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Building Research Establishment Keview

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SuDerdasticisers in concrete: a review

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Amjad Ali, BE, BTech, MPhil
Building Research Establishment Garston Watford
WD2 7JR
Pricesfor all available ERE publicationscan be obtainedfrom: ConstructionResearch Communications Ltd 151 RoseberyAvenue London, EClR 4QX Telephone 0171 5056622 Fax 0171 5056606 ER313 ISBN 1 86081 089 6 @Crown copyright 1996 First published 1996 Publishedby ConstructionResearch Communications Ltd by permission of the Controller of HMSO and the BuildingResearch Establishment. Applications to copy all or any part of this publicationshould be made to Construcbon Research Communications Ltd, PO Box 202, Watford, Herts. WD2 7QG
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Contents
Summary Introduction 2.0 Background information 2.1 Types of superplasticiser 2.2 Mode of action of superplasticiser 2.3 Methods of use
1 1 1 3 3
3.0 Effects of superplasticisers on properties of fresh concrete 3.1 Workability 3.2 Setting times 3.3 Air content 3.4 Bleeding 3.5 Slump loss 3.6 Cement hydration 4.0 Effects of superplasticiserson properties of hardened concrete 4.1 Strength 4.2 Modulus of elasticity 4.3 Thermal expansion 4.4 Shrinkage and creep 4.5 Steel-concrete bond strength 4.6 Fatigue 4.7 Durability 5.0 Long term performance 6.0 Discussion 7.0 Advantages and disadvantages 8.0 Recommendationsfor further work 9.0 References Figures
4 4 5 5 6 6 8
8 9 10 10 10 11 12 12 16 17 18 19 20 27
SUPERPLASTICISERS IN CONCRETE - A REVIEW

by Amjad Ali
SUMMARY Superplasticisers or high range water reducers, as they are sometimes known, are a relatively new category of admixtures which are used to produce either high workability or waterreduced, high strength concretes. With the present emphasis on production of high performance concrete with improved durability, their role now is being reconsidered for reducing the porosity and permeability of concrete, and for increasing the resistance to hs penetration of external aggressive elements into concrete. T i review examines existing information on the effects of superplasticisers on the fresh and hardened properties of concrete and their influence on its long-term performance.
A!! commercially available superplasticisers improve the fluidity of concrete but the extent
of improvement depends on the superplasticiser type, its dosage and on the time of its addition to the mix. Superplasticised concrete suffers from rapid slump loss which depends on the mix composition, mixing method, temperature and the presence of other chemical and mineral admixtures in the mix. Contradictory information was found on the effect of superplasticisers on various properties of fresh concrete made from ordinary Portland cement; very little data was found on such properties of concretes made with other cements. Reliable information is required on the effects of production, transportation and placement on the properties of concretes made with blended cements and new generation superplasticisers . Superplasticisers, when used in conjunction with air-entraining admixtures, significantly affect the air-void system and its stability. The bubble size distribution is altered and the bubble spacing factor is increased to values greater than those recommended at present for satisfactory freeze-thaw durability. Nevertheless, the limited available data suggest satisfactory durability of air-entrained superplasticised concrete, although data on freeze-thaw durability of superplasticised concrete made from a wide range of cements, in the presence of de-icing salts, are not conclusive. There is a need for further information on the compatibility of superplasticisers with air-entraining agents and on their effect on the air-void system and freeze-thaw durability. When used at recommended dosage levels, the strength, modulus, shrinkage and creep properties of superplasticised flowing concrete are comparable to the corresponding properties of conventional concrete. Difference of opinion exists on the reduction of steel-concrete bond strength and fatigue properties of superplasticised concretes in comparison with conventional concrete. Very limited laboratory and in-service data are available on long-term performance and durability (carbonation, corrosion of reinforcement and stability of hydration products) of superplasticised flowing or water-reduced superplasticised concrete under different exposure conditions. Perhaps the absence of such information and a loss of fluidity during transport and placement of superplasticised concretes, together with the lack of a perceivable
economic advantage, are the main reasons for their low usage in the UK compared to other European countries. Information is therefore required on these aspects to show the potential for improvements in concrete durability by use of superplasticisers and also to encourage their acceptance by the construction industry in the UK. The review shows that most of the existing investigations either compare the properties of flowing concmte with corresponding reference concretes of the same cement and water content, or compare the properties of water-reduced concrete with reference concretes of similar workability and cement content. Such comparisons in the former mode can only reveal the effects on physical properties affecting placement and compaction, whereas in the latter case they show the expected improvement in the mechanical properties commensurate with a reduction in the waterkement ratio. Not much attention has been paid to the potential use of superplasticisersfor the production of high performance workable concrete through the reduction of both cement and water in the mix. Further work is needed to explore this possibility and to establish the durability of superplasticised cement-reduced concretes. The report concludes that, where appropriate, the use of superplasticisers should be encouraged where they offer either economic advantage in the cost of construction or obtaining improved durability in service. However the gaps in the available information on the production technology, and long-term strength and durability related properties of superplasticised structural concretes made with modem European cements under various site conditions need to be filled.
SUPERPLASTICISERS IN CONCRETE - A REVIEW: By Amjad Ali

INTRODUCTION
Normal water-reducing and plasticising admixtures have been widely used in concrete technology to obtain concrete with high workability and/or high strength. In the last two decades a new range of admixtures which impart very high workability, allow large reductions in water content and improve the strength have been in use particularly in Europe, North America and Japan. These admixtures known as 'superplasticisers' are chemically different from normal plasticisers and are capable of reducing water requirements by about 30%as compared to that of 10 to 15%obtained by plasticisers. Such admixtures have largely been considered in the past as agents for achieving good workability for placing and compaction o concrete on site. With the present emphasis f on production of high performance concrete for durable reinforced concrete construction, the role of superplasticisers is now being reconsidered for reducing the porosity and permeability of concrete through reduction of water in the mix. This report has been prepared to review the existing information and knowledge on the use of superplasticisers. It considers the effects of superplasticisers on the long term performance of concrete and recommends research work needed to obtain further information on their suitability for improving the durability of structural concrete.
2.0 BACKGROUND INFORMATION

The development of superplasticisers began in both Japan and Germany in the 1960s(1,2). In Japan, the Kao Soap Company developed and marketed a product named 'Mighty' based on naphthalene sulphonate formaldehyde condensate which was initially used in precast concrete production to attain high strength and high workability. Since then, however, this has been widely used for both precast concrete and insitu concrete construction. In Germany, The SKW Company developed a product 'Melment L10' based on sulphonated melamine formaldehyde condensate which has been extensively used in ready-mixed concrete in Germany and all over the world. The use of such admixtures in UK and USA came late in the 1970s and was initially slow because of undue suspicion about the claims of their benefits and lack of data on the short and long-term effects on the performance and durability of concrete. Since then several UK, European and North American companies have developed or introduced their own products and their use is on the increase in UK and America.
2.1 Types of superplasticiser

Superplasticisers are broadly classified into the following four groups as defined by the Cement Admixture Association(67): 1
2.1.1. Sulphonated melamine-formaldehyde condensate (SMF): These are polymers with a condensation number in the range of 50 to 60 giving a molecular weight in the region of 20,000 to 30,000. These condensates are usually employed in the form of sodium salt which is very soluble in water. These are primarily f of German origin, the best known being Melment L10. The other products o this chemical composition which are marketed in UK are Conplast M 1 made by Fosroc, Febflow Super 5 made by FEB and Sikament FF produced by Sika.
2.1.2. Sulphonated naphthalene-formaldehyde condensate (SNF):

These are also polymers similar in many ways to the SMF types. Again sodium salt is usually employed. The condensate number in this case is between 5 and 10 with a molecular weight of the order o 2000. These were developed in Japan, the best known f Other currently available products of this type are Cormix being the product Mighty. SP1 made by Cormix, Febflow Super1 made by FEB, Supaflow by Don Chemicals, Daracem made by Grace Chemicals and Sikament marketed by Sika. 2.1.3. Modified lignosulphonates (MLS): The lignosulphonates derived from wood-pulping are commonly used as plasticisers, and in order to improve their effectiveness they are modified and refined for use as superplasticisers. The processing involves the removal of sugars and other impurities, selection of higher molecular weight fractions and further sulphonation and partial polymerisation. Currently available products of this type are Cormix SP4 made by Cormix, Febflow Super3 made by FEB, Conplast 337 made by Fosroc and Plastiment made by Sika. 2.1.4. Others (0): This covers other chemicals or mixtures which are claimed to act as superplasticisers. These include sulphonic-acid esters, carbohydrate esters and other high molecular weight hydroxylated polymers and copolymers. Very limited products of this type are available at present but current research in this area might result in new products in future. Variations exist in each of these classes and some formulations may contain other ingredients. In recent years attempts have also been made to blend SMF and SNF type material to produce a cheap and effective superplasticiser. Also a new class of 'retarding superplasticiser' has been produced for applications where longer retention of workability is required. These are blends of retarding plasticisers and category SMF or SNF superplasticisers. As far as can be ascertained all categories of plasticisers are based on chemicals classed as non-hazardous in terms of flammability, toxicity and corrosion and do not cause dermatitis. Nevertheless, individual manufacturers provide advice on handling, storage and precautions during use of their products.
2.2 Mode of action of superplasticiser:

