enters the red blood cells and is combined with water to form bicarbonate ions (HCO3-). Some is attached to haemoglobin molecules in red blood cells and a small percentage is transported in plasma as dissolved CO2. Oxygen attaches itself to haemoglobin in the red blood cells, becoming a complex called oxyhaemoglobin (HbO2 ). Liquid water is the solvent making up 90% of the plasma. Salts are carried as dissolved ions in the plasma. Lipids are carried with phospholipids and cholesterol in a protein coated package called a chylomicron. The nitrogenous wastes (urea, uric acid and creatinine) are dissolved in blood plasma. Other products of digestion, such as sugars, amino acids and various vitamins, are transported in the plasma.

perform a first-hand investigation to demonstrate the effect of dissolved carbon dioxide on the pH of water
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Perform your investigation, making sure you take readings of the initial pH of the distilled water.

Basic procedure Using a data logger with a pH probe, take readings of the change in pH of 100 mL of distilled water as exhaled air is bubbled through it over a two-minute period. This experiment can also be performed using universal indicator paper and an indicator colour chart to estimate the pH at various stages of the experiment. perform a first-hand investigation using the light microscope and prepared slides to gather information to estimate the size of red and white blood cells and draw scaled diagrams of each
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To perform this investigation, you need to go through the steps for using a light microscope that you learned in the Preliminary course. Revise how to focus the microscope using low power (LP) first and then going to high power (HP). To gather information to estimate the size of blood cells, you will have to learn an appropriate technique for estimating. If your school has a grid slide, put it on the stage of the microscope and focus the microscope on low power. If you don't have a grid slide, use a plastic ruler so you can see the millimetre lines under the microscope. Note what size each grid is and when you focus the slide, count the number of grids across the diameter of the field of view. If there is part of one grid, estimate what

fraction it is. If the grids are one millimetre apart, you might estimate that the diameter of the LP field of view is 1.5 mm, which is 1500 m. When you go from LP to HP, you see less in the field of view. The diameters of the low and high power fields are inversely proportional to their magnification. If your LP magnifies 100X and the HP magnifies 400X, you will see one quarter of the field that you saw in HP than you saw in LP, so if you saw twenty cells across the diameter under LP, you would see approximately five of the same cells under HP. Once you have focused on some red blood cells under LP, estimate the size using the above method, then turn to HP and see if you agree with the first estimate. Draw several cells and draw a scale bar. Once you have drawn a few red blood cells, browse over the field looking for some white blood cells. Look for larger cells with clearly defined and stained nuclei and draw several. Draw a scale bar to indicate the size of the cells. Red blood cells in a blood vessel Department of Biomedical Engineering and Computational Science (BECS) Centre of Excellence in Computational Complex Systems Research, Helsinki, Finland Blood cells Wadsworth Center, New York State Department of Health

explain the adaptive advantage of haemoglobin

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Oxygen is not very soluble in water and so cannot be carried efficiently dissolved in the blood plasma. Most of the oxygen is carried by haemoglobin in the red blood cells. Thus, the presence of haemoglobin in red blood cells in blood increases the blood's capacity to carry oxygen. Organisms with blood (containing haemoglobin) are able to deliver oxygen to cells more efficiently than other organisms with blood that has no haemoglobin. The net effect is that these organisms are more effective operators in a given environment than their competitors. At high altitudes, blood is not able to absorb as much oxygen as at sea level. The human body adapts to what is effectively oxygen deprivation by initially increasing heart rate, breathing rate, then the number of red blood cells (more haemoglobin), then density of capillaries.

analyse information from secondary sources to identify the products extracted from donated blood and discuss the uses of these products Background When blood is donated, it can be used almost immediately as whole blood or it can be separated into its components. Whole blood is given to patients where major functions of the blood, such as oxygen carrying capacity, are impaired, or where more than 20% of blood has been lost and there is a decrease in blood pressure. A good source of information on the components of blood is the Australian Red Cross, Blood Bank Service web site: Different Donation Types Australia

