Language and culture I unit 1 PUNTO 1.

.1 LAS LENGUAS DEL MUNDO FAMILY OF LANGUAGES: group of languages which come from a parent language. We talk about local dialects if the separation between the two languages is slight, but if the separation is considerable, we talk about two different languages. They are unintelligible between them although they come from the same root. They have the same ancestor. But even in separated languages we can find similarities which indicate that in one time they were the same language e.g. father (English), pater (latin), pitr (Sanskrit), vater (German), patr (greek). The historical linguistics shows by comparing them that they belong to the same family of languages. And the discovery of Sanskrit was very important in this matter. (in the reconstruction of the indo European family) The comparative method shows this. Later, a German philologist called Grimm stablished correspondences between the Germanic languages and those found in Sanskrit or Latin e.g. the p in Latin changes to f in Germanic languages (pater father) Each family may be divided in minor languages or branches. The common ancestor is often called PROTOLANGUAGE. (for example the protolanguage proto-indo European gave birth to the indo - European family of languages There are more than 6500 languages in the world. There are a great number of families of languages, too. Some of them are: AFRICA AND ORIENTE: AFRO- ASIATIC, CAMITOSEMITICS, ETC EUROPE AND SOUTH OF ASIA: INDOEUROPEAN, CAUCASIC, URALIC, ETC AUSTRALIA: ABORIGEN OF AUSTRALIA (PAMA- YUNGANS) NEW GUINEA: PAPUA AMERICA: CHIBCHA, SIUX, UTO AZTEC, ETC THE INDO EUROPEAN FAMILY: it is called indo European to show the geographical area. It is also called ARYAN and Indo Teutonic. BRANCHES:

INDIAN BRANCH: Sanskrit (the ancient Indian language of the sacred books called Vedas of the Brahman philosophy, 1500 BC) alongside Sanskrit, there were the prakrits or non sacred dialects e.g. Pali (lang. of the Buddism). From these descended the modern Hindi, Urdu and Bengali From India, Pakish and Bangladesh). IRANIAN BRANCH: (NW OF INDIA AND IRAN) AVESTAN: the lang. of the sacred book of the Zoroastrians called zend too) OLD PERSIAN: CUNEIFORM INSCRIPTIONS RELATED TO Darius and xerxes times. A later form was Pahlavi, ancestor of the modern Persian. Today Afghan or Pushtu are spoken. ARMENIAN BRANCH: South of the Caucassus and Eastern end of the black see. HEL LENIC BARANCH: (Aegean area, Greece, Asia Minor, Crete, etc) In Greece for example was developed the literature language of the Homeric poems (Iliad and the Odissey). In Greece there were 5 principal languages: Ionic (one of them was Attic, lang of Athens) , Aeolic, Arcadian- Cyprian, Doric and north west Greek. Among these, the Attic was very important because it was used for purposes of international communication, a kind of lingua franca. Today, 2 varieties of Geek are spoken in Greece: demotic or popular and Pure Greek. ALBANIAN BRANCH: NW of Greece, there is little knowledge about it. ITALIC BRANCH: mainly in Italy where there were many languages coexisting as Latin, Greek, Venetic, exept for Etruscan. The languages which represents the survival of the Latin are called ROMANIC LANGUAGES (French, Spanish, Portuguese, Italian) It is the ROMANCE GROUP. There are some minor dialects as CATALAN in Spain and WALLOON in Belgium. BALTO SLAVIC BRANCH: Eastern part of Europe.

A BALTIC: Prussian (extincted), Lettish (Latvia) and Lithuanian. B SLAVIC: East Slavic (Russian Great, white and little Russian are the varieties, west Slavic which is represented by Czech, Polish and South Slavic as serbo, Bulgarian, Croatian or Slovenian) * THE GERMANIC BRANH: East Germanic(Gothic, extincted), North Germanic( Sacandinavian, Danish or old norse) and West Germanic ( English or German)

* CELTIC BRANCH: Goul, Spain, GB; GERMANY; ITALY; ETC. It covered at first a vaste area. Today Celtic is found in a few areas very little ones in France or the British Isles. * RECENT DISCOVERIES: HITTITES(USED IN THE OLD TESTAMENT) AND TOCHORIAN WHICH IS FROM ASIA RESUME: INDO EUROPEAN BRANCHES 1 INDIAN 2 IRANIAN 3 ARMENIAN 4 HELLENIC(GREEK) 5 ALBANIAN 6 ITALIC (ROMANCE LANGUAGES) French, Spanish, Port, Italian. 7 BALTO(Prussian, Lettish and Lithuanian) SLAVIC(Russian, Polich, Czech) 8 GERMANIC: Engish, German, Dutch, extincted old norse and gothic 9 CELTIC: few places in GB and France. 10 HITTITE: old testament, cuneiform tablets) 11 - TACHORIAN Punto1.2: mixture of languages PIDGIN; CREOLE Punto1.6 DIALECTO, IDEOLECTO, REGISTRO, ACENTO LANGUAGE: system of communication in speech and writing that is used by people of a particular country. It is used for communicate ideas, thoughts, feelings, etc. according to Halliday is a continuum of dialects spoken within the borders of a state.(political point of view= nationfor these criteria, English and American aret the same language). A language is a particular kind of system for encoding and decoding information. Although some other animals make use of quite sophisticated communicative systems, and these are sometimes casually referred to as animal language, none of these are known to make use of all the properties that linguists use to define language. The properties of language: A key property of language is that its symbols are arbitrary. Kinds of languages: NATURAL LANGUAGES: Human languages are usually referred to as natural languages, and the science of studying them falls under the purview of linguistics. A common progression for natural languages is that they are considered to be first spoken and then written, and then an understanding and explanation of their grammar is attempted. Languages live, die, move from place to place, and change with time. Any language that ceases to change or develop is categorized as a dead language. Conversely, any language that is in a continuous state of change is known as a living language or modern language. ARTIFICIAL LANGUAGES: (CONSTRUCTED LANGUAGES) Some individuals and groups have constructed their own artificial languages, for practical, experimental, personal or ideological reasons. International auxiliary languages are generally constructed languages that strive to be easier to learn than natural languages; other constructed languages strive to be more logical ("loglangs") than natural languages; a prominent example of this is Lojban. Some writers, such as J. R. R. Tolkien, have created fantasy languages, for literary, artistic or personal reasons. The fantasy language of the Klingon race has in recent years been developed by fans of the Star Trek series, including a vocabulary and grammar. Constructed languages are not necessarily restricted to the properties shared by natural languages. This part of ISO 639 also includes identifiers that denote constructed (or artificial) languages. In order to qualify for inclusion, the language must have a literature and be designed for the purpose of human communication. Specifically excluded are reconstructed languages and computer programming languages.