The mechanism by which superplasticisers produce their effect is similar to that of normal plasticisers in that they disperse cement agglomerates very efficiently. Superplasticising admixtures consist of large molecules which dissolve in water to give ions with a very high negative charge (anions).These anions are attracted to the surface of cement grains and adsorbed in sufficient numbers to form a mono layer around them. The combination of electrostatic repulsion and large ionic size brings about a rapid dispersion effect of cement grains, resulting in the release of water trapped in cement agglomerates which contributes to the increased mobility of cement paste and hence to the workability of concrete. Superplasticisers of the SMF and SNF types d o not cause a significant lowering o f surface tension and for this ,reason high dosage of such admixtures can be tolerated f without excessive air entrainment. On the other hand, admixtures o MLS type tend to increase air entrainment at high dosage. Various studies on the rheology, adsorption, hydration, viscosity and zeta potential characteristics of cement/water/superplasticiser systems have been carried out to understand the role of superplasticisers in cementitious systems(3-8). Review of this information is beyond the scope of this study, but some o f the findings that are relevant to the durability and performance of hardened concrete will be described in the later sections.
2.3 Methods of use:

Superplasticisers may advantageously be used in concrete for the following purposes:
To produce high strength concrete with very low water/cement ratios. To achieve high strength, the water content o the concrete is reduced while maintaining the same f cement content. When used in this mode, superplasticisers are best described as high range water-reducers. Incorporation of superplasticisers allows this reduction without affecting the workability in the range traditionally used by the industry. To produce flowing concretes. Superplasticisers can be used to produce self levelling and self compacting flowing concrete. In this application no attempt is made to either reduce the cement content or water/cement ratio of the mix. Instead the aim is to increase the workability without causing any segregation or bleeding so that concrete can be placed in congested and heavily reinforced sections and to avoid any additional compaction effort.
To produce good quality concrete with a reduced quantity of cement at normal or reduced water/cement ratio but with normal or increased workability for placement and good compaction.
Most of the superplasticisers are supplied as liquids. Dosages depend upon the category of the superplasticiser, initial workability, mix design and the constituent materials of the mix. They are usually in the range of one to six litres per cubic metre of concrete. Superplasticisers are normally added during final mixing prior to use of the concrete. After addition to a truck mixer, the mix is spun at maximum speed for at least two minutes during which the required fluidity is obtained. It should then be used without
. . . ..
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delay since maximum workability is retained for only 30 to 60 minutes after addition. In case of unavoidable delays after addition it is recommended that concrete be left undisturbed in the mixer until it is ready for placement; prior to placement, a short period of re-mixing is recommended. It is also possible to reinstate the high workability by adding further amounts of superplasticiser. This, however, is is not recommended and can cause segregation, bleeding and loss of entrained air.
3.0
EFFECTS OF SUPERPLASTICISERS ON PROPERTIES OF FRESH CONCRETE
The properties of fresh concrete containing a superplasticiser are affected by the type of superplasticiser and by the initial workability of the mix. In addition the effects of superplasticisers are also dependent their mode of application. It is, therefore appropriate to compare the properties of a control mix with those of a superplasticised mix that has been water-reduced to give equal workability and also with a mix of unchanged water content which will produce a high workability flowing concrete. Normal mix design procedures can be applied in cases where superplasticisers are used as high range water-reducers (HRWR mode). On the other hand, when used to produce flowing concrete (FC mode), more care is needed to avoid bleeding, segregation, and loss of cohesion by careful choice of superplasticiser, mix design, aggregate grading and fines content. The effects of superplasticisers on the properties of fresh concrete are also dependent on type, dosage and time of addition of superplasticiser, quantities of paste and aggregates, water/cement ratio, type of cement, and temperature. Presence of other admixtures in the mix such as air entraining agents and retarders can also influence the characteristics of fresh concrete. Many investigations on the various types of product available have been reported in the past(9-14). With continuing changes in the compositions of Portland cement and use o blended cements, coupled with changes in f formulations of the superplasticisers, many new investigations have also been undertaken and reported in the recent past(15-18). It is well accepted that the effects produced on the properties of fresh concrete by a superplasticiser are very complex and depend upon several factors. Due to this there are many diverse observations and contradictory results reported by various workers. Nevertheless, the significant findings and common observations are presented below.
3.1 Workability:
Addition o superplasticiser increases the workability of concrete. The ability of the f superplasticisers to increase the workability of concrete significantlydepends on the type, f f dosage and time o addition o the superplasticiser, water/cement ratio, nature and amount of cement and temperature. The dosage requirements will depend upon whether flowing or water-reduced high strength concrete is required. It has been reported that for a similar increase in the slump a higher dosage of SMF or MLS type superplasticiser is required compared to that for SNF type (19). The dosage for a required workability depends also on the initial workability, low initial slump mixes requiring higher dosage than those required for high initial slump mix. At any particular initial slump, the slump
4
value increases as the amount o superplasticiser is increased (ZO), ,figure 1. The f effectiveness, however, does not continue beyond a particular dosage. The time when superplasticiser is added to concrete also determines the level of workability. By adding the superplasticiser to mixing water the slump is increased considerably. Even higher f slump values are obtained by the addition o superplasticiser a few minutes after the f concrete is initially mixed with water. Addition o superplasticiser beyond five minutes after initial mixing generally results in a reduced improvement in workability(2l), figure 2. Most types of cements show an increase in the slump with the addition o f superplasticisers. It has been reported that addition of 1.5% of SMF type plasticiser to a concrete containing ASTM type I, I11 and V cements increased the initial slump of 76 mm to 222, 216 and 229 mm respectively(22). The slump values are also influenced by the cement content of the concrete. A concrete containing 2 3 7 , 3 2 6 and 415 kg/m3 of cement achieved a slump of 203, 222 and 254 mm, respectively by the addition of SMF type superplasticiser(22). Roberts and Adderson(l2) also report an appreciable fluidifying action and an increase in the slump from 55 mm to well over 150 mm in the case of concretes made with Portland cement containing nine different type of superplasticisers. At superplasticiser dosage rates that are normally used in Portland Cement concrete, concrete made with High alumina cement does not exhibit any increased workability(23). Even with high dosages of SMF and SNF type superplasticiser, these concretes do not achieve flow characteristics. MLS type superplasticisers showed an increase in the slump values but the concrete still had no flowing characteristics(23). It has been reported that there is no drastic difference in the increase in slump due to the f addition o a superplasticiser in the temperature range of 5-30C. Nevertheless, a recent report indicates that the required amount of plasticiser, per unit increase in slump, increases with a decrease in concrete temperature and the rate of increase becomes significant as the temperature falls below 20C(24), figure 3. As the temperature is increased the initial workability is lost at a rapid rate and retarders have to used to reduce this loss at high temperatures.
3.2 Setting times:

A number of reports have been published on the effects of superplasticisers on the setting times of fresh concrete(l2,19,25,26). These indicate that the initial and final setting times are retarded to some extent and this depends on the type and amount of superplasticiser. MLS type superplasticisers show a higher retarding ability than that of SMF or SNF type plasticisers, and the degree of retardation is related to the amount of superplasticiser(l9), figure 4. This retarding influence is present in both cases of flowing concrete and high range water-reduced concrete(12).
3.3 Air content:

At high levels of workability, as achieved in flowing concrete, the stability of entrained air is low and the use of superplasticiser usually results in a reduction of 0.5%to 1 % in the level of entrained air. SMF type superplasticisers produce the greatest tendency for air detrainment, followed by SNF types, while MLS type plasticisers have the least effect
and may even give a slight air entrainment. In water-reduced concretes a reduction in the entrained air is unusual but could occur occasionally with the use of SMF type plasticiser. Roberts and Adderson(l2) also report that SMF and SNF type superplasticisers (Conplast, Mighty, Cormix SP1 and Sikament) exhibited no propensity to increase the natural air content of the fresh concrete, and actually reduced it with comparison with controlled concrete. In contrast other superplasticisers based on MLS (Acosal, Pozmlith and Supaflow) produced concrete with air contents above that of control concrete. Air entrainment of superplasticised flowing and water-reduced concrete using an air entraining agent is possible but the total air content of the mix in such case decreases with the addition of SMF and SNF type superplasticisers, and increases with addition o f MLS based admixture. in addition to a reduction in air contents, superplasticisers also produce changes in the air-void system characteristics o air-entrained concrete(27-29). f The most frequently reported findings have been an increase in the air-void spacing for a given level of air content in the mix to unacceptable levels (according to current specifications for freeze thaw resistance and frost durability). This will be discussed in a later section on hardened concrete. 3.4 Bleeding: Ghosh and Malhotra(26) showed very little segregation and bleeding of concrete containing normal recommended dosages of different types of superplasticisers (Figure 5). Similar observations were made by Yamamoto(24) for bleeding of concretes between 20 and 35C. Measurements at temperatures lower than 1O"C, however, showed a sharp increase in the bleeding. Dhir and Yap(30) carried out bleeding measurements on flowing concretes containing different types of superplasticisers and concluded that the bleeding capacity of superplasticised concrete is higher than that of normal concrete and it increases with increasing dosage of the plasticiser. They also found its dependence on types of plasticiser and grading of sands. Contradictory to this a recent report by Cabrera et al(31) has shown that, for concretes containing SMF and SNF superplasticisers, the bleeding rates and bleeding capacity were lower than those obtained with concrete without superplasticisers. This bleeding effect showed considerable decrease with increasing dosage of these plasticisers. Although the MLS type of superplasticiser showed a decrease in bleeding up to a dosage rate of 0.2% by weight of cement, bleeding capacity increased between a dosage rate of 0.2 and 0.5%. At the highest dosage level of 0.6% the increased air entrainment reduced the bleeding. There seems to be a difference of opinion on the effect o superplasticisers on f bleeding of concretes. With an increasing use of fillers and blended cements in concretes with superplasticisers, it is recommended that this effect should be investigated to resolve the differing opinions.
3.5 Slump loss:

Superplasticised flowing concretes exhibit large increases in slump. This increase in slump is, however, maintained for only 30-60 minutes. The subsequent rapid loss of slump is a serious disadvantage for the ready-mix concrete operations, as it becomes
essential to add superplasticiser at the point of use, or add higher than normal dosage at the plant to maintain the workability for longer duration. If added at the plant there is the potential problem of slump loss and other consideration of the reduction in capacity o the truck. Addition at the site involves employing qualified personnel with f the truck to oversee this operation and satisfy fulfil the contractual obligations of the specifications. This sort of problem could form a barrier to usage of superplasticisers by the ready-mix suppliers. In either case of use there is an increase in the cost of concrete. Lack of information on economic advantages of using superplasticisers for reducing construction cost (reduced compaction effort and placement time) and achieving improved durability (reduced water content and improved density) is also another barrier. There is a need for information on these aspects to encourage the use of superplasticisers by the specifiers and ready-mix suppliers. The reasons for loss of slump are not clear but it is possibly attributable to physical and chemical changes in the cement paste of the concrete with time(l9). Hattori(32) has suggested the coagulation of hydrated cement particles in the dormant stage to be the more important cause of slump loss than the chemical bonding formed between cement particles through hydration. Surprisingly no further information on the reasons for such f an important effect could be found in the published literature. The rate of slump loss o superplasticised flowing concrete is dependent upon type of superplasticiser, its dosage f level, type and amount of cement in the mix, initial slump value, temperature o concrete, time of addition of superplasticiser, mixing methods and the presence of other admixtures in the mix. Slump loss with SMF type superplasticisers is higher than with the SNF or MLS based superplasticisers (figures 6 and 7). A higher than normal dosage reduces the rate of slump loss(26),as shown in figure 8. The chemical and mineralogical composition of cement also influence the rate of slump loss. Various factors such as C,A, alkalis, gypsum, C,AF and sulphates are responsible for this behaviour. It has been reported that concrete made with type V cements (low C,A) show a lower rate of slump loss compared with that made with type 1 cements (moderate to high C3A)(22). It has been suggested that during the period in which slump loss occurs, C,A reacts with gypsum to form a crystalline structure which reduces the workability. This reaction is enhanced in the presence of superplasticisers and increased amounts of alkalis in the cements(6,33,34)resulting in rapid loss of slump. The effect of temperature on slump loss o concrete containing superplasticisers has been f reported by various investigators(22,24,35). Mailvagnam(22) showed that variation in the mix temperature produces a marked effect on the rate of slump loss, Figure 9. An increase in temperature from 22C to 32C produced a drastic slump loss, whereas a reduction of temperature to 15C from 22C significantly extended the time of maximum workability. Yamamoto(24) measured slump loss at different temperatures after superplasticising with SMF, SNF and other superplasticisers and concluded that between 7 and 20C the losses were very small and not influenced by difference in temperature. However at 35C a significant slump loss was observed. Both investigations also report considerable reductions in slump loss by the use of a retarded formulation of the superplasticisers.
Attempts have been made to maintain the slump of superplasticised concrete for longer duration by different methods. These include use o higher dosage of plasticisers, f repeated dosage of superplasticiser at different intervals from initial mixing and inclusion o some types of retarders in the superplasticiser formulations. Although it has been f reported that there is'no significant effect on the 28 day strength of extended slump concrete made -by these methods, it has been shown that repetitive dosage of superplasticiser results in a substantial reduction in the air content of the mix and also a reduction in the level of improvement of workability after the third dosage(36). It appears that use of retarding type superplasticisers is the most effective way of achieving an optimum improvement in slump and in reduction of slump loss with time(22,37).
3.6 Cement hydration:

The rate of hydration of cement is influenced by superplasticisers. Various conduction f calorimetric studies of the hydration o C3A, C3S and cement have been reported(38,39). Adsorption of superplasticisers occurs very rapidly on C3A, as compared to C3S or cement. Superplasticisers of type SNF and SMF retard the hydration of C3A and, therefore, the total amount of heat generated in the first few minutes; the peak temperature rises are lower than those obtained without superplasticisers. Nevertheless, the reported results on the rate of hydration of C3A plus gypsum mixture containing superplasticisers are contradictory. All three possibilities viz., acceleration, retardation and neutral effects have been reported. The type of materials, methods of hydration adopted for these measurements, and temperature seem to be main cause of such varying results. A detail discussion of this is beyond the scope of this review. It is reported that hydration of C3Sis also retarded by superplasticisers. By the addition of superplasticisers, both the induction period and the peak of heat evolution are delayed. The interactions of superplasticisers with the hydration in cement systems are complex, due to the presence of alkalis and SO3. Recent studies(40,41)on the influence of SMF superplasticiser on the hydration and microstructure of cement have indicated that the retardation effect is pronounced at 20C but diminishes or disappears with an increasing temperatures up to 55C. In comparable cast specimens, addition of SMF reduces the mean size of Ca(OH), crystallites and alters their morphology but promotes the growth of larger ettringite crystals. The implications of the altered microstructure with respect to durability and performance is not known but warrants further investigation. It is, however, worth pointing out that superplasticisers in general have a beneficial effect in controlling the heat generated during the hydration of cement by their retarding action. It is quite likely that they might also be beneficial in reducing the probability of thermal cracking in thick structural elements and mass concrete.
4.0
EFFECTS OF SUPERPLASTICISERS ON PROPERTIES OF HARDENED CONCRETE
Superplasticisers can be used to produce a wide range of concretes. These include concretes with high workability with normal cement content and water/cement ratio; concretes of workability similar to base but with reduced water/cement ratio, concrete with reduced cement content and water/cement ratio having improved workability, or a combination of such benefits. The effect on hardened concrete properties in each of 8
these cases will be different and will depend on the mix, type of plasticiser and dosage. Some of the effects on different properties are discussed in the following sections.
4.1 Strength:
For flowing concretes, it has been reported that the 28 day compressive strength of superplasticised concrete is equal to or greater than that o the reference concrete. f Increases in strength have been attributed to improved dispersion and hydration of cement brought about by additions of superplasticisers. Aignesberger and Kern(42) report strength data for a flowing concrete containing 1.5 to 4.5% of Melment L-10 (SMF type superplasticiser) and fabricated at three different water/cement ratios as shown in figure 10. The strengths of superplasticised concrete is higher than that of control over the age periods of 1to 28 days. Malhotra et al(19)report that concretes made with SMF and SNF type superplasticisers gave 5-10%higher strengths compared to that without the superplasticiser. Contrary to this MLS type superplasticisers gave a slight reduction in strength due to a higher air entrainment resulting from these type o f superplasticisers. Roberts and Adderson(l2) reported results of tests on nine different types of commercially available superplasticisers, and concluded that compressive strength values of flowing concrete (no reduction in water) at test ages from 28 days to 2 years were in f the region o 95-110% of those of control concrete without admixture. They found a reduction in the compressive strength of concrete at early ages (24 hours) by the use of MLS type superplasticisers. Nevertheless, such differences reduced or disappeared at later ages. Dhir et a1(13,30)tested 8 different types of superplasticisers and concluded that the strength development up to 2 4 hours of superplasticised concrete exhibited varying degree of reduction compared to the non-superplasticised concrete but the strength development between 3 and 90 days was generally of similar order for both types of concrete. When superplasticisers are used in water reducing mode, the increase in mechanical properties such as compressive and flexural strengths are generally commensurate with reduction in water/cement ratio, although some exceptions have also been reported. All f other factors being the same, the compressive strengths o superplasticised concrete increase as the dosage of the superplasticiser is increased and the water/cement ratio is decreased. Aignesberger et al(42) report the results o tests on concretes of equal f workability made with three different cements and a 3% addition of SMF type superplasticiser, Figure 11. These clearly show strength increases between 80 and 150 percent in 24 hours. The 28 day strength increased by 25 to 80% which was proportional to a reduction of water/cement ratio by 20% achieved by the use of plasticiser. Another study made on the strength development of concretes containing 500 kg/m3 cement at a constant slump of 70 mm has shown that the strength is improved at all ages from 1to 30 days for different amounts of SMF type superplasticiser, figure 12(43). The increase in compressive strength at an addition of 4% SMF was 50% compared to the control concrete. Roberts et al(12) also conclude that the compressive strength values of water reduced concretes made with superplasticisers containing low air 9
entrainment, exceeded those to be expected from water reduction alone. The compressive strength relative to that of the control was in the region of 120-135% with a 10% water reduction, and in the region of 135-150% with 20% water reduction. Similar trends in strength development and values have been reported in concretes with different slumps containing different types and amount of cements(2,19,21,26).
The published'data on strength development of concrete made with different types of superplasticisers over a wide range of water/cement ratios also suggests that at early ages the superplasticised concrete has higher strengths than those of the non-superplasticised concretes, while at one year the strength data are similar for both types of concrete(44), figure 13. This would indicate that the variation in strengths at later ages in superplasticised concretes can be explained by differences in water/cement ratios, while at early ages the variation is influenced not only by water/cement ratio but also by improved dispersion and hydration resulting in high early strength development. 4.2 Modulus of Elasticity: Very limited data is available on the effect of superplasticisers on modulus of elasticity of concrete. Brooks et al(45) have reported that in flowing concrete made with different superplasticisers, the modulus is similar to that of the base concrete. They also report that the modulus is significantly affected by curing, air cured superplasticised concrete gave values lower than those obtained for control concrete, whereas water curing gave consistently higher modulus for superplasticised concrete(46). Dhir(13)found that for a given strength, the modulus of elasticity of flowing concrete was slightly higher than its normal base, but suggests that differences were very small and for practical purposes, both concretes can be assumed to have similar characteristics. A recent publication, however, reports that addition of 2% SMF superplasticiser to concrete containing cement contents of 300-450 kg/m3, increased the modulus of elasticity at 28 days by 20 to 30% compared to the non-superplasticised base(47). 4.3 Thermal expansion: The thermal expansion properties of flowing and normal concretes were studied by Dhir et al(13).They conclude that the coefficient of thermal expansion of flowing and normal concretes in the temperature range of 5 to 80C, was comparable and fairly constant at 11 x 10-6 per"C for a range of mixes. This, however, is to be expected as thermal expansion is controlled primarily by the aggregate. No other published information could be found on thermal properties. 4.4 Shrinkage and creep:
A number of reports have been published on effects of superplasticisers on the drying
shrinkage and creep of concrete(13,30,45,46,48). Nevertheless, the data is varied, conflicting and suffers from apparent inconsistencies. This is probably due to changes in mix proportions as a result o the use of superplasticisers in either flowing concrete f mode or in high range water reducing mode. Deformation properties are then affected by those changes as well as by the admixtures. Dhir et a1(13,30)conclude that for flowing concretes, the drying shrinkage of superplasticised concrete is about 10-20%
10
higher than that of normal concrete. Shrinkage of both normal and superplasticised concretes increases with a decrease in the water/cement ratio of the mix. For flowing concretes the creep strains and coefficient was about 5 to 10%lower than that of normal concretes. The creep recovery was, however, of the same order for both superplasticised and normal concrete.
Brooks et a1(45,46)also report that addition of SMF superplasticisers to low and high strength concretes increased the creep of superplasticised concrete compared to the control concrete. The increases were 10 and 35% for high and low strength concretes respectively. Although the shrinkage of the high strength concrete were high at early ages of drying, there was no difference between the control mixes and superplasticised mixes at the age of over a year. 4.5 Steel-concrete bond strength: The high workability of concrete affects the bond strength between concrete and reinforcement. After casting, high slump concrete which has a greater tendency to settle and bleed, can leave a void below rigidly held bars which may affect the bond strength. Collepardi and Corradi(49), have published data on the effect of SNF based on superplasticiser on steel-concrete bond. They found . that incorporation of superplasticisers to concretes containing 400 to 500 kg/m3 cement, improved the adhesion between concrete and steel for both normal and lightweight concretes. For normal concrete the bond strength at 7 days increased from 1.2 to 3.5 MPa for smooth bars and from 15 to 27.5 MPa for twisted bars. Similar improvements were also reported for lightweight concrete.
A number of recent investigations have specifically considered the bond of reinforcement
to superplasticised concrete. Brettman et al(50)studied the effect of naphthalene based superplasticiser on bond. Key variables studied were slump with and without plasticiser, degree of consolidation, concrete temperature and bar positions. They concluded that at high temperature (with reduced setting times), properly vibrated super plasticised concrete and its low slump nonsuperplasticised base concrete had a similar bond strength. The equal bond strength was due to an increased concrete strength obtained with superplasticised concrete. However, for the same concrete strength, high slump concrete made with a superplasticiser had a lower strength than a low slump concrete. They also found that, at low temperatures (resulting in longer setting times), a nonvibrated high slump superplasticised concrete or a high slump non-superplasticised concrete gave lower bond strengths compared to a low slump concrete of similar strength. High density internal vibrations improved the bond strength significantly.
A recent investigation by Carrasquillo(51) reports that the effects of SNF and SMF type
superplasticisers on the properties of fresh and hardened concrete were quite different. Nevertheless, the bond strength of straight deformed bars in concrete with and without superplasticisers was similar. There appears to be contradictory observations and reports on this subject. This needs further investigationsespecially with different types of cement and mineral additions that influence the settlement characteristics of concrete after casting.
11
4.6 Fatigue:
Very limited published information on this property was available. Lee et a1(52),studied the fatigue behaviour of plain concrete in compression with and without superplasticiser at different levels of cement content and water/cement ratio. All other variables such as aggregates, cement type, curing, temperature and age were kept constant for both types of concrete. Based on this work they conclude that fatigue behaviour of plain concrete in compression was not significantly affected by the addition of superplasticiser. Nevertheless, with the significant influences of superplasticisers on the steelconcrete bond, as reported in the preceding section, further studies are needed on the fatigue behaviour of reinforced superplasticised concrete structural elements.
4.7 Durability:
A durable concrete should have the ability to maintain its structural integrity and
protective capacity over a long period under exposure to natural elements in service conditions. The durability of concrete may be predicted by determining its ability to withstand freeze-thaw cycles and attack from aggressive solutions, and to resist penetration of moisture, salts and gases. It should also maintain a favourable alkaline environment for the protection of steel reinforcement, where present, and should not exhibit undue amounts of shrinkage and creep. Superplasticised flowing concrete has similar cement and water contents to its normal control mix, but has high workability for ease of placement and compaction. It is therefore often assumed that the durability of flowing concrete will be similar to that of its normal control mix. Superplasticised water-reduced concrete of similar workability, with a reduction in water/cement ratio is expected to produce concrete of low porosity and permeability resulting in an improvement in its strength, performance and durability. In the past superplasticisers have largely been considered as workability agents with an emphasis on possible savings in cement and/or construction costs and increase in strength. Whilst good workability is accepted as an essential requirement for placement and good compaction, the role of superplasticisers now is increasingly seen as an aid to the production of a durable concrete at reduced water/cement ratios. It is also accepted that superplasticisers alone can not guarantee durable concrete, but used in conjunction with good materials, adequate mix design and good curing they can positively contribute to an enhanced durability. The majority of published data on the durability of superplasticised concrete is on freezethaw behaviour. Very limited information is available on the other concrete properties that are relevant to long-term durability. These are discussed in the following sections.
4.7.1 Permeability:
Very little information is available on the permeability of superplasticised concrete. As the porosity and permeability is dependent upon the water/cement ratio, use of a superplasticiser to produce flowing concrete (where the water/cement ratio is unchanged) has no significant effect on permeability of concrete. In the water-reducing mode, the
12
effect appears to be commensurate with the reduction in water content and, hence, water/cement ratio. Dhir et al(53) report the air and water permeability of superplasticised cement-reduced and water-reduced concretes of equal workability and conclude that, for a given strength or water/cement ratio, the superplasticised concrete had a lower air and water permeability than the corresponding unmodified concrete. The improvement in impermeability was in proportion to the reduction of water in the mix. The reduction in the permeability increased with increasing cement content and with increasing design strength of concrete.
f Costa et al(54)studied the permeability o Portland and pozzolanic cement pastes and of the cement-aggregate interface with and without superplasticisers. They report that the permeability of plain pastes depended on the type of cement, water/cement ratio, f curing and on the presence o superplasticiser. In most cases addition of superplasticiser in Portland cement paste without change to the water/cement ratio slightly increased the permeability at early ages but at later ages the permeability with and without the superplasticisers was similar. This effect was, however, less in pozzolanic cement. The permeability of the cement-aggregate interface without superplasticiser was much higher than that of the paste at early ages but reduced with increasing age and moist curing. Addition of superplasticiser is highly effective in reducing the interface permeability and, in most cases, the permeability of the superplasticised cement aggregate composite was very similar to that of the plain paste. They ascribe this improvement to the improved fluidity and adhesion of paste to the aggregate and to morphological changes to hydration products at the interface brought about by the use of superplasticisers.
There is a surprising lack of information on permeability considering its important effect on concrete durability. It is recommended that data should be obtained on the effects of superplasticisers on the permeability characteristics of concretes made with different types of cements and mineral admixtures.
4.7.2 Chloride diffusion:

Lukas(55) compared the chloride penetration in superplasticised flowing and waterreduced concretes, with and without air entrainment, to that of normal controlled concrete of similar water/cement ratio and concluded that:
1.
2.
The chloride penetration decreased with a decrease in the water/cement ratio of concrete (water-reduced concrete). Concretes made from superplasticised blended cements (blastfurnace slag, fly ash) showed considerably less chloride penetration than their non-superplasticised controls. The penetration was also less than that obtained with superplasticised unblended Portland cement. Chloride diffusion in both superplasticised flowing concrete and water-reduced f concrete was considerably smaller than that o control concrete of similar consistency.
3.
13
Dhir(53) reported a marked improvement in the resistance to chloride penetration by the use of superplasticisers. This improvement was achieved when superplasticisers were used to produce concretes of similar workability by either reducing cement contents or reducing water/cement ratio.
Haque et al(56) investigated the chloride penetration into superplasticised concrete of high, medium and low strengths with and without fly ash. After 91 day immersion in a chloride solution the chloride ion concentrations in superplasticised concretes were lower than that of concretes without superplasticiser. With the addition of fly ash and superplasticiser the chloride concentration w s markedly reduced from that o a f superplasticised concrete without fly ash. Malhotra(l4) also reported a reduction in the chloride permeability of superplasticised high fly ash concretes compared to that of the controls. 4.7.3 Carbonation: Very limited information is available on the carbonation rates of superplasticised concrete. The main factor that limits the rate of carbonation is the water/cement ratio. In flowing concretes, where the water/cement ratio of superplasticised concrete is similar to that of its base, the carbonation rates are expected to be similar in both case. When used in the water-reducing mode, the carbonation rate is reduced in proportion to the reduction in water/cement/ratio. Dhir et al(53) report that both normal and superplasticised concretes exhibit a similar trend with regard to the effect of strength in reducing the depth of carbonation. Rates o carbonation of the superplasticised concrete were, however, lower for a given design f strength than the corresponding normal concretes of equal workability. Artigues et al(57) studied the combined effects of addition of microsilica and water reducing admixtures on the carbonation resistance of concretes. They concluded that all superplasticisers used in the study reduced the depth of carbonation. The extent of influence was, however, dependent on the type of superplasticiser; MLS and Carboxylic polymer base superplasticisers showed greater effectiveness than those based on SNF and SMF based superplasticisers. In a recent study BREBCA study(68) measurements after 4 years f exposure show no significant differences in carbonation depths o superplasticised flowing concrete and its control. 4.7.4 Corrosion of reinforcement: There is only meagre information available on the long-term effect of superplasticisers on the corrosion of reinforcement. Hattori(32) reported that incorporation of SNF type superplasticiser in concrete does not lead to any significant rusting of reinforcement up to an age of five years; reinforcement in nonsuperplasticised concrete experienced some rusting in the same period. Goma et al(58)studied the electrochemical properties of superplasticised concretes at early ages and reported that use of superplasticisers does not modify these properties, indicating their neutrality towards the kinetics of corrosion. Yilmaz et al(59)found a marked reduction in the soluble chloride ion concentration in the pore fluid of Portland cement mortar containing superplasticisers suggesting chlorination of superplasticiser and subsequent adsorption by hydration products. Partial chloride
14
removal by this process resulted in reduced corrosion rates of steel indicating a beneficial effect of superplasticisers in controlling chloride-induced corrosion. 4.7.5 Freeze thaw durability and frost resistance:
It is well known that for satisfactory freeze-thaw durability. concrete should contain sufficient air within a closely spaced air-void system as specified in various documents (spacing factor of less than 0.20 mm). Superplasticisers tend to produce concrete with some entrained air and the amount of air entrainment depends on the type and dosage of the superplasticiser. Investigations on the freeze-thaw durability of non-ajr-entrained flowing concrete showed an inferior performance of such concretes compared to their control(l2,16). By using either modified superplasticisers or with an air-entraining admixtures the same workers showed that there was no significant difference between the frost resistance of the air entrained control and air entrained superplasticised concrete(12,16,44,60). Various other studies have reported satisfactory freeze-thaw durability for air entrained flowing concretes containing SMF, SNF and MLS type superplasticisers compared to the control air entrained concrete made with the same water/cement ratio(9,19,26,44). Nevertheless, conflicting data are given in the literature for the air-void parameters, especially in relation to the spacing factor of high workability air-entrained concrete containing superplasticisers. Several researchers report(61,62) an increase in spacing factor in high workability supeqplasticised concrete as compared with the nonsuperplasticised control, while other(63) report a similar spacing factor in both cases. Nevertheless, the majority of reports indicate adequate freezing and thawing resistance inspite of a substantial increase in the spacing factor well beyond the 0.20 limit. A recent investigation(28) reports the results of a study carried out on the influence of superplasticisers on the air-void system and on the freeze-thaw durability. The author concludes that addition of superplasticisers impaired the pore distribution in air-entrained concrete, producing a larger proportion of pores greater than 0.5 mm and also increased the spacing factor compared to non-superplasticised air-entrained concrete. He also found that a higher air content is required in superplasticised concrete compared to that of control to achieve similar freeze thaw resistance. Concretes with and without superplasticiser exhibited adequate resistance to de-icing salts provided the spacing factor did not exceed 0 . 2 4 mm. Saucier et al(29) conducted field tests on the effects of superplasticisers on the stability of air-void system, and report that SMF and SNF based superplasticisers create large discrepancies in the air content and spacing factor relationship and some times de-stabilise the air-void system without any significant variation in air content. They suggest tests that tests should be made to determine the suitability and compatibility of their materials (cement, plasticisers and air-entraining agents) and their ability to produce an adequate and stable airlvoid system. Attiogbe et al(64)studied the influence of air-void parameters on freeze thaw durability of superplasticised concrete, and found that properly air-entrained concrete can have adequate freeze-thaw durability at spacing factors greater than the 0.20 mm recommended by ACI provided the recommended minimum specific surface values are satisfied. They also conclude that for adequate scaling resistance in the presence of de-
15
icing salts, the concrete should have the same characteristics of the air-void system near the surface as in the bulk concrete. This emphasises the importance of proper casting and finishing procedures for enhanced scaling resistance. There appears to be considerable difference in the reported findings on the relationship between freezezthaw durability and the parameters of air-void system. It is therefore f recommended that further work on the freeze-thaw durability o superplasticised f concretes with different types o cement be carried out. The data would provide a basis for the modification of existing requirements of air-void system for freeze-thaw durability.
4.7 .'6 Sulphate resistance:

Very limited information is available on the effect o superplasticisers on the sulphate f resistance of concrete. Brooks et al(45)investigated the properties of superplasticised flowing concrete exposed to magnesium sulphate solutions of 3% SO, content. Durability was monitored by the determination of changes in weight, length, and dynamic modulus. They concluded that the performance of superplasticised concrete was similar to that of the control concrete. Mailvagnum et al(65)investigated the sulphate resistance of mortars containing a superplasticiser (in flowing and water reduced modes) made with different cements and blends o fly ash and blastfurnace slag, and concluded that the f concrete made with blended Portland cements (with 30%replacement by fly ash or slag) and superplasticisers gave a similar resistance to sulphate attack compared to that obtained with sulphate resistant cements. The degree of attack was significantly less in comparison with mortars made from conventional water reducing admixtures.
5.0 LONG TERM PERFORMANCE