Uses of blood can be found at Science clarified , USA 2007. Scroll down to Separation of blood components. (These website were last accessed 2 June 2009). y Analyse the information so that it fits under the headings Products of blood and Use of the product. Some blood products Red blood cells (RBCs) RBCs help patients who need to be able to carry more oxygen. RBCs may also be used to help replace cells lost following significant bleeding. Platelet concentrate Platelets are essential for the coagulation of blood and are used to treat bleeding caused by conditions or diseases where the platelets are not functioning properly. Fresh frozen plasma (FFP) FFP is used mainly to provide blood components that coagulate the blood. FFP contains all coagulation factors in normal amounts and is free of red cells, white blood cells and platelets. It is used for patients who require immediate clotting effects, such as those undergoing warfarin therapy (blood thinning) or when massive transfusions have taken place. Cryoprecipitate anti-haemophilic factor Cryoprecipitate AHF is a concentrate of clotting proteins and is used for the treatment of von Willebrand disease (similar to haemophilia), replacement of the clotting proteins, fibrinogen, Factor XIII and Factor VIII when no other option is successful. analyse information from secondary sources to identify current technologies that allow measurement of oxygen saturation and carbon dioxide concentrations in blood and describe and explain the conditions under which these technologies are used. The Internet is more likely to carry information about current technologies than reference books. Here is a place to begin. Pulse oximetry Nuffield Department of Anaesthetists, University of Oxford, UK (This site last accessed 12 June 2008) Assess the reliability by comparing with information from different sources. Information from an organisation, like the World Federation of Societies of Anaesthesiologists, is likely to be more reliable than information from an individual who is not affiliated to any organisation.
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Analyse the information to make a generalisation about current technologies being used. You will also need to describe and explain the conditions under which the different technologies are used. The information from the Internet will come from different countries. Some countries may be ahead of other countries so making

generalisations will avoid the problem of some information contradicting other information. However, you will need to keep in mind the above point about reliability. Monitoring oxygen and carbon dioxide concentration One method used by hospitals to monitor blood oxygen and carbon dioxide levels in patient's blood is to use a pulse oximeter. A small clip with a sensor is attached to the person's finger, earlobe or toe. A cable connects the sensor to the pulse oximeter machine. The colour of the blood changes according to the amount of oxygen that is dissolved in the blood. Blood that is high in oxygen is bright red while blood low in oxygen is a darker colour. The sensor emits a light signal that passes through the skin. The sensor measures the amount of light absorbed as it passes through the tissue and blood, and transmits the information to the pulse oximeter. A reading is given in a percentage form. Pulse oximetry is used to monitor the level of oxygen in a person's blood during heavy sedation or anesthesia. This device is also used when a person is on a ventilator, artificial breathing machine, during stress testing, in sleep laboratories, when checking the body's response to different medications or to monitor a person with asthma or who is having trouble breathing. Another method of analysing blood gases is with arterial blood gas (ABG) analysis machines. These can measure the amount of oxygen and carbon dioxide in a sample of blood by monitoring the rate of diffusion of these gases through artificial membranes which are permeable to these gases. When moving through a membrane, oxygen in the blood produces an electrical current while carbon dioxide changes the pH of the solution. analyse and present information from secondary sources to report on progress in the production of artificial blood and use available evidence to propose reasons why such research is needed Background Blood transfusions have been the subject of medical research for centuries. In the early 1900s, successful transfusions were carried out as an understanding of blood components were understood. Up until the HIV crisis in the 1980s, there was little interest in artificial blood as there did not seem a great need. With the transmission of the virus during transfusions, there was nothing to replace donor blood, so artificial blood became a priority for research. Sensitive screening tests have now been developed for potential infective organisms, such as HIV and hepatitis, making donor blood much safer. There are now available safe and effective blood substitutes for certain applications, although they are still not ready for widespread use. Better blood substitutes are still needed. There is a continuing shortage of donor blood to help the victims of emergencies, civil and international conflicts and natural disasters. Furthermore, there is no guarantee that something similar to the HIV crisis will not occur in the future. An Internet search on artificial blood will provide links, which include the history, current research and uses of artificial blood substitutes in blood transfusions. Some sites you could start with are: Artificial blood Royal Society of Chemistry 2011