To date, the most successful auxiliary language is Esperanto, invented by Polish ophthalmologist Zamenhof. It has a relatively large community roughly estimated at about two million speakers worldwide, with a large body of literature, songs, and is the only known constructed language to have native speakers, such as the Hungarian-born American businessman George Soros. Other auxiliary languages with a relatively large number of speakers and literature are Interlingua and Ido. FORMAL LANGUAGES: Mathematics and computer science use artificial entities called formal languages (including programming languages and markup languages, and some that are more theoretical in nature). These often take the form of character strings, produced by a combination of formal grammar and semantics of arbitrary complexity. ANIMAL LANGUAGES: The term "animal languages" is often used for non-human systems of communication. Linguists do not consider these to be "language", but describe them as animal communication, because the interaction between animals in such communication is fundamentally different in its underlying principles from human language.
.

LINGUISTICS: is the scientific study of language in general or of a particular language. A) THEORETICAL LINGUISTICS: cognitive ling, generative ling, phonology, morphology, syntax, lexis, semantics, pragmatics. B) DESCRIPTIVE LINGUISTICS: anthropological ling, comparative ling, etymology, historical, phonetics and sociolinguistics. C) APPLIED LINGUISTICS: computational linguistics, forensic, language assessment, etc. In sociolinguistics a variety, also called a lect, is a form of a language used by speakers of that language. This may include dialects, accents, registers, styles or other sociolinguistic variation, as well as the standard language variety itself.[1]( also ideolects.) (bailey and robinson) In the recent years, many linguistics considered that we cannot understand a language by studying only its formal and abstract system. We have to take account the context of its actual use and its functions. British linguistics hava emphasized with the ECOLOGICAL STUDY OF LANGUAGE. INSTITUTIONAL LINGUISTICS: according to Halliday, Mcintosh and Strevens is the study of language communities, their contact with one another, variations within the community, uses, purposes, interactions bt abstract forms and the feelings the members of the community feels about the lang, their senses of linguistic unit or division, prejudices, etc. The main topics of the institutional linguistics are: Topic 1 - Languages in contact Topic 2 - Dialect Topic 3 - Register Topic 4 - Attitude In linguistics people are grouped according the language they use. LANGUAGE COMMUNITY: group of people who use the same language e.g. the British, the Chinese, etc. For these criteria English, American, Canadian, Australian, etc are the same language community. Topic 1: Languages in contact When one community impinges on one another, a language contact situation is carried out. Each of these contact situations shows a different degree of bilingualism

BILINGUALISM: when the native speaker of one language, makes use of a second language partially. Also called L2 L1: native language AMBILINGUALISM: when the speaker has complete mastery of the two languages and makes use of both for all uses. It is rare. The contact situations may be: individual plane: when a speaker in contact with a new language may react by developing a degree of bilingualism. Language community plane: certain patterns tend to emerge because the two lang communities mix up. MIXTURES OF LANG COMMUNITIES: PIDGIN: those wich remain restricted for certain uses without never attaining the full resources of a language. A pidgin is a new language which develops in situations where speakers of different languages need to communicate but don't share a common language. The vocabulary of a pidgin comes mainly from one particular language (called the 'lexifier'). An early 'pre-pidgin' is quite restricted in use and variable in structure. But the later 'stable pidgin' develops its own grammatical rules which are quite different from those of the lexifier. (it has not got the status of a language, it is not L1 never) Once a stable pidgin has emerged, it is generally learned as a second language and used for communication among people who speak different languages. Examples are Nigerian Pidgin and Bislama (spoken in Vanuatu). CREOLE, CRIOLLO: because of the mixture it have developed into a new full language, uses for all uses, not restricted as pidgin is. Also linguistic borrowing, they may become L1 and it has the status of a full language used for all purposes) When children start learning a pidgin as their first language and it becomes the mother tongue of a community, it is called a creole. Like a pidgin, a creole is a distinct language which has taken most of its vocabulary from another language, the lexifier, but has its own unique grammatical rules. Unlike a pidgin, however, a creole is not restricted in use, and is like any other language in its full range of functions. Examples are Gullah, Jamaican Creole and Hawai`i Creole English. Note that the words 'pidgin' and 'creole' are technical terms used by linguists, and not necessarily by speakers of the language. For example, speakers of Jamaican Creole call their language 'Patwa' (from patois) and speakers of Hawai`i Creole English call theirs 'Pidgin.' In sierra Len or Hait children acquire creole as their L1. LINGUA FRANCA: when the language is adopted as the medium of some activities which the different language communities perform in common for that use which may be commerce, religion, technology, learning, etc. English is a lingua franca. Languages like Latin or Greek were lingua franca in the past but Latin now is a dead language because it stopped developing.

VARIETIES Topic 2: dialects

ACCORDING TO USERS = DIALECT ACCORDING TO USE = REGISTER

DIALECT: is a particular variety of language that a person learnt as L1. the people there share the same norms or conventions for language in use. According to the dictionary, the form of a language spoken in one area with grammar, vocabulary and pronunciation that may be different in from other forms of the same language. E.g. the Yorkshire dialect REGIONAL DIALECT: the dialect has to do with the area of the country the person come from. E.g. in china we can find the Cantonese, Pekinese, etc. but they are all Chinese. Different groups of people within the same language community, speak different dialects. ISOGLOSE: imaginary line which separates the areas of the regional dialects.

ACCENT: a way of pronouncing the words of a language that shows which country or area a person comes from e.g. strong Scottish accent, Dublin accent, Australian accent, etc. IDIOLECT /idiolekt/ the way that a particular person uses the language. The individual is the samallest unit of dialect, he has his own idiolect. The case of England But sometimes, the different dialects of a country are unintelligible each other. In the case of England, the dialects followed the familiar pattern at first. In the XV century, England was a continuum of regional dialects with some mutual unintelligibility. With the rise of modern state, a standard language was needed. (the London form of the Southeast Midland dialect. So, the correct orthography concept grew up. With this standard language appeared the fenomenom of accent (when the speaker speaks that foreign lang. with phonetic features of his native dialect. A persons speech is determined not only by the region he comes from, but also by the social class he comes from. The dialect structure of England can be represented by a pyramid: socio-regional delimitation of the language. vertical plane shows class horizontal plane shows region

No regional differenciation, neutral RP Dialect variety Accord to region diminishes Agricult and indust workers