Very limited data is available on the long term performance of superplasticised concrete under service conditions. Although results have been reported on the long-term stability of strength(32,Z) not much information is available on the carbonation or corrosion resistance under different exposure conditions. Based on test results of cores taken from a wall and floor of a 11year old building, Hattori(32) has reported a continuous increase in strength of superplasticised concrete well beyond one year. Strength data reported on concrete containing SMF superplasticiser up to an age of six years also indicates no reduction in long term strength(2). A recent study reports the investigations carried out on existing concrete bridges, highway pavements and cores extracted from these structures to assess the relationship between durability and air-void characteristics of concrete containing high range water reducers(66). The authors concluded that:
1.
Superplasticisers by themselves do not have any deleterious effects on the surface durability of Portland cement concrete exposed to freeze thaw environment and de-icing salts. Behaviour of superplasticised concrete was similar to control concrete without admixtures. Properly air-entrained low water/cement ratio concretes with or without plasticiser, that are workable and easy to place and finish have similar durability under severe environmental conditions.
2.
16
3.
Water/cement ratio, amount of entrained air removed from the surface and the air bubbles spacing factor in the concrete as whole had a significant effect on the scaling resistance of concrete.
,
4.
Characteristics o air-void system as determined by ASTM C 457 showed no f correlation with the durability of surfaces. Although spacing factors and specific surfaces in many of the superplasticised concretes failed to meet the minimum guidelines established by the American Concrete Institute, other factors such as water/cement ratio and amount of detrained air from the surface had a greater influence on durability than the air-void characteristics in the bulk concrete.
The data, however limited, may be considered to indicate that there is no long-term detrimental effect resulting from the use of superplasticisers as for as the gain in strength is concerned. It is pointed out that long-term laboratory and in-service data are very limited. Such information may possibly be available from the manufacturers and suppliers and it is suggested that specific information and advice should be obtained from them as required. It is also recommended that studies should be carried out to collect data on the durability and performance of superplasticised concretes under different exposure conditions. 6.0 DISCUSSION From the review of published information, it is clear that there is a general consensus on the following effects of superplasticisers on the properties and performance of concrete:
1.
2.
Superplasticisers of SMF, SNF and MLS types can be successfully used to produce flowing concrete with properties similar to that of the base concrete. Due to the fact that superplasticisers do not markedly lower the surface tension of water they can be used at high dosages without excessive air entrainment. Hence full advantage can be obtained from the potential water-reducing effects in terms of high early and later strength. They suffer from rapid loss of workability after initial improvement. This, however, can be overcome. At normal dosage levels, the strength gain with age of superplasticised concrete is similar to that o non-superplasticised concrete, and these strengths are retained f over periods of at least 10 to 15 years. Properties o hardened concrete such as compressive strength, elastic modulus, f creep, shrinkage, and thermal expansion o superplasticised flowing concrete are f similar to that of control concrete. When used in the water-reducing mode these properties are improved by the use of superplasticisers compared to that of nonsuperplasticised concrete of similar workability; these improvements are commensurate with the reduction in water/cement ratio,
3.
4.
5. .
6.
Freeze thaw durability of a non-air entrained superplasticised concrete is inferior to that obtained with non-superplasticised concrete. Nevertheless, the durability of air entrained superplasticised concrete is similar to that o the air entrained f control concrete made at the same water/cement ratio. Addition of superplasticiser does not have any detrimental effect on freeze thaw durability of air-entrajried concrete in the absence of de-icing salts.
f There is, however, contradictory observations, difference o opinion and lack of information on the following effects of superplasticisers:
1.
Effects of different types of superplasticisers on the extent of improvements in workability in concretes containing different types of cements and on the rate of loss of workability with time. Compatibility of superplasticisers with other mineral admixtures in cements such as fly ash, slag, silica fume and other fillers. Compatibility and performance of superplasticisers in the presence of other chemical admixtures such as retarders, air-entraining agents and water-proofers. Effect of superplasticiser on the air-void system and its influence on freeze thaw durability in the presence of de-icing salts. Effect on bleeding and segregation characteristics o concrete and a possible loss f o bond to reinforcement. f Effect of superplasticisers on the hydration of different cements; on the physical and chemical characteristics of hydration products and their implications for longterm durability under different exposure conditions.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7 .O
LDVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES
It is clear from this review that there are advantages in using superplasticisers for the production of concrete in both flowing and water-reducing mode. In the case of flowing mode:
1.
2.
Ease of placement in sections containing closely spaced and congested reinforcement.

Increased rate of placement and reduced compaction effort. Reduction of construction time. Utilisation of waste materials and low quality aggregates for concrete production.
3.
4.
18
In the case of water-reducing mode
1. 2.
High workability and strength at low water/cement ratios. High early strength for early formwork removal (especially in precast concrete. production). Low permeability and improved durability of concrete.
3.
Basically there appears to be no major disadvantages reported in the use of superplasticisers in concrete. Nevertheless, there are some problems which could create a barrier for their economical use. These are: 1.
2.
Rapid loss of slump and consequential problems o compliance with contractual f obligation for workability upon delivery to site. Reliable technology of superplasticised concrete production and transportation. Extra cost and effort in mix design and trial mixes. Compatibility of use in conjunction with other admixtures. Lack of information on construction costs and service-life cost of structures made from superplasticised concrete.
3.
4.
5.
8.0 RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FURTHER WORK