Perflurochemicals
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Wikipedia

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Analyse the information you have gathered to identify examples of the interconnectedness of ideas concerning artificial blood. In your analysis, consider the two types of artificial blood, one based on chemically modified haemoglobin and the other based on perfluoroorganic compounds. You could present the information as a speech to fellow students. Use the available evidence to propose reasons why research on artificial blood is needed.

Why research on artificial blood is needed Some advantages of artificial blood could include the following:
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Pasteurisation could be used to remove all pathogens. There would be no need for cross-matching and typing as the artificial blood contains no blood-group antigens. This saves time and allows on-the-spot transfusion. Artificial blood can be stored for more than one year, compared with about one month for donor blood using standard methods.

compare the structure of arteries, capillaries and veins in relation to their function
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Arteries carry blood away from the heart under high pressure and so must have a structure that can withstand the pressure. They have thick, but elastic walls, made up of three tissue layers: endothelium as a lining, smooth muscle to contract the vessel and connective tissue to allow for expansion. Arteries do not pump blood. Veins carry blood back toward the heart. They carry the same quantity of blood as the arteries but not at the same high pressures. Veins have the same three layers as the arteries: endothelium, smooth muscle and connective tissue. However, the layers are not as thick. The veins also contain valves that prevent the backflow of blood. Capillaries have walls that are only one endothelium cell thick, as they have to allow diffusion of materials through their wall to reach the cells found in the tissues in which the capillary is located.

describe the main changes in the chemical composition of the blood as it moves around the body and identify tissues in which these changes occur
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The blood circulates through two systems in the body: the pulmonary system and the systemic system. In the pulmonary system, blood flows from the heart to the lungs and then back to the heart. Blood travels in the pulmonary artery from the right ventricle to the lungs where carbon dioxide is released into the alveoli of the lungs. This is then ultimately released out of the body. Oxygen is picked up from the alveoli and diffused into the red blood cells to then be taken back to the heart. So via the pulmonary system, carbon dioxide is decreased and oxygen levels increased. In the systemic system, blood flows from the heart to the rest of the body, except the lungs, and then returns. The left ventricle pumps oxygenated blood to the rest of the body, and as this blood circulates in capillaries, oxygen is delivered to the cells and carbon dioxide is picked up. Other waste products, such as urea, are also picked up from the liver and transported in the blood to the kidneys. Blood flowing to the small

intestines collects the products of digestion and transports them to the liver. Glucose is circulated in the blood stream to all cells in the body for respiration. Deoxygenated blood returns to the heart via the inferior and superior vena cava. outline the need for oxygen in living cells and explain why removal of carbon dioxide from cells is essential
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Cells require oxygen in the process of respiration: Glucose + oxygen carbon dioxide + water + energy (in the form of ATP) Carbon dioxide is a waste product and must be removed to maintain the normal pH balance of the blood. By removing excess carbon dioxide, it prevents a build up of carbonic acid, which causes the lowering of the pH, and therefore increasing breathing rate and depth. Carbonic acid forms when carbon dioxide dissolves in water. At normal levels, (after excess removal of carbon dioxide) the carbon dioxide bicarbonate ion (HCO3-) equilibrium is an important mechanism for buffering the blood to maintain a constant pH.

choose equipment or resources to perform a first-hand investigation to gather firsthand data to draw transverse and longitudinal sections of phloem and xylem tissue
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Talk to your teacher to help you decide which are the best plants to use for this activity. Obtain the plants by students bringing them from home or if necessary obtain them from a nursery. Choose appropriate equipment, which should include sharp instruments so you can do a clean cut, without tearing the plant material. The instruments you choose will depend on their availability at school. Perform the investigation by doing transverse and longitudinal cuts on stems of the chosen plants. One way of doing this is to embed the plant in material like a carrot or potato or if available in wax. Put the cut pieces in water, then mount them on a slide. You may choose to stain the material. If so, decide what is an appropriate stain. Cover the slide with a cover slip. Gather first-hand data by drawing the samples, while looking under the LP magnification of your microscope. It is better to draw just a few cells and do them as accurately as possible than draw many cells that don't show clearly the differences between xylem and phloem vessels.