Most languages have a standard variety; that is, some variety that is selected and promoted by either quasi-legal authorities or other social institutions, such as schools or media. Standard varieties are more prestigious than other, nonstandard varieties and are generally thought of as "correct" by speakers of the language. Since this selection constitutes an arbitrary standard, however, standard varieties are "correct" in the sense that they are highly valued within the society that uses the language. As linguist Harold Fasold puts it, "The standard language may not even be the best possible constellation of linguistic features available. It is general social acceptance that gives us a workable arbitrary standard, not any inherent superiority of the characteristics it specifies."[6] Sociolinguists generally recognize the standard variety of a language as one of the dialects of that language.[7] RP: received pronunciation. The standard form of British pronunciation based on educated speech in SE of England used to be tought in schools, media, etc. Topic 3: register REGISTER: variety of a language according to the use. It has to do to what people do with their language, in which context or situation. Certain kinds of language are appropriate for certain situations. While dialects tend to differ mainly in substance, register varies according to the form (it has to do with its grammar and lexis). A register (sometimes called a style) is a variety of language used in a particular social setting.[9] Settings may be defined in terms of greater or lesser formality,[10] or in terms of socially recognized events, such as baby talk, which is used in many western cultures when talking to small children, or a joking register used in teasing or playing the dozens.[9] There are also registers associated with particular professions or interest groups; jargon refers specifically to the vocabulary associated with such registers. Most speakers command a range of registers, which they use in different situations. The choice of register is affected by the setting and topic of speech, as well as the relationship that exists between the speakers.[11] The appropriate form of language may also change during the course of a communicative event as the relationship between speakers changes, or different social facts become relevant. Speakers may shift styles as their perception of

an event in progress changes. Consider the following telephone call to the Cuban Interest Section in Washington, DC. Caller: Es la embajada de Cuba? (Is this the Cuban embassy?) Receptionist: S. Dgame. (Yes, may I help you?) Caller: Es Rosa. (It's Rosa.) Receptionist: Ah Rosa! Cma anada eso? (Oh, Rosa! How's it going?)[11] At first, the receptionist uses a relatively formal register, as befits her professional role. After the caller identifies herself the receptionist recognizes that she is speaking to a friend, and shifts to an informal register of colloquial Cuban Spanish. This shift is similar to metaphorical code-switching, but since it involves styles or registers, is considered an example of style shifting.

Lexical examples: when a word identify certain registers. E.g. probein newspapers (investigation); spoonful in receips, etc. In lexical varieties we can talk about collocations too: the word kick is presumable neutral but free kick is from lang. of football for example. Grammatical examples: e.g. songs sometimes have their own grammar which characterizes them aint wanna dancin. Also we can find varieties in grammar in advertisements car wash in 10 here we observe restricted grammatical structure. There are different criteria to classify registers, according to Halliday the different registers have to do with FIELD OF DISCOURSE: it is the area of operation of the language activity. It takes account the whole event. E.g.if the activity is an academic seminar. The field of discourse may be technical or nontechnical. MODE OF DISCOURSE: the mode, medium of the language activity, related to the role played by language activity in certain situation. It may be SPOKEN e.g. sports commentaries or WRITTEN e.g. the language of literature which also has its variations as for example science fiction, light verse, etc. STYLE OF DISCOURSE: Relations among participants may be formal or informal. E.g. a president in a conference (formal) a chatting between two friends (informal). According to the dictionary: grammatical and lexical features of the individual writers language together with a few features of punctuation in a given register. (it is related to register) E.g. A lecture on Biology in a technical school will be in the scientific field, lecturer mode, polite formal style. But each situation could be replaced by another at any timein the same lecture may switch into the field of cinema, conversational mode, a man among colleagues style. So, according to the situation, the speaker can speak in many registers. He doesnt speak different dialects because it represents the total range of patterns used by his section of his lang. community. Ultimately, dialect and register meet in the single speech event = utterance (smallest institutional unit of the language activity).This intersection of idiolect and register provides an institutional definition of individual style. RESTRICTED REGISTERS, RESTRICTED LANGUAGE: restricted for a particular use or purpose. E.g. the international language of the air. Less restricted may be the case of legal documents, popular songs or weather forecasts. PARALINGUISTIC FEATURES: the style has to do here with the voice quality and handwriting. The language activity of one user in certain use is involved with dialect and register.

Topic 4: ATTITUDE: of the members of a particular language community towards their language and their varietites. It has to do with the judgements). E.g. a type of lang. that particularly attracts the adverse value judgements are the mixed languages. In England for example it is bound up with the socio regional dialects as class attitude = against the rural dialects or maybe against the Americans. The English tendency to linguistic intolerance is not confined to strictures on the sounds of language. Value judgements also refer to grammar. The social conventions appear here for what is acceptable or not for a group of it. In Britain, rules are made for speech as well as for writing. The speakers grammar contributes alongside his phonetics and phonology to his identification on the social scale.

Punto 1.3: El espaol Origen: indo European family, Italic branh, romance languages group. It wasoriginated in northern Spain and gradually spread in the Kingdom of Castile, evolving into the principal language of government and trade in the Iberian peninsula. Castilian evolved from several dialects and languages in the northern fringes of the Iberian Peninsula during the 10th century, now collectively termed Spanish. Latin, the basic foundation of the Spanish language, was introduced to the Iberian Peninsula by Romans during the Second Punic War around 210 BC. During the 5th century, Hispania was invaded by Germanic Vandals, Suevi, Alans, and Visigoths, resulting in numerous dialects of Vulgar Latin. After the Moorish Conquest in the 8th century, Arabic became an influence in the evolution of Iberian languages including Castilian. Modern Spanish developed with the Readjustment of the Consonants (es: Reajuste de las sibilantes del castellano) that began in 15th century. The language continues to adopt foreign words from a variety of other languages, as well as developing new words. Castilian was taken most notably to the Americas as well as to Africa and Asia Pacific with the expansion of the Spanish Empire between the fifteenth and nineteenth centuries. As of 2009, 329 million people speak Spanish as a native language. It is the second most spoken language in the world in terms of native speakers, after Mandarin Chinese.[1][2] Mexico contains the largest population of Spanish speakers. Spanish is one of the six official languages of the United Nations. HISTORY: Spanish evolved from Vulgar Latin introduced to the Iberian Peninsula by Romans during the Second Punic War around 210 BC, with some loan words from Arabic during the Andalusian period[3] and other surviving influences from Basque and Celtiberian, as well as Germanic languages via the Visigoths. Castilian is thought to have evolved in the northern fringes of the Iberian Peninsula during the 10th century along the remote crossroad strips among the Alava, Cantabria, Burgos, Soria and La Rioja provinces of Northern Spain (see Glosas Emilianenses), as a strongly innovative and differing variant from its nearest cousin, Leonese, with a higher degree of Basque influence in these regions (see Iberian Romance languages). Modern Spanish developed in Castile with the Readjustment of the Consonants (es:Reajuste de las sibilantes del castellano) during the 15th century. Typical features of Spanish diachronical phonology include lenition (Latin vita, Spanish vida), palatalization (Latin annum, Spanish ao, and Latin anellum, Spanish anillo) and diphthongation (stem-changing) of short e and o from Vulgar Latin (Latin terra, Spanish tierra; Latin novus, Spanish nuevo). Similar phenomena can be found in other Romance languages as well. This northern dialect from Cantabria was carried south during the Reconquista, and remains a minority language in the northern coastal Morocco. The first Latin-to-Spanish grammar (Gramtica de la lengua castellana) was written in Salamanca, Spain, in 1492, by Elio Antonio de Nebrija. When it was presented to Isabel de Castilla, she asked, "Para qu querra yo un trabajo como ste, si ya conozco la lengua?" ("What would I want a work like this for, if I already know the language?"), to which he replied, "Su alteza, la lengua es el instrumento del Imperio" ("Your highness, the language is the instrument of the Empire.")[citation needed] From the 16th century onwards, the language was taken to the Americas and the Spanish East Indies via Spanish colonisation. Miguel de Cervantes Saavedra influence on the Spanish language from the 17th century has been so great that Spanish is often called la lengua de Cervantes (The language of Cervantes).[4] In the 20th century, Spanish was introduced to Equatorial Guinea and the Western Sahara, and to areas of the United States that had not been part of the Spanish Empire, such as Spanish Harlem in New York City. For details on borrowed words and other external influences upon Spanish, see Influences on the Spanish language It is estimated that the combined total number of Spanish speakers is between 470 and 500 million, making it the third most spoken language by total number of speakers (after Chinese, and English). Spanish is the second mostwidely spoken language in terms of native speakers.[57][58] Global internet usage statistics for 2007 show Spanish as the third most commonly used language on the Internet, after English and Chinese. [59] In Europe, Spanish is an official language of Spain, the country after which it is named and from which it originated. It is also spoken in Gibraltar, though English is the official language.[60] Likewise, it is the most spoken language in Andorra, though Catalan is the official language.[61][62] It is also spoken by small communities in other

