Storage Tank Fires:

Is Your Department Prepared?

of t!ae in i size, fires invohring large aboveground storn age tanks can be extremely msdy in terms o property damf YEaY~MON?l3SORSOIREADMEITHERANEWS age, bushes interruption, environmenml damage, and public paper dipping o trade jaurnal about a perroletun r opinion. Additionally, the control and atinguishment o full f produet stmage tank &e oodurring i the United States surface tank n require a large amount o cornmif fn or internationally. These fires have mmmed on the West Coast, human logistics and equipment resources. Because of the the East Coast, and cities in between. The most spectacular fire potential o a loss, the fw p m o n Industry has improved f occurring in past years w a s the 2005 Hatfordshire OiI Storage its techniques to effectively control md exxhgujsh fires in Terminal Fire (Bunoefield Oil Depot) in England. Most o the f large-diameterstorage tanks. These methods are fires I have read about that irIV0l~e petroleum product storage . u T i article exan-dnw atmo$pherlc stmage bdc types, hs tanks contain a common element that municipal fir&@types o fires that you may encounter, preplannlng, and sugf ers gemdly overlook: Municipal u volunteer Mghters r gested 'Cactics. elther aught the fire a supported the firefight.Although w e r train daily on our bread-and-butter operations and terrorist a N B R A L DEbCWPTiON incident response techniques, w e g e n d y neglect aaWng Flammable and combustible liquid storage tanks are found rm industrial hazards within our districts. Mimy &paxrmam~ in indmtrhl Eacillties such as &eriies, - e d d hdihave storage tanks in their Wets that fmiighters hive newt ties, bdk storage plarlts, and m a d e t ' ' . Power plants, e c l d y examined, yet they carefully inspect buildings under &ports, local fuel companies, and large manufacturing fa&cons&uction' oexamine the conm-uction features and preplan des such as automotive and steel plants may also have h k t their response i case o a fire. Too often, we take for granted storage of flammable and combustible liquids. n f the industrial sites i our dkiricts as just part of the 1-pe. n Atmospheric storage tanks are used t store o mix flamo r In the early days ofthe petroleum Inducitry, tank a a were tk n mable and oombustib1e liquids i various w s depending on n y, common. As the industry matured, it demanded beuer design, the kilities. These tanks can m g e 10 feet to more than construction, fire protection, and impmvements to the various 350 feet in dimetef and haw an average height o about 45 f codes and maintained by the American Petroleum feet. Such can hold mare than 1 s d t o n barrels (6 mlt, Imettute a n 8 the National Pire Protection Assodation lion gallons; for crude oil and other 1 products, one 0, far fewer tank Iks today than i the past. barrel equals 42 @ m I of flammable o comhwtlble liquids. resulting in n r But they do happen! Larger facilities rnay have rnore than 100 tanks of varying sizes It b interesting to note that although the frequency of tank and quantities, ccmtainingvarious products, which may be hes has decreased,the size of the tanks have increased, prenear each other and have several other tanks within a cmnsenting a more -6 hazard i the event o a fire. h a r e d mon dike. n f Dikes are physical barriers used t prevent the s p e d o o f tank contents if the tank overllows or the tank fails s m w ly. IHWS are also wed to segregate and group tanks according (1) A storage to their c~ntmts classifcation. 'ihey rnay be made o mmpadd f tank full &t {emhen dike) o concrete and similar type materials. The r surface fire at a petroleum dike's height and perimeter are functions of the volume o the f storage faciltanlts endosed within a particular dike. M m y dikes are d e ity. (Photos signed to contain the toml contents o the tank plus a cerrah f courtesy of percentage dlwve this as a safety margin. This margin typically Williams Fire anticipates the ~ m u k i o of frref~&tingwater during ernern & Hazard tontrd) gendes. If more than one tank is enclosed within a common dike, tbr: dike should be able to contain at 1 the volume o f

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STORAGE TANK FIIRES

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zontal tanks,o underground tanks. r Plmmable liquids are usually stored i open-top or intend b t h g m f n t a n k s In bulk quantities, in small lowpressure vertical o horizontal tanks, r o in underground tanks. r F d ~ m ~- tanks F %m . f
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the tank shell wall and the -permanently attached mf.In the petroleum and petrochemi- rim-seal space b the area 4 industries, these permanent roofs are usually cone shaped internal floating roof (the difference in the mnk shell diameter w d are sometimes referred to as "frxed-mneroof" tanks. Such and the internal roof diameter). This rim seal area is usually - ~ fare flat o slightly domed to prevent water accumulation one to four feet and may be the origin of m e fires.T h ~ e , s r tanks are typically used to stme highly flammable finished and t pemdt a vapor space between the liquid's surface and o