describe current theories about processes responsible for the movement of materials through plants in xylem and phloem tissue Background From your Preliminary course, you should recall that the transport system in plants involves phloem and xylem. Xylem transports water and mineral ions upward only, from roots toward leaves. Phloem transports organic materials, in particular sugars, up and down to where the material is needed or for storage.
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Xylem: The transpiration-cohesion-tension mechanism is currently the theory that accounts for the ascent of xylem sap. This sap is mainly pulled by transpiration rather than pushed by root pressure. Cohesion is the sticking together of water molecules so that they form a continuous stream of molecules extending from the leaves down to

the roots. Water molecules also adhere to the cellulose molecules in the walls of the xylem. As water molecules are removed by transpiration in the leaf, the next molecule moves upwards to take its place, pulling the stream of molecules continuously along. This is passive transport. Phloem: The pressure-flow mechanism (or Source to Sink) is a model for phloem transport now widely accepted. The model has the following steps. Step 1: Sugar is loaded into the phloem tube from the sugar source, e.g. the leaf (active transport) Step 2: Water enters by osmosis due to a high solute concentration in the phloem tube. Water pressure is now raised at this end of the tube. Step 3: At the sugar sink, where sugar is taken to be used or stored, it leaves the phloem tube. Water follows the sugar, leaving by osmosis and thus the water pressure in the tube drops.

The building up of pressure at the source end, and the reduction of pressure at the sink end, causes water to flow from source to sink. As sugar is dissolved in the water, it flows at the same rate as the water. Sieve tubes between phloem cells allow the movement of the phloem sap to continue relatively unimpeded. 9.2 Maintaining a balance: 3. Gases, water and waste products Background information: Plants and animals carry out the normal functions for living on a daily basis. To do this, they require gases such as oxygen for respiration and, in plants, carbon dioxide for photosynthesis. These metabolic reactions are chemical reactions that accumulate wastes. If these wastes aren't disposed of, they could kill the organism. perform a first-hand investigation of the structure of a mammalian kidney by dissection, use of a model or visual resource and identify the regions involved in the excretion of waste products
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Use the diagram below as a visual resource to identify the regions of the kidney, or use the models provided on these Internet sites. Video of kidney dissected USA Broward Community College Ft. Lauderdale, Florida,

Before starting, consider safe working practices. Carry out a risk assessment by listing any potential dangers involved in this procedure and then say how you will avoid these dangers. If a mammalian kidney, such as a sheep's kidney, is available, perform a dissection of it.

Identify the parts of the kidney using the diagram above as a guide.

explain why the concentration of water in cells should be maintained within a narrow range for optimal function
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Water is the solvent for metabolic reactions in living cells. Many molecules and all ions important for the life of the cell are carried in an aqueous solution and these diffuse to reaction sites through the water in the cell. Metabolic reactions within the cell can occur only in solution where water is the solvent. It is critical for proper functioning of these reactions that the amount and concentration of water in the cell be kept constant. Most cells die when the water content is changed significantly.

explain why the removal of wastes is essential for continued metabolic activity
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Metabolic wastes, particularly nitrogenous wastes that are the by-products of the breakdown of proteins and nucleic acids, are toxic to cells and must therefore be removed quickly. Nitrogenous wastes have the ability to change the pH of cells and interfere with membrane transport functions and may denature enzymes. Metabolic wastes are the product of metabolic reactions. If they are not removed their concentration in the cell increases. This inhibits the reactions that produce them, interfering with normal metabolic activity.