European countries, such as the United Kingdom, France, and Germany.[63] Spanish is an official language of the European Union. In Switzerland, Spanish is the mother tongue of 1.7% of the population, representing the largest minority after the 4 official languages of the country.[64] In Spain and in some parts of the Spanish speaking world, but not all, it is rare to use the term espaol (Spanish) to refer to this language, even when contrasting it with languages such as French and English. Rather, people call it castellano (Castilian), that is, the language of the Castile region, when contrasting it with other languages spoken in Spain such as Galician, Basque, and Catalan. In this manner, the Spanish Constitution of 1978 uses the term castellano to define the official language of the whole Spanish State, as opposed to las dems lenguas espaolas (lit. the rest of the Spanish languages). In Africa, Spanish is official in Equatorial Guinea (co-official with French and Portuguese), as well as an official language of the African Union. Today, in Western Sahara, it is a de facto official language and nearly 200,000 refugee Sahrawis are able to read and write in Spanish,[65] and several thousands have received university education in foreign countries as part of aid packages (mainly in Cuba and Spain). In Equatorial Guinea, Spanish is the predominant language when native and non-native speakers (around 500,000 people) are counted, while Fang is the most spoken language by number of native speakers.[66][67] It is also spoken in the Spanish cities in continental North Africa (Ceuta and Melilla) and in the autonomous community of Canary Islands (143,000 and 1,995,833 people, respectively). Within Northern Morocco, a former Franco-Spanish protectorate that is also geographically close to Spain, approximately 20,000 people speak Spanish as a second language.[68] It is spoken by some communities of Angola, because of the Cuban influence from the Cold War, and in Nigeria by the descendants of Afro-Cuban exslaves. Among the countries and territories in Oceania, Spanish is also spoken in Easter Island, a territorial possession of Chile. The U.S. Territories of Guam and Northern Marianas, and the independent states of Palau, Marshall Islands and the Federated States of Micronesia all once had Spanish speakers, since the Marianas and the Caroline Islands were Spanish colonial possessions until the late 19th century (see Spanish-American War), but Spanish has since been forgotten. It now only exists as an influence on the local native languages and is spoken by Hispanic American resident populations. Most Spanish speakers are in Latin America; of all countries with a majority of Spanish speakers, only Spain and Equatorial Guinea are outside the Americas. Mexico has the most native speakers of any country. Nationally, Spanish is the official languageeither de facto or de jureof Argentina, Bolivia (co-official with Quechua and Aymara), Chile, Colombia, Costa Rica, Cuba, Dominican Republic, Ecuador, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, Mexico , Falkland Islands (Islas Malvinas), Nicaragua, Panama, Paraguay (co-official with Guaran[71]), Peru (coofficial with Quechua and, in some regions, Aymara), Uruguay, and Venezuela. Spanish is also the official language (co-official with English) in the U.S. commonwealth of Puerto Rico.[72] Spanish has no official recognition in the former British colony of Belize; however, per the 2000 census, it is spoken by 43% of the population.[73][74] Mainly, it is spoken by the descendants of Hispanics who have been in the region since the 17th century; however, English is the official language.[75] Spain colonized Trinidad and Tobago first in 1498, introducing the Spanish language to the Carib people. Also the Cocoa Panyols, laborers from Venezuela, took their culture and language with them; they are accredited with the music of "Parang" ("Parranda") on the island. Because of Trinidad's location on the South American coast, the country is greatly influenced by its Spanish-speaking neighbors. A recent census shows that more than 1 500 inhabitants speak Spanish.[76] In 2004, the government launched the Spanish as a First Foreign Language (SAFFL) initiative in March 2005.[77] Government regulations require Spanish to be taught, beginning in primary school, while thirty percent of public employees are to be linguistically competent within five years.[76] Spanish is important in Brazil because of its proximity to and increased trade with its Spanish-speaking neighbors, and because of its membership in the Mercosur trading bloc.[78] In 2005, the National Congress of Brazil approved a bill, signed into law by the President, making Spanish language teaching mandatory in both public and private secondary schools in Brazil.[79] In many border towns and villages (especially in the Uruguayan-Brazilian and Paraguayan-Brazilian border areas), a mixed language known as Portuol is spoken.[80] In the USA: In the 2006 census, 44.3 million people of the U.S. population were Hispanic or Latino by origin;[81] 34 million people, 12.2 percent, of the population more than five years old speak Spanish at home.[82] Spanish has a long history in the United States because many south-western states and Florida were part of Mexico and Spain, and it recently has been revitalized by Hispanic immigrants. Spanish is the most widely taught language in the country after English. Although the United States has no formally designated "official languages," Spanish is formally recognized at the state level in various states besides English; in the U.S. state of New Mexico for instance, 40% of