It is clear from the review that there are certain areas where there is insufficient or contradicting information on the effects of superplasticisers on the performance o f concrete. It is recommended that further research be set up to study the following aspects :
1.
2.
Use of superplasticisers in the production of high strength and high performance concrete. Compatibility between superplasticisers and cements blended with mineral admixtures. Compatibility and performance of superplasticisers in the presence of retarders, air-entraining and other admixtures. Collection of data on water, gas permeability and salt ingress into superplasticised concrete. Effect o superplasticisers on the. air-void system of air-entrained concrete and its f influence on freeze-thaw durability.
3.
4.
5.
19
6.
Long-term performance o concrete containing superplasticisers under different f exposure conditions. Development of new type of superplasticisers for the production of high workability concrete with improved slump retention characteristics and stable airvoid system. Economics of using superplasticisers to produce concretes of high strength and high durability.
7.
8.
It is well recognised that the use of superplasticisers, and the particular mode o f application, will depend on the construction requirements of any particular project. It is recommended that the use of superplasticisers, where appropriate, should be encouraged to obtain economic advantage in the cost of construction for an enhanced durability and performance in service. The use o superplasticisers in water-reducing f mode, resulting in low water/cement ratio for similar cement contents, is highly desirable f for improved durability. Nevertheless, it is also worth exploring the possibility o using superplasticisers for the production of water and cement-reduced concrete without adversely affecting the durability. The reduction in cement content will not only recoup some of the cost of superplasticised concrete but may also be beneficial in reducing the risk of thermal cracking and alkali-silica reaction. It is also recommended that a working party consisting of members from cement manufacturers, admixture producers, ready-mixed concrete suppliers, contractors, consultants and researchers be set up to produce a guidance document on methods of selection o the type of superplasticiser, dosage rate and mixing techniques and on site f construction practices for achieving improved durability and performance of different type of cementitious systems.
9.0 REFERENCES
1. Quinion, E.W. 'Superplasticisers in concrete - a review of international experience of longterm reliability', CIRIA report 6 2 , 1976. Construction Industry Research and Information Association, UK. Superplasticising Admixtures in Concrete. Cement and Concrete Association and Cement Admixture Association joint working party report 45.030, 1976, published by Cement and Concrete Association UK. Meyer, A. 'Experience in the use of superplasticisers in concrete in Germany', Superplasticisers in Concrete, American Concrete Institute, SP-62, 1979, pp 21-36. Roy, D.M. Asaga, K. 'Rheological properties of cement pastes', Cement and and Concrete Research, Vol 10, 1980, pp 387-394. Kreijger , P.C , 'Plasticising and dispersing admixtures', Proceedings of International Congress on Admixtures, CI80, London, April 1980.
20
2.
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Ramachandran,V.S. 'Influence of superplasticisers on the hydration of cement' , 3rd International Congress on polymers in concrete, Japan, Vol 2, 1981, pp
1071-1081. 7.
Ramachandran, V.S. 'Adsorption and hydration behaviour of tricalcium aluminatewater and tricalcium aluminate-gypsum-water in the presence of superplasticisers' , American 'Concrete Institute Journal, 80, 1983, pp 235-241. Collepardi, M., Corradi, M. and Valente, M. 'Influence of polymerisation o f sulphonated naphthalene condensate and its interaction with cement' , Development in the Use of Superplasticisers, American Concrete Institute , SP-68, 1981, pp 485-498. American Concrete Institute. Superplasticisers in Concrete, Special publication SP-62, Detroit, 1979, pp 427. American Concrete Institute. Development in the use of Superplasticisers, Special Publication SP-68, Detroit, 1981, pp 561. Malhotra, V.M. 'Superplasticisers: their effect on fresh and hardened concrete' Concrete International: Design and Construction, Vol 3, No 5, May 1981, pp 66-81. Roberts, M.H. and Adderson,B.W. 'Tests on superplasticising admixtures for concrete', Magazine of Concrete Research, Vol 35, No 123, June 1983, pp
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Dhir, R.K. and Yap, A.W.F. 'Superplasticised flowing concrete: strength and deformation properties' , Magazine of Concrete Research , Vol 36 , No 129, December 1984, pp 203-215. Malhotra, V.M. 'Superplasticised fly ash concrete for structural application', Concrete International, American Concrete Institute, Vol 8, No 12, 1986, pp 28-31. Ramachandran,V.S. 'Use o plasticisers in concrete', II Cemento, Vol84, No 3, f 1987, pp 273-298. Dhir, R.K. and Yap, A.W.F. 'Superplasticised flowing concrete: Durability properties', Magazine of Concrete Research, Vol36, No 127, 1985, pp 99-111. CANMET/American Concrete Institute, Superplasticisers and Other Chemical Admixtures in Concrete, Editor, V.M. Malhotra. Proceedings of the Third International Conference, Ottawa, Canada, Special Publication SP-119, 1989. Admixtures for Concrete: Improvement of Properties, Proceedings of the International RILEM Symposium, Barcelona, May 14-17, 1990, Edited by E.Vasquez, published by Chapman and Hall.
I
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21
19.
Malhotra, V.M. and Malanka, D. 'Performance of superplasticisers in concrete: Laboratory investigation - Part I' , Superplasticisers in Concrete, SP-62, American Concrete Institute, Detroit, 1979, pp 209-243. Kasami, H., Ikeda,T. and Yamane, S. 'On workability and pumpability o f superplasticised concrete - experience in Japan' , Superplasticisers in Concrete, American Concrete Institute, SP-62, 1979, pp 67-85. Hewlitt, P.C. 'The concept of superplasticised concrete' , Superplasticisers in Concrete, American Concrete Institute, SP-62, 1979, pp 1-20 Mailvagnam, N.P. 'Factors influencing slump loss in flowing concrete', Superplasticisers in Concrete, American Concrete Institute, SP-62, 1979, pp 389-403. Quon, D.H.H. and Malhotra, V.M. 'Effect o superplasticisers on slump, strength, f and degree of conversion of high alumina cement concrete', Development in the Use of Superplasticisers,American Concrete Institute, SP-68,1981, pp 173-187. Yamamoto, Y. and Kobayashi, S. 'Effect of temperature on the properties of superplasticised concrete' , American Concrete Institute Journal, Jan-Feb 1986, Proc. VoT 83 No 1, pp 80-87. Edmeads, R.M. and Hewlitt, P.C. 'Superplasticised concrete - high workability retention', Proc. Int. Cong. on Admixtures, Concrete International, 1980, London.
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f Ghosh, R.S. and Malhotra, V.M. 'Use o superplasticisers as water reducers', Cement, Concrete and Aggregates, ASTM, Vol 1,No 2, 1979, pp 21-36.
MacInnis, C. and Racic, D. 'The effect of superplasticisers on the entrained airvoid system in concrete', Cement and Concrete Research, Vol 16, 1986, pp 345-352. Siebel, E. 'Air-void characteristics and freezing and thawing resistance of superplasticised air-entrained concrete with high workability' , American Concrete Institute SP-119, 1989, pp 297-319. Saucier, F., Pigeon, M. and Plante, P. 'Air-void stability, Part 111: Field tests of superplasticisedconcretes', American Concrete Institute Materials Journal, Vol87, No 1,January-February 1987, pp 3-11. Dhir, R.K. and Yap, A.W.F. 'Superplasticised high workability concrete: some properties in fresh and hardened states', Magazine of Concrete Research, Vol35, No 135, December 1983, pp 214-228.
28.
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22
31.
, 'Effect of superplasticisers on Cabrera, J.G.Cusens, A.R. and Brookes-Wang, Y. the plastic shrinkage of concrete', Magazine of Concrete Research , September 1992, VOI 44, NO 160, pp 149-155.
32.
Hattori, K. 'Experiences with Mighty superplasticisers in Japan', American Concrete. institute, Superplasticisers in Concrete, SP-62, 1979, pp 37-66. Ramachandran, V.S. 'Admixture and addition interactions in cement-water system', I1 Cemento, Vol83, No 1, 1986, pp 158-165. Khalil, S.M. and Ward, M.A. 'Effect of sulphate content of cement upon heat evolution and slump loss of concrete containing high range water reducers (superplasticisers)', Magazine of Concrete Research, Vol 33, No 32, 1981, pp 28-38. Collepardi, M., Corradi, M. and Valente, M. 'Low slump loss superplasticised concrete' , Transportation Research Record No 720, Transportation Research Board, 1979, pp 7-12. Seabrook, P.T. and Malhotra, V.M. 'Accelerated strength testing of superplasticised concrete and the effect of repeated doses of superplasticisers on properties of concrete' Superplasticisers in Concrete, American Concrete Institute, SP-62, 1979, pp 263-292. Ramachandran, V.S. 'Effect of retarderdwater reducers on slump loss in superplasticised concrete' , Development in the Use of Superplasticisers , American Concrete Institute, SP-68, 1981, pp 393-408. Mor, A. and Mehta, P.K. 'Effect of superplasticising admixtures on cement hydration', Cement and Concrete Research, 1984,Vol 14, No 5, September, pp 754-756. Ramachandran, V.S. Concrete Admixtures Handbook, Noys Publications, New Jersey, 1984, 211-214. Yilmaz, V.T. and Glasser, F.P. 'Influence of sulphonated melamine formaldehyde superplasticiser on cement hydration' , Advances in Cement Research, 1989,Vol 2, NO 7, July, pp 111-119 Yilmaz, V.T. and Glasser, F.P. 'Crystallisation of calcium hydroxide in the presence of sulphonated melamine formaldehyde super plasticiser' , Journal of Material Science Letters, Aignesberger, A. and Kern, A. 'Use of melamine-based superplasticiser as a water reducer' , Development in the Use of Superplasticisers, American Concrete Institute, SP-68, 1981, pp 61-81.
33. 34.
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39.
40.
41.
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23
43. Ryan, W .G. and Munn, R.L. 'Some experiences in Australia with superplasticising admixtures', Superplasticisers in Concrete, American Concrete Institute, SP-62, 1979, pp 123-136.
44.
Perenchio, W.F., Whiting, D.A. and Kantro, D.L. 'Water reduction, slump loss and entrained air-void systems as influenced by superplasticisers' , Superplasticisers in Concrete, American Concrete Institute, SP-62, 1979, pp 137-155. Brooks, J.J. , Wainwright, P.J. and Neville, A., 'Timedependent properties of concrete containing a superplasticiser', Superplasticisers in Concrete, American Concrete Institute, SP-62, 1979, pp 293-301. Brooks, J.J., Wainwright, P.J. and Neville, A.M. 'Timedependent behaviour of high-early-strength concrete containing a superplasticiser' , Development in the Use o Superplasticisers, American Concrete Institute, SP-68, 1981, pp 81-100. f Charif, H., Haccoud, J.P. and Alou, F. 'Reduction of deformation with the use of concrete admixtures' , Admixtures for concrete: Improvement o properties, f Proceedings of International RILEM Symposium, Barcelona, 1990, Edited by E. Vazquez, Published by Chapman and Hall, London, pp 402-428. Brooks, J.J. , 'Influence of mix proportions, plasticiser and superplasticisers on creep and dying shrinkage of concrete', Magazine of Concrete Research, Vol41, No 148, September 1989, pp 145-153. Collepardi, N.and Corradi, M. 'Influence of naphthalene-sulphonated polymer based superplasticisers on the strength of ordinay and lightweight concretes, Superplasticisers in Concrete, American Concrete Institute, SP-62 , 1979, pp 315-336. Brettmann, B.B., Darwin, D. and Donahey, R.C. 'Bond of reinforcement to superplasticised concrete', American Concrete Institute Journal, Vol83 , JanuaryFebruary 1986, pp 98-107. Carrasquillo, P.M. 'Pull out test on straight deformed bars in superplasticised concrete', ACI Materials Journal, Vol 85, No 2, 1988, pp 90-94. Lee, D., Yang, J.J.F. and Klaiber, F.W. 'Fatigue behaviour of superplasticised concrete', Cement, Concrete and Aggregates, Vol 7, No 1,Summer 1985, p p 19-24. Dhir, R.K., Tham, K. and Dransfield, J . 'Durability of concrete with a superplasticising admixture', Concrete Durability, K. and B. Mather International Conference, American Concrete Institute, SP-100, 1987, pp 741-764.
45.
46.
47.
48.
49.
50.
51.
52.
53.
24
54.
Costa, U., Facoetti, M. and Massaza, F, 'Permeability of the cement-aggregate interface: Influence of the type of cement, water/cement ratio and superplasticiser', Admixtures for concrete: Improvement of properties, Proceedings of International RILEM Symposium, Barcelona, 1990, Edited by E. Vazquez; Published by Chapman and Hall, London, pp 392-401. Lukas, W. 'Chloride penetration in standard concrete, water-reduced concrete, and superplasticised concrete'. Development in the Use of Superplasticisers, American Concrete Institute, SP-68, 1981, pp 253-268. Haque, M.N., Kayyali, O.A. and Gopalan, M.K., 'Fly ash reduces harmful chlorides ions in concrete', American Concrete Institute, Materials Journal, 1992, Artigues, J.C., Corrode, J. and Iglesias, E. 'Impermeability and resistance to carbonation of concrete with microsilica and water-reducing agents', Admixtures for concrete: Improvement of properties, Proceedings of International RILEM Symposium, Barcelona, 1990, Edited by E. Vazquez, Published by Chapman and Hall, London, pp 229-240. Goma, F., Vivar, J. and Mauri, J. 'Influence of plasticisers on the corrosion of reinforcing bars in concrete', Admixtures for concrete: Improvement of properties, Proceedings of International RILEM Symposium, Barcelona, 1990, Edited by E. Vazquez, Published by Chapman and Hall, London, pp 289-298. Yilmaz, V.T., Sagoe-Crentsil, K.K. and Glasser, F.P. 'The effect of commercial superplasticisers on CI- ion partitioning in OPC mortar and its implication for the corrosion o steel embedded in concrete', Advances in Cement Research, April f 1992, VOI 4, NO 14, pp 75-80. Mather, B. 'Tests on high-range water-reducing admixture', Superplasticisers in Concrete, American Concrete Intitute, SP-62, 1979, pp 75-80. Litvan, G.G. 'Air entrainment in the presence o superplasticisers', ACI Journal, f VOI 80, No.4, July-August 1983, pp 326-331. Malhotra, V.M. 'Mechanical properties and freezing and thawing resistance of non-air-entrained, air-entrained and air-entrained superplasticised concrete using ASTM test C-666', Cement, Concrete and Aggregates, Vol 4, No 1, 1982, pp 3-23. Mukherji, P.K. and Chojnacki, B. 'Laboratory investigation of a concrete superplasticising admixture', Superplasticisers in Concrete, American Concrete Institute, SP-62, 1979, pp 245-262. Attiogbe, E.K., Nmai, C.K. and Gay, F.T. 'Air-void system parameters and freezethaw durability of concrete containing superplasticisers' , ACI Concrete International, July 1992, pp 57-61. 25
55.
56.
57.
58.
59.
60.
61.
62.
63.
64.
65.
Mailvagnum, N.P. , Bhagrath, R.S. and Shaw, K.L. 'Sulphate resist nce o f mortars containing superplasticisers with fly ash or blast furnace slag', Development in the Use o Superplasticisers, American Concrete Institute, SP-68, f 1981, pp 535-556.
66.
Malhotr3'V.M. 'Superplasticisers: A global review with emphasis on durability and innovative concretes', CANMET/ACI, SP-119, Superplasticiser and Other Chemical Admixtures in Concrete, Proceedings o Third International Conference , f edited by V.M. Malhotra, 1989, pp 1-17. Dransfield, J.M. and Edmeades, R.M. Superplasticisers, Cement Admixtures: Use and Applications, Second Edition, Edited by Professor P.C. Hewlett, The Cement Admixtures Association, 1988, Published by Longman Group UK. pp 85-101. Brown, J.H. and Beeby, A.W. 'Exposure site carbonation depth measurements', British Cement Association report RE1.001.02, for Building Research Establishment, September 1992.
67.
68.
26
Figures
22 20
d I
18 16 14 12 10
0
4
8 -
I
0
I
0. 2
I
0.4
1
0.6
I
0.8
I
1.0
D O S A G E OF S U P E R P L A S T I C I Z E R , % OF CEMENT W E I G H T
Figure 1 . KI'fect of dosage of superplasticizer on slump of concrete (20).
200190
51
180170160-
0 = 0 =
Highdosage Medium dosage
= Lowdosage
150-
2 0
c
140-
130-
s-
120-
a 110-
f :1 0 0 80
90-
70
40
AGE OFCONCRETE BEFORE ADMIXTURE ADDITION
30
to
1;
;O
25
35
*o
45 50(minr)
37
AGE OF CONCRETE BEFORE ADMIXTURE ADDITION
I
I
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
5O(mins)
Figure2. Effect of age of concrete on capability to be Fluidified by superplasticiser addition (2).
2
K
O-O4I
Superplasticizer M Superplasticizer A
0 Superplasticizer N
E
5 n 9 n
U) U)
!0.03-
B
0.02-
8 g <
Q)
0.01-
Slump : 8cm(Bare)
L*%
+
l8cm
g
2 0
0
10
20
90
40
TEMPERATURE,
Figure3. Dosage of superplasticiser as affected by temperature (24)
I
//
I
0 /
/
/
W
E -
c3
IZERS
I
2
0
0-0
O--O
&--A
SNF MLS SMF
I
1
I
2
I
3
:
I
S U P E R P L A S T I C I Z E R B Y W E I G H T O F C E M E N T . 9b
Figure 4. Effect of superplasticiser on the initial setting time of concrete (19).
2 W
0
a a . a- 4
W
W U
= a wu G
<
W Q
TYPE
L
W
I CE MENT
a
W
a W a
L W
E U
a a
a
<
0 2
k
a
U c a
p!
E L W 2
m 0I
t a
5 Q
n
7
TYPE
2
XI CEMENT
TYPE
CEMENT
2
0 W
c
W
a
W
E O
W
W I
Figure 5 . Iileeding characteristics of reference and superplasticised Concretes (26)
0 SMF Admixture
SNF Admixture
w:c = 0.50 gravel agg cement cont. = 300kglm'.
0 Control
I
0: 0
I 1 T I M E (hours)
I 2
I 3
Figure 6. Time-dependance of high workability for concretes containing categories S M F and SNF admixtures (2).
BS 1881
PI 105 FLOW MM 650
600
PI 102 SLUMP MM
550
500
TIME AFTER MIXING (HOURS)
Figure 7. Retention of high workability by different categories of superplasticiser- A(SMF), B(SNF) and C(MLS) (67).
. ...
12
cn 10 W
t
0
Superplasticizer MELMENT L10 - 300