use available evidence to explain the relationship between the conservation of water and the production and excretion of concentrated nitrogenous wastes in a range of Australian insects and terrestrial mammals Background The following provides general information for the waste products, ammonia, urea and uric acid. Ammonia is very toxic and must be removed immediately, either by diffusion or in very dilute urine. It is the waste product of most aquatic animals, including many fish and tadpoles. Ammonia is the immediate product of break down of amino acids no energy is

required to make it. It is highly soluble in water and diffuses rapidly across the cell membrane. However, it needs large quantities of water to be constantly and safely removed. Ammonia does not diffuse quickly in air. Urea is toxic, but 10 000 times less toxic than ammonia, so it can be safely stored in the body for a limited time. It is the waste product of mammals, and some other terrestrial animals, but also of adult amphibians, sharks and some bony fish. It is made from amino acids but requires more steps and energy to make than does ammonia. It is highly soluble in water, but being less toxic than ammonia, it can be stored in a more concentrated solution and so requires less water to remove than ammonia. It is a source of water loss for these species. Uric acid is less toxic than ammonia or urea, so can be safely stored in or on the body for extended periods of time. It is the waste product of terrestrial animals such as birds, many reptiles, insects and land snails. It is a more complex molecule than urea so it requires even more energy to produce. It is thousands of times less soluble than ammonia or urea and has low toxicity, which means that little water is expended to remove it. This is a great advantage for survival. Organism Terrestrial Waste or aquatic product(s) spinifex hopping mouse of Central Australia terrestrial urea in a concentrated form Explanation The animal lives in a very arid environment. It drinks very little water and excretes urea in a concentrated form, so that water can be conserved. Euros have a very efficient excretory system that recycles nitrogen and urea to make a very concentrated urine. This allows them to survive in very arid environments Insects are covered with a cuticle impervious to water. They conserve water by producing a dry paste of uric acid.

Euro, terrestrial wallaroo (Macropus robustus)

concentrated urine

Insects

terrestrial

uric acid

There is a fine balance between the use of water to remove nitrogenous wastes and conservation of water in the body. Australian terrestrial mammals that live in predominantly arid areas, such as the Bilby (Macrotus lagotus), must produce very concentrated urine and tolerate high levels of urea in their systems. Some insects excrete ammonia as a vapour across the body surface rather than as a solution of urine, an adaptation for conserving water. More commonly, uric acid is produced, which is a dry urate waste requiring no water to remove and with low toxicity so that it can be kept in the body for long periods of time. Find out how a range of Australian insects and terrestrial mammals excrete nitrogenous wastes. Use available evidence to examine cause and effect relationships such as the lack of water and the production of water-efficient waste removal and use this to write an explanation of the relationship between the conservation of water and the production and excretion of concentrated nitrogenous wastes in a range of Australian insects and terrestrial mammals. Here are some starting points. Euro University of Michigan, USA Mulgara The Australian Arid Lands Botanic Garden, Port Augusta, South Australia Kowari Animal Info, Maryland, USA (These websites last accessed 22 December 2005.)

analyse information from secondary sources to compare and explain the differences in urine concentration of terrestrial mammals, marine fish and freshwater fish Some summary information is provided in the box below. Excretory system of different animals Arizona, USA
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Estrella Mountain Community College, Avondale,

Present the information through use of an information organising device, such as the table below. Excretory product and concentration Environmental reason

Type of organism terrestrial mammal marine fish freshwater fish

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Analyse the information by making generalisations about urine concentration of terrestrial mammals, marine fish and freshwater fish.