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APE standards and h e a weak roof-to-shell seam. In an such as internal oveqmsure from an explosion or a +similar situation, this design allows the roof t separate from a &e vertical shell to prevent fallwe o rhe boaom scams and f -xhe tank's "rocketing"o pmpelhg upward. r
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Fixed-cone roof tanks include some foran of venting capability

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the changing o the liquid level. These t n s also have rim . f ak bacuum vents. Presure-vacuum vents allow the pressure seals to prevent the vapors from escaping. within the tank to remain ewal to the extend Atmospheric ~ . D e p e n d l n g o n ~ e l o o p t m o f t h c a c r a n l u ~ ~ Domed mtemal floating rcmf tanks. Domed external floating roof tanks function similarly to internal floating mof respect t the community, these vents can be equipped with o ,environmental contple,>vd e , ~ ~ ~ a p - s t e r k d i v e capture tanks and are created by mtmfitting a darned covering over l to r b m an exhtlng external floating roof t d . These domed roof fugitive emissions. tanks are o ~ e ne f l e d m as gmdesic b e tanks.*~hc r (~o~cred) floatkg ~nfsrm~ v m x ~ (co s floating roof tanks have a permanent bed rmf with a floating dorneysmain purpose i to provide protection from the elements, but it also pravides environmerital control for fugitive ~mf inside. Internal floating roof tanks usually have vertical emissions. During the early stages o firefighting operations f ~suppom within the tank far the fixed roof ox have a self-supat these tanks, the panels should melt away, and the support.porting 6xed rmf. The Internal rmf? also known as a *pan," ing fram%mrk should be the only obstruction.As the fie $floatson the surhce o the liquid and rise& and falls with the f continues to burn,the supporting framework will most likely changing I d . The pan either floats on pontoons o has a r fold i and collapse onto the burning fuel surface.The large n " b e deck for flotation on the liquid surface. ul Atmospheric Storage Tank Fire (JA!XHRE) project recornThe fured rmf above has openalx vents t~ permit the space mends that for any d d p a t e d obstruction of full-surface fire above the internal roof to breathe. Ftged roofs axe aUowed to foam application, a higher application sate is required and vent in this manner because their vapor space i considered s preincident rsponse plans should allow for these higher a p :below the fhrnmablb limits. Seals are provided in the rim.sealspace to prevent fugitive emission6 from escaping. The plicaMn ratesl'_ ,

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64 November 2008 FIR6 ENOINRERINO

STORAOE TANK FIRES

COMMO# ItPSPOH%E scmAm05 There are c r a n related hx hazards cornman to the eti various types o tanks. These hazards vary i sererig from f n a simple vent 6re to a fidl liquid rmrfarse tank &.The most common o these mcidents indude an o d l l ground fire, a f vent h e , a rim-seal fire, obstructed full liquid surface fue, and an unobstructed full liquid d c e fire. Oveifill grwrnd fue. Ove15llground fires, or dike l%w, mdt from piping or tank leakage.Many tlmes, they are the r s l o another cause,such as operator error or equipment eut f malfunction, and are considered the least severe type of hadent. lf a leak occurs without igmtion, exerdse caution and isolate all ignition so. If ignition does occur,then simply treat such a fire as a large pool fire. Overfill ground fires are common to fixed-coneroof, internal floating Mof,exsend floating roof, and domed roof tanks. Vent &ei. Vent fires are typicaliy mockted with bed roof tanks such as cone and internal floathg roof tanks. The m a h cause is a lightning strike that ignites fugitive vapors which may be present at the vent. This is a less severe type o lire f and mn usually be -bedwith a dry chemical fire extinguisher o by reducing the pressure In the tank. r Rim-seal fires. Rim-seal fires comprise the large majority of fires i external floating roof tanks but a n occur in intern & floating rmf tanks o domed rmf mnks. As with many r tank fires, lightning is the primary cause ofignition, although
with floating roof tanks, an induced electrical charge without a direct lightning hit may QCCW Because these fires are the most .common, there i usually a high rate of successful s extinguishment, assuming that there is no collateral darnage such as a gontom failure (explosion) ar the floating roofs sinking as a &t o fire suppression efEorts. Successful f rim-seal fire extinguishment can be mostly attributed to the Installation of *-seal fire protection systems, such as foam chambers. These semi- o fully fured rim-seal fire protection r systems have a gmd history of extinguishment, assuming proper design, insbhtion, and maintenance. Rim-seal fires for intanal floating roof tanks are slightly mote challenging,espeday. if semi- o fully r systems are nat provided. Thls means that the only access to the fire area f r the application of fwe extinguishing media is through the o vents or access c m m . Obstmcted full Siquld h Obstructed full . liquid surface fires can =cur in fmed-cone roof, internal hating roof, or external floating rwf tanks.Thgr tend to be challenging because the roof or pan blwks access to the burning surface. The roof or pan can sink for various reasons,such as an increase i vapor pressure under an internal n floating roof, which can =use the pan to tilt. Pontoon failure of external floating roofs Is commonly caused by closed d r -valves during rains o mechanical sed failure, causing r tlw pan t sink. o