250 200 I 150 100
50
10
...g
g6
cn4
2
0
20 30 40 50 60 70 ELAPSED TIME, MINUTES
8 C
12
Superplasticizer = MIGHTY 150

300 250
cn 10 W
$ 6
3n 4 c
2
0 0
10
100
50
20 30 40 50 60 70 ELAPSED TIME, MINUTES
80 0
12
k
A
Superplasticizer
MULCOPLAST CF - 300 250 200
150
100 2 50
10
O' (C)
20
30 40
50
60
70
8 C
ELAPSED TIME, MINUTES
Figure 8. Loss of slump with time; A(SMF), B(SNF), C(MLS) type superplasticisers (19).
p1
100
B c3
v)
LJ
80
60
-.
2
W
p1
z
40
\ \
x
L
I
A
4-
15'.5'C M-LI 22'.0C M-Ll 32O.O0C M-LI 32'.0C M-RI
20
1
I
Figure 9. Effect of variation in temperature on slump loss(22).
Compressive strength (N/mm)
without with 1.5% superplasticizer

watedcement ratio = 0.47

watedcement ratio = 0.42

water/cement ratio = 0.38
without
with 4.5%
superplasticizer
waterkement ratio = 0.37
Figure 10. Strength development of high-strength flowing concrete containing melamine-based superplasticizer (Melment L 10) compared with concretes made with 400 kg of ordinary portland cement per m3 in the stiff to soft workability ranges (25-100 mm slump).
N/mm2
P .
c
Concrete with 350 kg Portland cement with high C3A content (C,A = tricalcium aluminate)
with 3% Superplasticizer
44 Fi
0 without Superplasticizer
cn
2 4d-30--
363
.?
v)
v)
9)
1 day
3 days
7days
l
time
~
49,O
28 days
N/mm2
= 0
Concrete with 350 kg high sulphate resistance Portland cement

with 3% Superplasticizer without Superplasticizer 39.5 34,O
v)
.?
v)
v)
9)
31 ,O
30--
1 day
3 days
7days
I_
28 days time 42.5 ,~
N/mm2
r, 50 m F L 40-c
v)
= 0
Concrete with 350 kg Portland cement with high proportion of slag

with 3% Superplasticizer without Superplasticizer
1 day
= 0
3 days
7days
28days
water:content ratio = 0.4 water:content ratio = 0.5
Figure 11. Increase in strength by adding superplasticizer (Melment L 10)
80
70
60
so
40
30
20
I
AGE, days
14
20
30
Figure 12. The variation in strength development of constant initial slump concrete with SMF superplasticiser (43).
CONTROLS
10
S NF
SMF
70
( P
60
I c
E
I
t -
50
W
a z
W
e
W
40
v ,
W
v)
>
>
30
W
v)
m
W
e
11
0
0
5
0
0
10
0 0.3
0
0.4
0.5
0.6
0. 7
WIC RATIO, BY WEIGHT
Figure 13. Concrete compressive strength development with and without superplasticisers (44),
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Building Research Establishment Keview

SuDerdasticisers in concrete: a review

Amjad Ali, BE, BTech, MPhil

Building Research Establishment Garston Watford

SUPERPLASTICISERS IN CONCRETE - A REVIEW

SUPERPLASTICISERS IN CONCRETE - A REVIEW: By Amjad Ali

2.0 BACKGROUND INFORMATION

2.1 Types of superplasticiser

2.1.2. Sulphonated naphthalene-formaldehyde condensate (SNF):

2.2 Mode of action of superplasticiser:

2.3 Methods of use:

EFFECTS OF SUPERPLASTICISERS ON PROPERTIES OF FRESH CONCRETE

3.2 Setting times:

3.3 Air content:

3.5 Slump loss:

3.6 Cement hydration:

EFFECTS OF SUPERPLASTICISERS ON PROPERTIES OF HARDENED CONCRETE

4.7.2 Chloride diffusion:

4.7 .'6 Sulphate resistance:

5.0 LONG TERM PERFORMANCE

LDVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES

Ease of placement in sections containing closely spaced and congested reinforcement.

In the case of water-reducing mode

8.0 RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FURTHER WORK

Figure 1 . KI'fect of dosage of superplasticizer on slump of concrete (20).

Highdosage Medium dosage

AGE OFCONCRETE BEFORE ADMIXTURE ADDITION

Figure2. Effect of age of concrete on capability to be Fluidified by superplasticiser addition (2).

Figure3. Dosage of superplasticiser as affected by temperature (24)

SNF MLS SMF

Figure 4. Effect of superplasticiser on the initial setting time of concrete (19).

Figure 5 . Iileeding characteristics of reference and superplasticised Concretes (26)

TIME AFTER MIXING (HOURS)

Superplasticizer MELMENT L10 - 300

20 30 40 50 60 70 ELAPSED TIME, MINUTES

Superplasticizer = MIGHTY 150

MULCOPLAST CF - 300 250 200

ELAPSED TIME, MINUTES

15'.5'C M-LI 22'.0C M-Ll 32O.O0C M-LI 32'.0C M-RI

Figure 9. Effect of variation in temperature on slump loss(22).

Compressive strength (N/mm)

without with 1.5% superplasticizer

without with 2.5% superplasticizer

without with 3.5% superplasticizer

Concrete with 350 kg high sulphate resistance Portland cement

Concrete with 350 kg Portland cement with high proportion of slag

water:content ratio = 0.4 water:content ratio = 0.5

Figure 11. Increase in strength by adding superplasticizer (Melment L 10)

WIC RATIO, BY WEIGHT

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