Summary: Differences in urine concentration of terrestrial mammals, marine fish and freshwater fish Terrestrial mammals Terrestrial mammals must work to find water and they are surrounded by air into which water quickly evaporates. Water conservation is of prime concern and these animals cannot excrete large quantities of water for the removal of metabolic waste. Marine fish The loss of water to the external environment is a problem that all marine fish must deal with. The marine environment in which the fish lives is hyperosmotic to the internal environment, i.e. there is a higher salt concentration in the water than inside the cells. This results in an osmotic gradient in which water is lost from the fish to the environment while ions are gained by diffusion. Ions are excreted by specialised glands. Freshwater fish The freshwater environment is hypo-osmotic to the internal environment of fish, i.e. there is a lower salt concentration in the water than inside the cells. This results in an osmotic gradient in which water is gained by the fish from the environment without drinking and salts are lost by diffusion. Ions are absorbed in the gut and by active uptake across the gills. identify the role of the kidney in the excretory system of fish and mammals
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The kidney is an organ of the excretory system of both fish and mammals. It plays a central role in homeostasis, forming and excreting urine while regulating water and salt concentration in the blood. It maintains the precise balance between waste disposal and the animal's needs for water and salt. The role of the kidney in fish is dependant on the environment of the fish. o In marine (salt water) environments, the kidneys excrete small quantities of isotonic (same concentration as sea water) urine. This helps conserve water and excrete the excess salt they gain from their hyperosmotic environment. o In freshwater fish, the kidneys work continuously to excrete copious quantities of dilute urine, which also has a very low salt concentration. This helps to remove excess water gained from the hypo-osmotic environment.

explain why the processes of diffusion and osmosis are inadequate in removing dissolved nitrogenous wastes
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Diffusion and osmosis are both examples of passive transport, relying on random movements of molecules. Diffusion is too slow for the normal functioning of the body and does not select for useful solutes. Osmosis only deals with the movement of water and thus would only allow water to move out of the body, not the nitrogenous wastes.

distinguish between active and passive transport and relate these to processes occurring in the mammalian kidney
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Active transport involves an expenditure of energy on the part of the organism, usually because the substance is moving against the concentration gradient, i.e. when a salt moves to an area of high salt concentration from an area of low salt concentration. Passive transport involves no expenditure of energy as the materials follow the natural concentration gradient, i.e. movement from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration. Both diffusion and osmosis are examples of passive transport. In the mammalian kidney, both active and passive transport processes occur. o Passive transport: Once filtration has occurred in Bowman's capsule, water returns via the interstitial fluid from the tubule to the capillary in the process of osmosis. This occurs along the length of the tubule. + o Active transport: Depending on their concentration, the ions in the blood (Na , K+, Cl- , H+ and HCO3) can be transported to cells in the nephron tubule and then secreted by the cells into the tubule. Some poisons and certain drugs are eliminated from the body in this manner.

explain how the processes of filtration and reabsorption in the mammalian nephron regulate body fluid composition
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Filtration of the blood occurs in Bowman's capsule where high blood pressure in the glomerulus forces all small molecules out of the blood into the capsule. Water, urea, ions (Na+, K+, Cl- , Ca2+, HCO3- ), glucose, amino acids and vitamins are all small enough to be moved into the glomerular filtrate. Blood cells and proteins are too large to be removed. This filtering process is non-selective and therefore many valuable components of the blood must be recovered by reabsorption. Reabsorption takes place selectively at various points along the proximal tubule, loop of Henle and distal tubule. All glucose molecules, amino acids and most vitamins are recovered, although the kidneys do not regulate their concentrations. The reabsorption of the ions Na+, K+, Cl, Ca2+ and HCO3- occurs at different rates depending on feedback from the body. In some cases, active transport is required. Water is reabsorbed in all parts of the tubule except the ascending loop of Henle. The amount of water reabsorbed depends on feedback from the hypothalamus. If no water were reabsorbed human would soon dehydrate, losing water at a rate of around 7.5 L per hour. The chemical composition of the body fluids is precisely regulated by the control of solute reabsorption from the glomerular filtrate.

gather, process and analyse information from secondary sources to compare the process of renal dialysis with the function of the kidney
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Gather information on renal dialysis using books and digital technology, including the Internet. Process the information by comparing the dialysis machine with the kidney and matching the parts of the dialysis machine to the structure of the kidney. You could use a table like the one following.

Dialysis machine artificial tubing dialysing solution

Kidney Nephron

distal tubule

Analyse the information by determining the outcomes of the dialysis process and showing whether the kidney is more efficient at osmoregulation and excretion than the dialysis machine. Information from Davita.com .