the population speaks the language. It also has strong influence in metropolitan areas such as Los Angeles, Miami, San Antonio, New York City, and in the last decade, the language has rapidly expanded in Atlanta, Baltimore, Boston, Charlotte, Chicago, Cleveland, Dallas, Detroit, Houston, Phoenix, Richmond, Washington, DC, and other major Sun-Belt cities. Spanish is the dominant spoken language in Puerto Rico, a U.S. territory. With a total of 33,701,181 Spanish (Castilian) speakers, according to US Census Bureau,[83] the U.S. has the world's second-largest Spanish-speaking population.[84] Spanish ranks second, behind English, as the language spoken most widely at home.[85] Different Spanish dialects: While all Spanish dialects use the same written standard, there are important variations spoken among the regions of Spain and throughout Spanish-speaking America. One major phonological difference between Castilian, broadly speaking, the dialects spoken in northern Spain, and the dialects of southern Spain and all the Latin American dialects of Spanish, is the absence of a voiceless dental fricative (// as in English thing) in the latter.[86] In Spain, the Castilian dialect is commonly regarded as the standard variety used on radio and television,[87][88][89][90], although attitudes towards southern dialects have changed significantly in the last 50 years. In addition to variations in pronunciation, minor lexical and grammatical differences exist. For example, losmo is the use of slightly different pronouns and differs from the standard. The variety with the most speakers is Mexican Spanish. It is spoken by more than the twenty percent of the Spanish speakers (107 millions of the total 494 millions, according to the table above). One of its main features is the reduction or loss of the unstressed vowels, mainly when they are in contact with the sound /s/.[91][92] It can be the case that the words: pesos, pesas, and peces are pronounced the same ['pess]. Variations in the persons: grammar TU: In Argentina for example: second person singular: they use the voseo. Spanish has three second-person singular pronouns: t, usted, and vos. The use of the pronoun vos and/or its verb forms is called voseo. Areas of generalized voseo include Argentina, Costa Rica, Bolivia (east), El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, Nicaragua, Paraguay, Uruguay and the Colombian region of Antioquia. USTEDES: Spanish forms also differ regarding second-person plural pronouns. "Usted" (Ud.) was initially the written abbreviation of "vuestra merced" (your grace). The Spanish dialects of Latin America have only one form of the second-person plural for daily use, ustedes (formal or familiar, as the case may be, though vosotros non-formal usage can sometimes appear in poetry and rhetorical or literary style). In Spain there are two forms ustedes (formal) and vosotros (familiar). The pronoun vosotros is the plural form of t in most of Spain, but in the Americas (and in certain southern Spanish cities such as Cdiz and in the Canary Islands) it is replaced with ustedes. It is notable that the use of ustedes for the informal plural "you" in southern Spain does not follow the usual rule for pronounverb agreement; e.g., while the formal form for "you go", ustedes van, uses the third-person plural form of the verb, in Cdiz or Seville the informal form is constructed as ustedes vais, using the second-person plural of the verb. In the Canary Islands, though, the usual pronounverb agreement is preserved in most cases. Vocabulary Some words can be different, even significantly so, in different Hispanophone countries. Most Spanish speakers can recognize other Spanish forms, even in places where they are not commonly used, but Spaniards generally do not recognize specifically American usages. For example, Spanish mantequilla, aguacate and albaricoque (respectively, 'butter', 'avocado', 'apricot') correspond to manteca, palta, and damasco, respectively, in Argentina, Chile (except manteca), Paraguay, Peru (except manteca and damasco), and Uruguay. The everyday Spanish words coger ('to catch'), pisar ('to step on') and concha ('seashell') are considered extremely rude in parts of Latin America, where the meaning of coger and pisar is also "to have sex" and concha means "vulva". The Puerto Rican word for "bobby pin" (pinche) is an obscenity in Mexico, but in Nicaragua simply means "stingy", and in Spain refers to a chef's helper. Other examples include taco, which means "swearword" (among other meanings) in Spain and "traffic" in Chile, but is known to the rest of the world as a Mexican dish. Pija in many countries of Latin America and Spain itself is an obscene slang word for "penis", while in Spain the word also signifies "posh girl" or "snobby". Coche, which means "car" in Spain and central Mexico, for the vast majority of Spanish-speakers actually means "baby-stroller", while carro means "car" in some Latin American countries and "cart" in others, as well as in Spain. Papaya is the slang term in Cuba for "vagina" therefore in Cuba when referring to the actual fruit Cubans call it fruta bomba instead.[94][95]
(In English, t y ustedes are griten as ARE)

The Real Academia Espaola (Royal Spanish Academy), together with the 21 other national ones (see Association of Spanish Language Academies), exercises a standardizing influence through its publication of dictionaries and widely respected grammar and style guides.[citation needed] Because of influence and for other sociohistorical reasons, a standardized form of the language (Standard Spanish) is widely acknowledged for use in literature, academic contexts and the media. Related languages: Spanish is closely related to the other West Iberian Romance languages: Asturian, Galician, Ladino, Leonese and Portuguese. Catalan, an East Iberian language which exhibits many Gallo-Romance traits, is more similar to Occitan to the east than to Spanish or Portuguese. Spanish and Portuguese have similar grammars and vocabularies as well as a common history of Arabic influence while a great part of the peninsula was under Islamic rule (both languages expanded over Islamic territories). Their lexical similarity has been estimated as 89%.[96] See Differences between Spanish and Portuguese for further information. Judaeo-Spanish (also known as Ladino), which is essentially medieval Spanish and closer to modern Spanish than any other language, is spoken by many descendants of the Sephardi Jews who were expelled from Spain in the 15th century. Therefore, it has somewhat the same relationship to Spanish as Yiddish does to German. Ladino speakers are currently almost exclusively Sephardi Jews, with family roots in Turkey, Greece or the Balkans: current speakers mostly live in Israel and Turkey, and the United States, with a few pockets in Latin America. Spanish and Italian share a similar phonological system. At present, the lexical similarity with Italian is estimated at 82%.[96] The lexical similarity with Portuguese is greater at 89%. Mutual intelligibility between Spanish and French or Romanian is lower (lexical similarity being respectively 75% and 71%[96]): comprehension of Spanish by French speakers who have not studied the language is low at an estimated 45% the same as English. The common features of the writing systems of the Romance languages allow for a greater amount of interlingual reading comprehension than oral communication would. e.g. nullam(latin), nada (spanish9 nada, neca(Portuguese) , nulla (Italy) nul o rien (Franch), nothing (english) Characterization A defining feature of Spanish was the diphthongization of the Latin short vowels e and o into ie and ue, respectively, when they were stressed. Similar sound changes are found in other Romance languages, but in Spanish, they were significant. Some examples:

Lat. petram > Sp. piedra, It. pietra, Fr. pierre, Rom. piatr, Port./Gal. pedra, Cat. pedra "stone".

Some consonant clusters of Latin also produced characteristically different results in these languages, for example:

Lat. clamare, acc. flammam, plenum > Lad. lyamar, flama, pleno; Sp. llamar, llama, lleno. However, in Spanish there are also the forms clamar, flama, pleno; Port. chamar, chama, cheio; Gal. chamar, chama, cheo.

By the 16th century, the consonant system of Spanish underwent the following important changes that differentiated it from neighboring Romance languages such as Portuguese and Catalan:

Initial /f/, when it had evolved into a vacillating /h/, was lost in most words (although this etymological h- is preserved in spelling and in some Andalusian and Caribbean dialects it is still aspirated in some words). The voiced alveolar fricative /z/ which existed as a separate phoneme in medieval Spanish merged with its voiceless counterpart /s/. The phoneme which resulted from this merger is currently spelled s.

Writing: Thus, the Spanish alphabet has the following 29 letters: a, b, c, ch, d, e, f, g, h, i, j, k, l, ll, m, n, , o, p, q, r, s, t, u, v, w, x, y, z.[99] The letters "k" and "w" are used only in words and names coming from foreign languages (kilo, folklore, whiskey, William, etc.).