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U-firllHHd mwface W,UfioQmmd lfqui4'wrface ' m i m r d a w e d y ~ m ~ h where tank d h l w r is d&miy ,mdl t h n 110 feet) md &dent
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STORAGE rANK FIRES

ideal conditions. Terrain wlU also affect containment and control of water runoff and other by-products of the tanks. FMghters walking through deep water or foam solution may trip and fall. Tank fires m a y require large volumes of water, which may overflow the containment areas. How and where will this overflow travel once it becomes uncontained? lhes it contain flammable by-prducts that can then ignite and spread the fire? Water supply. Water i critical at most fires. Industrial fires s require large volumes of water for extinguishment,cooling, and vapor suppression. Can the area o plant f r water system r ie supply the volume of water necessary t sustain an effeave o attack on a fuel stotage tank7 If not,where and how can you obtain the additional water? Even wlth a adequate water supply, departments must l w k n at the delivery methods. Do you have enough large-diameter hose (LDH) to supply and deliver the water to the point of attack? If your plan is to mil surrounding departments to assist with LDH requirements,are your hoses and theirs compati'ble? If they respond with fm-inch LDH and yaur department uses heinch LDH, are there enough fittings (four-inch to five-inch) to make connections where required? If needed,can you conduct drafting operations to deliver the required quantities o water? Or are large-capacity pumps f requiredfor drafting and suppky?Recent advances in technology a l w for positive intake to pumps when the pumps are lo located a distance From the open water supply. Hydraulicdy driven pumps can be lowered into tfie water, and then these smaller pumps can supply water to the larger pumps at p s i tive intake pressures. This eliminates rhe need for placing large-volumepumps or pumpers dose to the open water sup ply for drafting purposes. Auxiliary appliances and aids. Auxiliary appliances and aids are the systems and equipment that may be on the premises o in an indusrrial facility complex. Storage tanks r may have foam systems installed to asstst with fire-ting efforrs, mast particularly with rim-sealfires.When preinadent response planning, identify and evaluate these systems. Who will activate the system, and who d l supply the necessary water and foam to the system? If your department is tasked with supplying such a system, are you prepard? Develop a standard operating procedure and conduct annual W s on supplying such systems. On arrival at an industrial facility, plant personnel can provide valuable assistance and advice. The IC should identify these persons in preincident response plans and include their contact telephone numbers and hours of availability. Street conditions.General accessibility must be included under street conditions.Many industrial compIexes or storage tank facilities may be located in ateas away from residential centers. Roads may be narrow and winding. Inside f a c s ~ e s , access mads may also be narrow,Depending on the size o f your apparatus, this may affect response and placement. If your strategy indude6 using hge-cdiber streams from an aerial platform, does the street width support such operat o s Apparatus placement may b l e streets, preventing the in?
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(3) Foam totes are usea w uangport and store foam concentrate.

sooner than welded Canks when exposed to fire. In a gmmd fire in the dike area, you would want to know if there is q plping in the area, what it is made o ,and how a fire will aff fect it. In the case o mnks exposed during fire, they will p s i f bly have to be cooled. It is now an accepted t e r that you hoy should not cool the tank on fire unless you can cool it evenly all around for 360". Uneven cooling will allow the tank shell to fail in the area where the uneven cooling was applied. Cbmpcy. Is the occupancy just a storage f c l t with aiiy a limited number o tanks? Or ape the mnks part of a f industrial operation that may be affected by a spreading fire? Perhaps the overall operation L a greater hazard than the tank on fire-should you concentrate on protecting other aspects of the industrial operation? Apparatus and staffing. Is your fire apparatus equipped t perform fireiighting on a storage tank? How much foam o do you any?What size and type monitors are available, and are they apparatus-mountedo portable?How many persons r respond from your department?Tank fires will usually require large volumes of water and many gallons o foam concentrate. f Even if you have the equipment and foam, do you have the staf6ng t deploy these resources? o Wfe hazard. This is your number-one p r i o Consider not only the facility employees but also the surrounding community as well as your hefighting personnel. ICs must account for f c l t employees and contractors who may have aiiy k n working i the area. How does the facility account for e n the workers and contractors on site?Whom should the IC contact on arrival t determine if everyone at the facility has o k e n accounted far? How many employees are normally on dury in the facility, and what are their primary, usual work areas? Terrain. T e d n issues may be of concern during indwdrld incidents.Apparatus and portable ground monitor positioning can be seriously affected.A recent major tank h occurred during a severe rainstorm. Flooding of surrounding areas and access routes to the tank's location delayed response and dictated apparatus positioning in less than