Summary: Comparison of the process of renal dialysis with the function of the kidney Dialysis means separation in Greek, and, like the nephrons of the kidney, the dialysis machine separates molecules from the blood removing some and returning others. The patient's blood is pumped from an artery through tubes made of selectively permeable membrane. The artificial tubing allows only water and small solute molecules to pass through it into a dialysing solution that surrounds the tube. This dialysing solution is similar to the interstitial fluid found around nephrons. As the blood circulates through the dialysis tubing, urea and excess salts diffuse out of it instead of leaving by pressure filtration, as in the nephron. Those substances needed by the body, such as bicarbonate ions (HCO3- ) diffuse from the dialysing solution into the blood (reabsorption). The machine continually discards used dialysing solution as wastes build up in it. Two healthy kidneys filter the blood volume about once every half-hour. Dialysis is a much slower and less efficient process than the natural processes found in a healthy kidney but it is a lifesaver for those people with damaged kidneys. outline the role of the hormones, aldosterone and ADH (anti-diuretic hormone), in the regulation of water and salt levels in blood
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Aldosterone is a steroid hormone secreted by the adrenal gland. Its function is to regulate the transfer of sodium and potassium ions in the kidney. When sodium levels are low, aldosterone is released into the blood causing more sodium to pass from the nephron to the blood. Water then flows from the nephron into the blood by osmosis. This results in the homeostatic balance of blood pressure. Antidiuretic hormone (ADH or vasopressin) controls water reabsorption in the nephron. When levels of fluid in the blood drop, the hypothalamus causes the pituitary to release ADH. This increases the permeability of the collecting ducts to water, allowing more water to be absorbed from the urine into the blood. The resulting urine is more concentrated. When there is too much fluid in the blood, sensors in the heart cause the hypothalamus to reduce the production of ADH in the pituitary, decreasing the amount of water reabsorbed in the kidney. This results in a lower blood volume and larger quantities of more dilute urine.

present information to outline the general use of hormone replacement therapy in people who cannot secrete aldosterone Background Hypoaldosteronism is a condition where people fail to secrete aldosterone. Addison's disease is the name of a disease with these symptoms which include high urine output with a resulting low blood volume. Eventually, as blood pressure falls, this can result in heart failure. A replacement hormone, fludrocortisone (Florinef), is used to treat this condition but a careful monitoring must be maintained to avoid fluid retention and high blood pressure. Here is an Internet site to get you started in your search. Addison's disease National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases, USA y Present the information as a discussion, with clearly identified issues and or points provided for and against the use of the therapy. define enantiostasis as the maintenance of metabolic and physiological functions in response to variations in the environment and discuss its importance to estuarine organisms in maintaining appropriate salt concentrations
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Enantiostasis is the maintenance of normal metabolic and physiological functioning, in the absence of homeostasis, in an organism experiencing variations in its environment. All organisms living in an estuary experience large changes in salt concentration in their environment over a relatively short time span, with the tidal movement and mixing of fresh and salt water. Organisms that must tolerate wide fluctuations of salinity are said to be euryhaline. One strategy to withstand such changes in salt concentration is to allow the body's osmotic pressure to vary with that of the environment. Organisms that do this, and therefore do not maintain homeostasis, are said to be osmoconformers. Most marine invertebrates are osmoconformers. In contrast, marine mammals and most fish are osmoregulators, maintaining homeostasis regardless of the osmotic pressure of the environment. However, as the salt concentration of body fluids in an osmoconformer changes, various body functions are affected, such as the activity of enzymes. For normal functioning to be maintained, another body function must be changed in a way that compensates for the change in enzyme activity. One example of enantiostasis is when a change in salt concentration in the body fluid, which reduces the efficiency of an enzyme, is compensated for by a change in pH, which increases the efficiency of the same enzyme.

process and analyse information from secondary sources and use available evidence to discuss processes used by different plants for salt regulation in saline environments
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Process information you have gathered, from the Internet or biology books about salt regulation of different plants in saline environments, by selecting the most relevant information and discarding peripheral information that is not as relevant. Analyse the information to see if there is a pattern of processes for regulating salt. Do certain families of plants use the same or similar methods or is the environment the plants live in more important in determining the methods of salt regulation? The two sites below will start you on your search. Use the evidence from your analysis to develop a discussion of the processes used by different named plants for salt regulation in saline environments.