The interrogative pronouns (qu, cul, dnde, quin, etc.) also receive accents in direct or indirect questions, and some demonstratives (se, ste, aqul, etc.) can be accented when used as pronouns. The conjunction o ('or') is written with an accent between numerals so as not to be confused with a zero: e.g., 10 20 should be read as diez o veinte rather than diez mil veinte ('10.020'). Accent marks are frequently omitted in capital letters (a widespread practice in the days of typewriters and the early days of computers when only lowercase vowels were available with accents), although the RAE advises against this. When u is written between g and a front vowel (e i), it indicates a "hard g" pronunciation. A diaeresis () indicates that it is not silent as it normally would be (e.g., cigea, 'stork', is pronounced [iwea]; if it were written ciguea, it would. Interrogative and exclamatory clauses are introduced with Inverted question and exclamation marks ( and , respectively). In English they are used in the end of the sentence only, but in Spanish they must be written at the beginning and in the end. Spanish grammar: Spanish is a relatively inflected language, with a two-gender system and about fifty conjugated forms per verb, but limited inflection of nouns, adjectives, and determiners. (For a detailed overview of verbs, see Spanish verbs and Spanish irregular verbs.) It is right-branching, uses prepositions, and usually, though not always, places adjectives after nouns - as most other Romance languages. Its syntax is generally Subject Verb Object, though variations are common. It is a pro-drop language (or null subject language), that is, it allows the deletion of pronouns which are pragmatically unnecessary, and is verb-framed. Punto 1.4 El ingls English is a West Germanic language, one of the branches of the indo European family, that developed in England and south-eastern Scotland during the Anglo-Saxon era. As a result of the military, economic, scientific, political, and cultural influence of the British Empire during the 18th, 19th, and early 20th centuries, and of the United States since the mid 20th century,[7][8][9][10] it has become the lingua franca in many parts of the world.[11][12] It is used extensively as a second language and as an official language in Commonwealth countries and many international organizations. The history of English is tied up to the history, politics, society, development of the British Isles. Historically, English originated from several dialects, now collectively termed Old English, which were brought to the eastern coast of the island of Great Britain by Anglo-Saxon settlers beginning in the 5th century[citation needed]. They did not speak English at once because they spoke their Germanic tongues of their homelands. For this reason, English developed from Germanic tongues. Actually, the name Englandcomes from one of those tribes, the ANGLES. English was further influenced by the Old Norse language of Viking invaders. At the time of the Norman conquest, Old English developed into Middle English, borrowing heavily from the Norman (Anglo-French) vocabulary and spelling conventions. The etymology of the word "English" is a derivation from the 12th century Old English englisc or Engle, plural form Angles ("of, relating to, or characteristic of England").[13] Modern English developed with the Great Vowel Shift that began in 15th-century England, and continues to adopt foreign words from a variety of languages, as well as coining new words. A significant number of English words, especially technical words, have been constructed based on roots from Latin and Greek. History of the English language English is a West Germanic language that originated from the Anglo-Frisian and Lower Saxon dialects brought to Britain by Germanic settlers and Roman auxiliary troops from various parts of what is now northwest Germany, Denmark and the Netherlands in the 5th century.[citation needed] One of these Germanic tribes was the Angles,[20] who may have come from Angeln, and Bede wrote that their whole nation came to Britain,[21] leaving their former land empty. The names 'England' (from Engla land "Land of the Angles") and English (Old English Englisc) are derived from the name of this tribe.

The Anglo-Saxons began invading around AD 449 from the regions of Denmark and Jutland.[22][23] Before the Anglo-Saxons arrived in England the native population spoke Brythonic, a Celtic language.[24] Although the most significant changes in dialect occurred after the Norman invasion of 1066, the language retained its name and the pre-Norman invasion dialect is now known as Old English.[25] Initially, Old English was a diverse group of dialects, reflecting the varied origins of the Anglo-Saxon Kingdoms of Great Britain.[26] One of these dialects, Late West Saxon, eventually came to dominate. One of the most prevalent forces in the evolution of the English language was the Roman Catholic Church. Beginning with the Rule of St Benedict in 530 and continuing until the Dissolution of the Monasteries in 1536, the Roman Catholic Church instructed monasteries and Catholic officials like Augustine of Canterbury to preserve intellectual culture within their schools, scriptoria, and libraries. During the Middle Ages, the Catholic Church had a monopoly on intellectual property in British society, which they used to exert great influence on the English language.[citation needed] Catholic monks mainly wrote or copied text in Latin, the prevalent Medieval lingua franca of Europe.[27] When monks occasionally wrote in the vernacular, it was common to substitute or derive English-like words from Latin to describe or refer to things in which there was no English word. Extensive vocabulary, a derivative of Latin vocabularium, in the English language largely comprises Latin word derivatives. It is believed that the intellectual elite in British society over the years perpetuated vocabulary that Catholic monks contributed to English; furthermore, they continued the custom of deriving new words from Latin long after the waning of Catholic Church.[citation needed] Old English vernacular was also influenced by two waves of invasion. The first was by language speakers of the North Germanic branch of the Germanic family; they conquered and colonised parts of the British Isles in the 8th and 9th centuries. The second was the Normans in the 11th century, who spoke Old Norman and developed an English variety of this called Anglo-Norman. (Over the centuries, this lost the specifically Norman element under the influence of Parisian French and, later, of English, eventually turning into a distinctive dialect of Anglo-French.) These two invasions caused English to become "mixed" to some degree (though it was never a truly mixed language in the strict linguistic sense of the word; mixed languages arise from the cohabitation of speakers of different languages, who develop a hybrid tongue for basic communication). Cohabitation with the Scandinavians resulted in a lexical supplementation of the Anglo-Frisian core of English; the later Norman occupation led to the grafting onto that Germanic core of a more elaborate layer of words from the Romance languages. This Norman influence entered English largely through the courts and government. Thus, English developed into a "borrowing" language of great flexibility and a huge vocabulary. With the emergence and spread of the British Empire, the English language was adopted in North America, India, Africa, Australia and many other regions. The emergence of the United States as a superpower has also helped the spread of English. PERIODS 1 OLD ENGLISH: 1100 AC. It retained the basic grammatical properties of the Germanic languages. It was different in spelling comparing to the present English. E.g. the adjectives had genre, several letters sounded different for example rootsounded rot, fivesounded fef, etc. Many of the words that come from this period is used in poetic vocabulary, some of them are bewater, strong, etc Many of the present words had in that time the influence of another languagesfrom latin we can find vicar, mass, cap, school, etc. From Scandinavians sk skyskirt, etc. MIDDLE ENGLISH: 11OO TO 1500 AD. The Norman conquest brought importance to the French rather than English. (1066) French was used for politicl, social, cultural matters and English was spoken by the lower classes while French by the upper classes. E.g. cowwas used by English peasants while the French used beef, the same occurred with calfand veal. Other words borrowed from French were: date, infant, money. From latin: alibi, library, pacify. MODERN ENGLISH: 1500 UP TO NOW. Wider borrowing from