68 November 2008 FIRE IWO*YEMO

STORAGE TANK FIRES

passage o other vehicles needed for foam resupply or hose f placement. Where drainage $wales (deep depressions in roadways to facilitate drainage) are present, apparatus may not k able to cross them because of the length o the apparatus f and wheelbase dishnce. Apparatus may lmttom out as they attempt to cross the depression.This must be determined during preinddent response plan*. At a recent ddl, the original q p r a t w positioning did not aUowproperoutriggefplacementmdthushadto~changed, M v e l y bl-g the mad for placement o other apparatus. In f addition to overall width and length o appctratus,edu& turnf ing radius to ensure apparatus a n be positionedwhere Reeded Weather. Weather conditions can n o d fire department operatiom, apedally a large tank fires.Winds m y carry t the large volumes o smoke prcduced long distances. The f absence o wind or the presence of heavy fog mn create cadif tions where ihe smoke lies low in the area of operations. Heavy rains may a w e flooding, affedng reqmnse and apparatus placement. Ibimme cold and heat cond].tiomrequire m r freoe quent rehabibtion. H a y r;lins may also break down p r o m ev tive foam blankets and cause dike areas to overflow. How can this water be removed h m the dike areas when necessary, and where will it be dhcted? Plant systwns o portable pumps may r be necessary. Anticipate these needs prior to the incident. Exposures. What exposures must be protected at a storage tank fire? Normally, exposures downwind are the first priority and those to the left and right of the downwind

tank wiIl also need some measure of cooling. One point to highlight is that excessive coding water may overtax plant systems designed to remove storm water. A loss of power to the fdity's wastewater pumps may c m runoffwater a to back up into the fire area and overflow dikes or other containment measures. Cooling streams on exposures should be applied only as long as the cooling effect of the stream on the exposed tank shell produces steam. Once steam is no longer generated, stop cooling measures. Restart when Ihe tank shell begins to heat up again. This conserves water for firefighting use and reduces runoff water. Cooling water f r exposed tanks can be calcuo lated in the following manner: " -Atmmpheric storage tanks up t 100 feet In diameter o require 500 gallons per minute (gpm). -Atmospheric storage tanks Mween 100 feet and 150 feet i diameter require 1,000 gpm. n -Atmospheric storage tanks exceed@ the diameters listed above require 2,000 gpm. Area. When we think of fire area, we normally think of length times width. In this Instance, we will use area to highlight the size of the tanks that may be on fire as well as exposed tanks.A quick calculation that can be used for the square footage o a circular tank is the formula 0.8 x f tank diameter. Dike areas must also be calculated by using length times width minus the square footage of the tank Inside the dike.

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70 November 2008 FIRE ENGiNEERlNO

SIORAGE TANK FIRES

stream will not land on the fuel surface i a desired position. n s e i l cord ti^. Identify anything else not prWiow1y p ca mentioned i this section.Hazardous materials present,spen the re.wwces that may be needed. c i a h d ismghhQ techniques, process cmmol opemtions, 'Pime. As with any o emergency, the time ofday may r contingency o fadlty emagency rer plans that may be affect rs. eDuring certain times of the day, plant pasonnel in place, and external resmmm such as m e d contracwrs who can asist may not be present. During other times o the f that may be required axe some o the items covered here. f day, opations that take place at the W may be more hazt y Rernemk, the more information you can gather prlor to the ardous,Inmasing the risk o fire. These fires will be extended f incident, the easier it i to develop the inddent adon plan. s opaations and, i some cases, ofcampam length b l t i p l e n days). Is the faciIity adequately Ughtd, o does your preinar dent response plan have to indude Mgl-intensity scene lightOn notification o a storage tank emergencyJthe fire departf ing? If you bring i portable scene lighting after an operation n ment should immediately begin gathering infomation and has started, access routes may be blocked by apparatus and assessing the Incident. Although it has k e n said that size-up h-. The time to identify this need i earb i the operation so begins wt t e notification o the alarm and continues until s n ih h f you can ensure its placement before access m are blockd t m the last unit h a left the scene, size-upd y begins with the ~ t i m e o f d a y m a y a h a f f e c t t h e ~ o n o f s u m o u n d - prehident response planrung. The Information gathered at i n g ~ e g i t h l s ~ ~ . ~ d d i a l a r e stagesi ~ foundation for all slze-up, this a s the stmtegy, and tactics c o n ~ m m p e o p l e n e d n g e v a c u a t i o n ~ g t h e ~ used at these incidents. After using the pxeinadent response hours. Working at night cran also slow down lird@h& actions plan and the initial aIarm information, gather additional andcan~safetyifhamdousareasarenotQhtedeK&ively, inforrnadon quickly w M e en route to and after arriving at Height. A storage tank's height will a f k t operations. the scene to develop an effecthe strategy to fight the D s your department have portable monitors that can delh.er " Consider the following: streams to great h 7 The stream's trajectory Is important in o personnel h the Immediate areas. f m-the-top applimtion o hdighting streams.Tm far from the f *Lifesafety hazard to dte personnel. bank,andthestreamwillnotmchwerthetop;tooclose,d Extertsion. Confinement. you place y& o in a -us opaating position and the