Poster: Salinity American Society of Plant Biologists, USA Description of Australia's marine environment and its status, Coastal saltmarshes: undervalued and locally threatened Department of Environment, Water, Heritage and the Arts, Australian Government Summary: Coping with salt Most plants cannot tolerate high salt concentrations in the root zone as it leads to water stress. The salt accumulates in the leaves and is toxic. Enzymes are inhibited by Na+ ions. Halophytes are plants that can tolerate higher levels of salt in their environment. The grey mangrove, Avicennia marina, has special salt glands in its leaves that excrete salt. Other mangroves exclude salts at their roots through ultrafiltration and a third mechanism is to store salt in leaves and then drop the leaves. Another mechanism involves the efficient control of transpiration. Some mangroves have small leaves hanging vertically to reduce the surface presented to the sun and thus reducing transpiration. Salt marsh plants also have mechanisms for salt regulation. For example, Sarcocornia quinqueflora accumulates salt in the swollen leaf bases which fall off, thus removing excess salt and Sporobolus virginicus has salt glands on its leaves. Another form of salt stress can occur in salt laden air such as in coastal environments. Some coastal plants, such as the Norfolk Island pine, have a mesh of cuticle over their stomates, which prevents small water droplets from entering the leaf. perform a first-hand investigation to gather information about structures in plants that assist in the conservation of water
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This first-hand investigation is easily performed as an observation exercise, using local specimens. Look for plants that occur in areas where water conservation is important. As Australia is a dry continent, many of our plants have evolved to withstand periods of drought. So, no matter what part of NSW you live in, you should have some plants you can observe that grow nearby. Some plant species to look for are eucalyptus, casuarinas, paper barks, cacti and other succulents, spinifex and mulga.

Gather information by observing and recording structures in plants that assist in the conservation of water. Many plants have adaptations to assist in the conservation of water. Here are a few adaptations to look for:
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the location and the number of stomates the arrangement, shape and size of the leaves phyllodes or cladodes rather than leaves presence of a thick waxy cuticle hairy leaves leaves reduced to spines leaves rolled inwards the reflective nature of the leaf surface.

Your recording could best be done using a table like the one below. Plant Adaptation Adaptation Adaptation of leaves of stems of roots How this adaptation conserves water reduces transpiration reduces transpiration

Casuarina

leaves reduced to scales

cladodes

Eucalyptus waxy leaves; leaves hang vertically Cactus stems store water

Describe adaptations of a range of terrestrial Australian plants that assist in minimising water loss
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You will recall from the Preliminary course that the leaves of plants contain stomates or small pores that allow the exchange of gases essential for respiration and photosynthesis. These gases include water vapour, as well as oxygen and carbon dioxide. If stomates are open, there will be a loss of water by transpiration and evaporation. Plants in arid areas have to balance the need for CO2 with the need to conserve water. Adaptations of Australian xerophytes (plants adapted to dry conditions) include: o hard leathery, needle-shaped leaves with reduced surface areas such as in Hakea sericea (needlebush) and coastal tea trees o use of phyllodes for photosynthesis rather than leaves that would lose water by transpiration, as in many acacias o some salt bushes, e.g. Atriplex, change the reflectiveness of their leaves during leaf development so that they have highly reflective leaves during summer

Eucalypts avoid high radiation in the middle of the day by hanging their leaves vertically to present less surface area to sun o heat loss is greater for small leaves or highly dissected leaves than it is for larger leaves and many Acacias have fronds of bipinnate leaves waxy cuticle prevents evaporation in many Eucalypts.
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