Modern French: bikini, discotheque.Dutch: gin, yacht.German: delicatessen, pretzel.Italian: carnival, pizza, piano.Portuguese: cobra.Spanish: mosquito.Russian: robot, czar.Arabic: Hazard, magazine, algebra.Mythology: panic, hypnosis.Literature: quixotic.Peoples names: july, cesarea from Julius cesar Some words experimented cuts clothes. deer antes era animal, then reno. (this transformation was called specialization) the opposite occurred to the word virtue that was a generalization.Some words turned their meaning to a negative one. The case of villain that in the beginning was peasant and then, villano.The opposite occurred to nice which at first was foolish and now means something positive. ETIMOLOGY: studies the origin of the words THE ENGLISH WAS THE RESULT OF A GREAT DEVELOPMENT AND HAS DIFFERENT INFLUENCES OF OTHER LANGUAGES. Punto 1.5 Variedades del ingls List of dialects of the English language The expansion of the British Empire andsince World War IIthe influence of the United States have spread English throughout the globe.[15] Because of that global spread, English has developed a host of English dialects and English-based creole languages and pidgins. Two educated native dialects of English have wide acceptance as standards in much of the worldone based on educated southern British and the other based on educated Midwestern American. The former is sometimes called BBC (or the Queen's) English, and it may be noticeable by its preference for "Received Pronunciation"; it typifies the Cambridge model, which is the standard for the teaching of English to speakers of other languages in Europe, Africa, the Indian subcontinent, and other areas influenced either by the British Commonwealth or by a desire not to be identified with the United States. The latter dialect, General American, which is spread over most of the United States and much of Canada, is more typically the model for the American continents and areas (such as the Philippines) which have had either close association with the United States or desire to be so identified. Aside from those two major dialects are numerous other varieties of English, which include, in most cases, several subvarieties, such as Cockney, Scouse and Geordie within British English; Newfoundland English within Canadian English; and African American Vernacular English ("Ebonics") and Southern American English within American English. English is a pluricentric language, without a central language authority like France's Acadmie franaise; and therefore no one variety is considered "correct" or "incorrect" except in terms of the expectations of the particular audience to which the language is directed. Scots has its origins in early Northern Middle English[58] and developed and changed during its history with influence from other sources, but following the Acts of Union 1707 a process of language attrition began, whereby successive generations adopted more and more features from Standard English, causing dialectalisation. Whether it is now a separate language or a dialect of English better described as Scottish English is in dispute, although the UK government now accepts Scots as a regional language and has recognised it as such under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages.[59] There are a number of regional dialects of Scots, and pronunciation, grammar and lexis of the traditional forms differ, sometimes substantially, from other varieties of English. English speakers have many different accents, which often signal the speaker's native dialect or language. For the more distinctive characteristics of regional accents, see Regional accents of English, and for the more distinctive characteristics of regional dialects, see List of dialects of the English language. Within England, variation is now largely confined to pronunciation rather than grammar or vocabulary. At the time of the Survey of English Dialects, grammar and vocabulary differed across the country, but a process of lexical attrition has led most of this variation to die out.[60] Just as English itself has borrowed words from many different languages over its history, English loanwords now appear in many languages around the world, indicative of the technological and cultural influence of its speakers. Several pidgins and creole languages have been formed on an English base, such as Jamaican Patois, Nigerian Pidgin, and Tok Pisin. There are many words in English coined to describe forms of particular non-English languages that contain a very high proportion of English words. Ingls Britnico Ingls Americano

Colour Centre Honour Analyse Fulfill Cheque Tyre Labour Favour

Color Center Honor Analyze Fulfil Check (Sustantivo) Tire Labor Favor

Diferencias en Ingls - Diferentes Pronunciacines Hay docenas, si no es que cientos de diferentes formas de hablar ingls. En este artculo nos es imposible cubrir todas las variantes de acentos, dialectos y derivados del ingls. As que enfoqumonos en las dos corrientes principales: ingls americano y britnico. Como dato interesante, la "Pronunciacin Recibida" (Received Pronunciation, en ingls), tambin conocida como Ingls de la Reina o Ingls de Oxford, es utilizada solamente por cerca del 5% de la poblacin del Reino Unido. Esto se debe a que existen muchos dialectos a lo largo y ancho de las islas britnicas. Si viajas al Reino Unido te dars cuenta que las diferencias en la pronunciacin de regin a regin son ms fuertes y amplias que en Estados Unidos, aunque este ltimo sea un pas mucho ms grande. Quiz esto se deba al hecho de que estadsticamente en promedio los americanos cambian de residencia ms seguido que los britnicos. Un dialecto se genera cuando las personas viven juntas un largo periodo de tiempo y la comunidad crea su propia y nica forma de comunicarse. La gente del sur de los Estado Unidos tiene un acento particular mientras que la gente de Boston habla muy diferente. Pero regresemos al tema principal de este artculo y enfoqumonos en algunas de las diferencias ms importantes entre el ingls britnico y el americano: El sonido /r/ podra no ser audible en algunas palabras en ingls britnico; por ejemplo, car. La /r/ es eliminada, as como tambin en dialectos de Nueva York y Boston. En ingls americano la diferencia entre las palabras can y cant es a veces difcil de distinguir, mientras que en ingls britnico estndar puedes notar la diferencia claramente. Los americanos suelen pronunciar palabras como reduce, produce, induce, seduce (la mayora de los verbos que terminan con duce) con /doos/, mientras que en ingls britnico es un poco diferente utilizando /dyoos/. Los americanos tambin tienen la tendencia a reducir las palabras omitiendo letras. La palabra facts, por ejemplo, suena como fax en ingls americano, donde la t no se pronuncia. Algunas veces los sonidos de las vocales son omitidos en ingls britnico, tal como en la palabra secretary, donde el sonido /a/ no se pronuncia. La pronunciacin de las slabas tnicas a veces vara en cada versin. Por ejemplo con la palabra "advertisement": /ad-ver-taiz-ment/ (ingls americano) /ad-ver-tIz-ment/ (ingls britnico) Diferencias en Ingls - Vocabulario En el vocabulario tambin se pueden encontrar ciertas diferencias importantes y que es importante tener en cuenta dependiendo del pas de habla inglesa en que te encuntres, y la audiencia a la que te diriges. He aqu algunos ejemplos: Ingls Britnico Ingls Americano

Lift Boot Trousers Lorry

Elevator Trunk Pants Truck

El lenguaje callejero o slang tambin es diferente en cada pas. Constructed varieties of English

Basic English is simplified for easy international use. Manufacturers and other international businesses tend to write manuals and communicate in Basic English. Some English schools in Asia teach it as a practical subset of English for use by beginners. E-Prime excludes forms of the verb to be. English reform is an attempt to improve collectively upon the English language. Manually Coded English a variety of systems have been developed to represent the English language with hand signals, designed primarily for use in deaf education. These should not be confused with true sign languages such as British Sign Language and American Sign Language used in Anglophone countries, which are independent and not based on English. Seaspeak and the related Airspeak and Policespeak, all based on restricted vocabularies, were designed by Edward Johnson in the 1980s to aid international cooperation and communication in specific areas. There is also a tunnelspeak for use in the Channel Tunnel. Special English is a simplified version of English used by the Voice of America. It uses a vocabulary of only 1500 words.