Locat1.m and extent. During preincident response planning, identify areas o likely fire scenarios (lamtion) and f worst-case scenarios (extent) to further asstst with identifying

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STORAOE TANK FIRES

(4) Large-volume monitors and large-diameter hose are required to battte a large tank fire.
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mEnvironmental impact. *Communityimpact. AFteF address- the immediate issues, determine the type o fire: vent, rim-seal, piping/connection, full involvement, f overfill, tank and dike, multiple tank, or expsure. Determining the type offire will determine the resources required and dictate the necessary Incident action plan to frght the fire. There are several types of fires that an emergency organization could face and different ways of attacking

than. You can treat ground or dike f r s d t i n g from tank ie overfilling o pipe failures as simple spill or pool f r s Trying r ie. to calculate the area of the oddly shaped spill mn be challenging, but the k t tactic i t establish an adequate water s o and foam supply and begin t suppress the fire after adequate o resources are on the scene. A common mistake is to try to extinguish such a fire with inadequate resaurces. If the fue is not -bedwith 'the on-scene resources, it will continue to burn a d destroy the foam blanket already In place, negating any positive impact you may have had. You can protect expsures such as the rank and associated piping and pumps with water using ground monitors o those r
installed on hydrants. Firefighters should not attempt to enter the dike area unless it is safe to do so.This mn be verified by atmospheric testing and ensuring that any spill potential does not fill the dike f m This is especially true for small spills, with l . or without ignition. For larger spills, where i n t o has ocgiin

c u r d and foam operations are ongoing, entry i the dike n should be forbidden. Disturbing the foam blanket can have disastrous effects, and hefighters should never enter into spilled product. You can usually extinguish fires involving the rim-seal area with the semi o fully fixed water/fmm system. Response to r this type of fire is similar to that of fires in sprinklered buildings in that you support the fixed systems on arrival. The main difference is that you should not attempt to extinguish the fire until you have confirmed the reliability of the water and the foam supply and that sufficient quantities of both will be available for the duration of the firefight. Remember, during preincident response planning, you must identify and evaluate these systems.You must also Identify whom to contact to activate them. You marst test the use of these systems before, not during, an incident. Work with the plant personn l during the preincident response planning, and hold ane nual drills and exercises to practice supplying and activating
the systems. If semi o fully h e d systems are not hstdled, you can use r portable equipment to extinguish these fires. You can use hoselines and monitors to fill the rim-seal area with water/ foam solution.Some tools, such as the Daspitm tool, are spec i f i d y designed for rim-seal fues. 'Zhis monitor device has a braoe/ciamp attachment designed to secure it to the tank shell at the top Iip o the tank. You can also use it for other a p f plicatiws. For oh& fmf&ting service applications,you can attach the Daspit Tool to a ground stand or a s a d mounted in the back ofa pickup truck o other vehicle. The foam/water r

72 November 2008 FIRE ENOIISEERINO

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solution flaw rate for rim-seal fires using portable equipment rangesfPom25Q$pmfordsizetanks(upto9Of~in diameter) to 550 gpm for medium size tanks ( 0t 1 5 feet i 9 o 7 n diameter] and 950 gpm for larger size tanks (175 t 300 feet i o n diameter;) with an appliation time of 20 minutes. The method of extinguishing tanks fires in manual operations, using portable or mobile m n t r ,i comrndy oios s referred to as T y p UI appkation or "over-thetop." Consider the following when using the over-thetop method: minimum application rates, application densMe.9, inhhnum foam solution application durations, and supplemmtal foam application rate in dike area. These considerations vary based on fuel aash point, water imrniscibiity, type o foam, and applicatl.on device. Por fries f involving h y d r o a r b s such as gasoline o diesel, a threer percent concentration is the Industry standard. P o w are now being used at mepercent concentrations.These have pwven v a y e f f d v e in t s s For fires involving polar solvents such et. as dwh& or methyl-terhq buty1 ether @ITBE), w r t i o n three pexcenvsix percent almhol-resistant concentmte W C ) at sia-percent concentration. There are, however? ARC foam concentrates designd to be used at three-percent concentra-

In addition to the recommmdatlons of the December 2005 WXHRE Updaw (9, is an accepted practice chat the foam it. supplies on hand to maintain continued suppression equal a t 1 the amount used for initial exthgubhrnent. My personal viewpint is to calculate high so that adequate supplies and resources are available. You can a h q s return unused supplies t the warehouse, but if the supplies are not M b l e , then o the f may not be extinguished. m Although these application rates and timeframa appear daunting, fire departments must understand that although large quantities o foarn supplies are requiredfor large tanks, f hdhidual departments do not always have to stock such large quantities. Innovative so1utions, such as regional foam c o op eratives, industry paamemhips, task force concepts,o private r contractom, may be the soIution.Some o the calculated flows f m y reach i excess o 1 , 0 t 18,000gpm and require large n f 000 o &livery devices such as trailer-mounted monitors and large

p o d l e Pumps. D u r i n g t a n k f m , p l a n t ~ e I ~ ~ d p u m p ing product out o the involved t n . Note that wandf ak ~ctoutof~tallk~lyndghtnotbethebestap tim.T d g pduct from tfxe burning (or exposure tank1 inthe amount oftank steel expo& to the fire. With the tion on polar solvem. P m p r d o n onmmns the percentage ofham that product inside the tank, the liquid 5 acdng &e a h a t sink and i S p ~ t h e t a n k ~ U w a n E n r m b e i n g ~ ~ t 0 is proporrloned it the water. For example, a three-percent no fmmpmprtioningmeansthatthreeperaeotofthe~foad the he. Depending on the situation,you might not want to dlow tfie plant to pump product out, or you may decide to allow water solution i foam concentmte and the remaining 97 pers product to be pumped in. Consult with plant operatiom personcent is water. The foam solution a p p b t i m & L a function e d t f i e l l q u i d ~ c e a r e a . k s ~ t h e r i m d f u e s , d o n ~ n l a d include them in your on-scene planning process. attempt to the fire until it i am6rmed that bath the s 8LQCOV~ FROnrOVEr2. AND BOtlOvlR water and foam supply rehbility and @ t y can k supplied CetZain phenomena need to be defined:sIopwer, for the time needed to ex&hguish frre. the hthcwer, and boilover. A slopwer results when a water The formula to determine the required foam solution Is as stream Is applied to the hot surface o burning oil, causf follows:[(Q.8) x (Tank diametd)] x (0.26 gpm per square ing the burning oil to slop over the tank sides. A frothover foot) x (60o 1 0 minutes) = T t l foam solution required in r 2 oa i the overtlowing of a container not on j5re when water s gallons.' hils under the surface o viscous hot od. An example is hot f The application rate (0.26 g p per square foot) and time asphalt loaded into a tank contairiing some water. The water frame (60o 120 minutes) used above are tht latest figures r may become heated and start to Ml, causing the asphalt t a uxd by the LASTFIRE project arrd British Petroleum (BPI. overflow the tank. When using pmtable/mobile foam monitors, BP recommends Compare these events with the defmition o a boilover: a f planning for a foarn rate production of 0.26 gpm per square sudden and violent ejection of crude oil ( r other liquids) o fmt, which i an inease by 160 percent of minimum NFPA s from the tank resulting from a reaction o the hot layer f rates.* This allows for the loss of foam that. Eails to reach the and the accumulation of water at the bottom o the tank. A f tank interior or breaks down bemuse of heat and thermaI boilover occurs when the residues (heavier particles remaincurrents. Rerent major fires and the resulting oonsemus o f ing after combustion3 from the burning surface become more lea* industry experts have confirmed that higher applimtion rates are required. It b g a d y accepted that appliation dense than the surroun.&g, less dense oil, and the residues rates will vary depending on the tank diameter (surface area). sink down below the &ace level toward the bottom of the For --tank diameters, a higher application rate is required. rank. As the hot layer d mwe dense, burned oil mwes downwill eventually reach the water that Industry experts have previously recommended the following ward, and this uheat-wve" normally acmmulates at the bottom o a tank. When the two f rates: meet, the water is superheated and subsequently boils and Application Rate (gpmlsq-ft.) Tank Diameter (feet) expands explosidy, causing a violent eJectian of the tank Up t 150 o 0.16 contents. Although the normal wa~r--steam apansion r t o ai 150 to 200 0.18 is 1 7 0 1this is a 212OF. At higher temperatures, the water,0:, t 201 to 250 0.20 * s ~ a p a m h n rto can k as much as 2,300:l at 500F. ai 251 to 300 OR2 If a boilover occurs,a ruled-thumb says that the expelled 0.24 or higher More than 300

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74 November 2008 FIRE NC)WEERINQ

STORAGE TANK FIRES

crude oil may travel up to 10 times the tank diameter arnund the tank perimeter. A an example, in a crude oil tank s that is 250 feet in diameter, expect crude oil to cr)ver an arca of 2.500 feel from ihe tank. l h e s c figures have never been tested for very large atnlospheric storage tanks of 300 feet or greater, so in tanks of this size, the distance of 10 times the tank diameter may have to he incrcased. Therefore, carefully consider the location o the incident command post, staging, f cquiprnerlt placemmt, medical triage, and a safe zone Identify and use additional fircfigl~ting resources. Local plnnt fire brigade members can prclvidc the much-needed supporl and technical advice. Many of ihe hardwarc resources may be avaifahlc. at the facility or through industrial and municipal mutual-aid agreements. Solnc facilities havc contracts with private third-party companies that specialize in extinguishing large hydrocarbon fires.

Inrcroperability. Identify these issues during prcincident response planning. Ensure inferoperability of the plant facility's fire water and extinguishing systems, the mutual- o r automatic-aid del~artments, and the third-party cmcrgency response contractors that may be on retainer tr) reADDITIONAL C O U S I ~ R A ~ W Consider the following additional respond to a plant facility to assist with sponse and r)perational conditions when storagc tank fires or emergencies. Foam supplies. Consider regional preparing preincidcnt resporlse plans foam cooperatives to establish suficienr and incident aaion l~latls:
wind direction might causc corrections to incident action plans with respect to changes in staging locations. An incrcase in temperature or humidity could force a quicker rotation of firefighters to prevent heat stresses.

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Firefighting strategies and tactics are also important. Evaluate the objecti~es or goals vs. the risk. Strategies include the following: Nonintervention. This is essentiafly a nonaction mode whcn the risks associatetl with intervening are unacceptable. All personnel are withdrawn tcl a safc area. Defenhive. In this tactic, certain areas may be conceded to the incident, and actions are limited tn protecting exposures and limiting thc sprcad of the incident. Offensive. Aggressive and direct tactics used to control an incident. A s with most fires, the benefits must outweigh the risk. If a small-diametcr tank is burning w i ~ h threat to expono sures, should you extinguish the fire? If the tank haa already lost its contents, is exposure protection more appropriate? These considerations are identifietl and developed as part o the preincident ref sponse planning, dwcloprnent of emergency action plans, and the identification of the credihlt. incident scenarios. Environnwntal conditions such as wind and rain could create prt3hlcms with distance/range of the water/ Foam solution streams. Changes in

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foam mncentmte shpplb h~ 1 storage tank h s o r emergencies. R e m w , &kknt foam concamate supplies are not enou&;tWam+m be latge-volume monitm m d large-volume h e w supply t h e . w a ~ - foam s b I u t i ~ ~ s d

requkdta~the~rgeaq. a s k farces. Consider preestabc m d e $ jet rado mr le s Normally, foam foamconcentrate must t ol r . lishing iaduswial emergency task forces to respond to such k p W withia a specified,&tame from the mde, usually incidents. They wwld he predetermined and activated to 1 5 0 k ~ U ~ g a ~ f 8 C i o ~ n w ~ ~ a r n a ~ ~ ~,tht3eaffommnnmbephoed;38fara~~ suppiy stafling, equipment, foam concentclh~ and appara2,500 feet fmm t b nozzle.Jet ratio cmtmUler$ are mui ~ t r .tus to miiigate emergency sceoslrias at stgtage tank h a q p e devices that move * conmawate b r n a m t storaget ae tmns. IGs a n then call -it task force or multiple task forces, 1 n ta the matched foam d e . knowing that the personnel, equipment, and apparams FQam qWntid43. Large qummes o h a m combate f r e q u i d will respond. These task forces would be identified will be For large incidents, using 55-gaUm drums i the p h i d e n t response plans. n ' f 2 x i r d - g ~ c r ~ ~ ~ ~ i n ~ ~ t notp e s ~ f 2 5 n is y recommndedj 7 tcrtes.and f;uge bm& iplddenb should be Werrrified and ammunimtedwith; you are the @emel ham coxlcentrate ddivery methods, During n e e d t P l e m t o ~ ~ ~ e 8 e ~ b ~ c ; l n ~ f prehcidmt response plambg as well as during rhe incident, a ; r m eduate the logistics o moving the fogm concentrate ta the f supplies, subject mattef m m X %and equipment IW point o foam injection. If h e a w ~ routes are Hocked with f s a ~ b k o n a d a p ~ ~ ~ i s i n a c i t y o r ~ . Gpedalhd indfire t d d n g . Fire departments vehids and hose, how crmn you get the conwntrate to where &odd consider sending personnel to specializd Indusit needs to be?A d W o d y , how d the foam be tmansl M a 1 fire training programs s they can learn more about u femd~romtheco~eratothewaterstre&This~k a et n stofage ti^& fiMghtiig and emergency incidents. National the m k s link i & chain. Although you have the kpt containers with the best foam oil-e am2 la poaithq If you Pro-Board certikation i storage tank emagencies is mw n avaiIab1e at some training centers. If yw have storage tanks are missing the $4 wrench Ch;tt opens the containers, you just In your area, %exril persome1to spwdid training, Of bmverylarge matracks, beawert3atisallyouc;lnusethe bring in s u b j m matter exptfts to delhrer t b h i n g in-house. m~ftahersfor.Wh&isyow~stlhk?~emer&er,,theIIttle

A h u g h your training focuses on the bread-butter opmti~ll~ in your &stria you must also train an h - f t e q p e n c y h i g k i d scenarios. coutmnm-AS part of the equipment newwry M o f - - w delivex foam dudon%t the point o oper&msJ seriously

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things are what will prevent you from

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succeeding! "reasing"the fire. &fore attacking a tank fire fully, practice 'teasingn the fire. When first applying water to a storage tank fire, the cold water striking the burning fuel surface will react, increasing the intensity of the fire. To prevent a more violent reaction, pass the extinguishing smams over the top o the tank until the fire settles back f down. At this point, a full attack should begin with a foam solution. The term "teasing" fire is generally credited the to Dwight Williams of Williams Fire & Hazard Control, which specializes i n fighting storage mnk fires. WiIliams Fire & Hazard Control has extinguished the largest storage tank fire (270 feet in diameter) to date. Foam appfication. Do not position extinguishing streams around the tank f r multiple points o application. o f Position foam monitors at one location; the foam streams should enter the tank at the same point and impinge on the surface in the same area. This will help achieve a stable foam b h n k t more quickly. This foam blanket will then spread out from this c m t d point on the surface. Do not be tempted to move the streams to other positions. If no a p preciable lessening of the fire intensity occurs within the first 20 to 30 minutes, instead o moving the stream position, f review the rate of applimtion. LCES. When developing an incident action plan, consider the acronym LCES Qookouts,communications,escape routes, and safety zones). lookouts must be experienmcl and be able to see the fie and firefightem, and they must be able to recognize risks to fwdighters. They must be the IC's additional eyes and a. them in Post strategic areas so they mn notify the IC of any relevant information o change i r n
conditions. Maintain communications with all personnel operating on the scene, plant operations personnel, and subject mattex expert$.You must keep pmonnel operating in remote Iomtions informed o any change to operational tactics. f Lookouts must maintain communications with operating persamel also. Establish escape routes and infornD www.FireEngineering.com

all personnel of them during safety briefings. Two esolpe routes must be identified and lead to safety zones where accountability can be vwicied. Establish safety zones upwind and uphill of the Incident. Vwify personnel accountability at these locations. In addition, designate a clear evacuation route from this safe area so that personnel mn be further evacuated from the safety zone if conalitions deteriorate to a level. that makes this area unsafe.
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Fires involving large aboveground

storage tanks can be extremely costly

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in terms of property damage, environmental concerns, and public impact. Additionally, the control and extinguishment of full-surface tank fires require a large amount of cornmitrnent i humar~ n logistics and equipment resources. Tank fires are complex events. Fighting them
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difiared by an fictive emergency mawgemOnly with and ddls d YQW -ent l kcOme needed to succesm~ proficient in the mtegies and fight a storage tank fire.

Instmion of Chernial En ' n m IlChernq. 8P Races SafetySen'= Fire safety h&et liquid&mhon Tank /?re: P m t i m and Rev-. Rugby, Kingdom:)ChemE 2005,
I n a o n af Charnk[ Engineea[IaemEj, Foam Ap ,;cat;on for FullSvrfaceTack F i e - king Mobile Equipnenr RQ$ United Kingdwn: IChemE, no date.

ENDNOTES
7 . A g d a i c h m e is a m ~ d e s i r m ~ r e d made of short, straight, triangular sectiws that fomp o b n s .These l i g M ht domes can span l a y *noes and are used on stwage tanks to A c e vapdr missbra and to p t e c t from weather. They p r e a snow acrurnulati& on floating roofs and re&& rainwater ammulation as well.

M F I R E Pro'ea. LASFIRE Update:Risk Redudon Options U n d andm: IRE row, m.

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r i i a a a i a t e d with fires in storage tanks and deve$ing practices to mitigate the risk

h e best?ndustly

3 Hitdebraid, M.S. and G.G. Noll, %rage Tank Emergedes. hmpolis, Mi3 k iHat, 1997.

i dstandards 4. The LASTFlRE Update (December MD5)states h t [NFPAI require at 16 -5 rninukr ofweratingtime. K r has b e E f i e eo burningfw some time, this shauld be increasedma le&l2(1 minutes," 15. t

5.Bri&h P&leum (BP) offers a b a r n ap lidor estimator, a quick calculafoam a&tion at w a g e tank firer tor fa deferminingthe

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