English grammar English grammar has minimal inflection compared with most other Indo-European languages. For example, Modern English, unlike Modern German or Dutch and the Romance languages, lacks grammatical gender and adjectival agreement. Case marking has almost disappeared from the language and mainly survives in pronouns. The patterning of strong (e.g. speak/spoke/spoken) versus weak verbs inherited from its Germanic origins has declined in importance in modern English, and the remnants of inflection (such as plural marking) have become more regular. At the same time, the language has become more analytic, and has developed features such as modal verbs and word order as resources for conveying meaning. Auxiliary verbs mark constructions such as questions, negative polarity, the passive voice and progressive aspect. Characteristics of intonation English is a strongly stressed language, in that certain syllables, both within words and within phrases, get a relative prominence/loudness during pronunciation while the others do not. The former kind of syllables are said to be accentuated/stressed and the latter are unaccentuated/unstressed. Hence in a sentence, each tone group can be subdivided into syllables, which can either be stressed (strong) or unstressed (weak). The stressed syllable is called the nuclear syllable. For example: That | was | the | best | thing | you | could | have | done! Here, all syllables are unstressed, except the syllables/words best and done, which are stressed. Best is stressed harder and, therefore, is the nuclear syllable.

PUNTO 1.7 SPANGLISH El spanglish, ingaol, espanglish, espangls, espangleis, espanglis o pocho (conocido asi en regiones de la frontera de Baja California, Tamaulipas y Nuevo Len) es la fusin morfosintctica y semntica del espaol con el ingls. Es un fenmeno lingstico similar al llanito utilizado en Gibraltar. Suele confundirse con el uso de anglicismos en espaol.

Sin embargo, para los angloparlantes estadounidenses, especialmente en las zonas con una gran poblacin de habla hispana, la denominacin spanglish es dada o al uso de palabras espaolas o con este origen, pero morfolgicamente anglificadas en frases de idioma ingls, o bien, directamente reciben el nombre de espanglish formas jergales e incluso pidgin, tal cual ocurre en California, Florida, Nuevo Mxico, Texas y los barrios latinos de Nueva York, y otras ciudades. El trmino es lingsticamente impreciso; agrupa sin un criterio comn al empleo de prstamos lingsticos, normal en el desarrollo de la lengua, con el code-switching frecuente entre hablantes bilinges o en las jergas profesionales, con criterios de pureza estilstica que carecen, en rigor, de fundamento cientfico. El trmino Spanglish no est incluido en el Diccionario de la Real Academia Espaola. Y sin embargo, hay escritores que slo escriben en puro spanglish: entre sus exponentes ms ilustres estn las puertorriqueas Giannina Braschi y Ana Lydia Vega. La novela "Yo-Yo Boing!" por Giannina Braschi tiene muchos ejemplos del spanglish y del code-switching. Code-switching [editar] Entre los hablantes con conocimiento de ms de una lengua pero con dominio limitado de una de ellas, es normal la mezcla, a menudo inconsciente, de varios idiomas en la misma frase. Un hablante puede decirle a otro una frase como I'm sorry I cannot attend next week's meeting porque tengo una obligacin de negocios en Boston, pero espero que I'll be back for the meeting the week after, en que va cambiando de idioma inconscientemente. Tambin es tpica del spanglish la confusin de significados entre palabras castellanas y otras inglesas que suenan de forma parecida (falsos amigos). Un ejemplo de esto sera la frase vacunar la carpeta (del ingls, vacuum the carpet) en lugar de aspirar (el polvo de) la alfombra. Se confunde tambin la pronunciacin, por ejemplo, Soy bilingual; no tengo acento. Conversacin corta en spanglish:

Anita: Hola, good morning, cmo ests? Mark: Fine, y t? Anita: Todo bien. Pero tuve problemas parqueando my car this morning. Mark: S, I know. Siempre hay problemas parqueando in el rea at this time. Ingls Castellano Hasta luego ver la TV voy al cine tubo cita estacionar un coche (estaciono) (estacionas) Espanglish Te veo watch la TV wachar la tv voy a las vistas paipa apointment parquear el carro (parqueo) (parqueas)

See you! watch TV I'm going to the movies pipe appointment to park a car (I park) (you park)

PUNTO 1.8 INGLS COMO LINGUA FRANCA

Lengua franca (o lingua franca) es el idioma adoptado para un entendimiento comn entre un grupo de varias coexistentes. La aceptacin puede deberse por mutuo acuerdo o por cuestiones polticas. En Europa durante una parte de la antigedad se adoptaron como lenguas francas el griego y el latn. En el mundo actual, el ingls funge como lingua franca especialmente en las organizaciones supranacionales y en las publicaciones cientficas de alcance internacional.

English as a global language See also: English in computing, International English, and World language

Because English is so widely spoken, it has often been referred to as a "world language", the lingua franca of the modern era.[15] While English is not an official language in most countries, it is currently the language most often taught as a foreign language around the world. Some linguists (such as David Graddol) believe that it is no longer the exclusive cultural property of "native English speakers", but is rather a language that is absorbing aspects of cultures worldwide as it continues to grow.[15] It is, by international treaty, the official language for aerial and maritime communications.[55] English is an official language of the United Nations and many other international organisations, including the International Olympic Committee. English is the language most often studied as a foreign language in the European Union (by 89% of schoolchildren), followed by French (32%), German (18%), Spanish (8%), and Russian; while the perception of the usefulness of foreign languages amongst Europeans is 68% English, 25% French, 22% German, and 16% Spanish.[56] Among non-English speaking EU countries, a large percentage of the population claimed to have been able to converse in English (note that the percentages are for the adult population, aged 15 and above): in Sweden (85%), Denmark (83%), the Netherlands (79%), Luxembourg (66%), Finland (60%), Slovenia (56%), Austria (53%), Belgium (52%), and Germany (51%).[57] Books, magazines, and newspapers written in English are available in many countries around the world. English is also the most commonly used language in the sciences.[15] In 1997, the Science Citation Index reported that 95% of its articles were written in English, even though only half of them came from authors in English Approximately 375 million people speak English as their first language.[29] English today is probably the third largest language by number of native speakers, after Mandarin Chinese and Spanish.[30][31] However, when combining native and nonnative speakers it is probably the most commonly spoken language in the world, though possibly second to a combination of the Chinese languages (depending on whether or not distinctions in the latter are classified as "languages" or "dialects").[6][32] Estimates that include second language speakers vary greatly from 470 million to over a billion depending on how literacy or mastery is defined and measured.[33][34] Linguistics professor David Crystal calculates that non-native speakers now outnumber native speakers by a ratio of 3 to 1.[35] The countries with the highest populations of native English speakers are, in descending order: United States (215 million),[36] United Kingdom (61 million),[37] Canada (18.2 million),[38] Australia (15.5 million),[39] Nigeria (4 million),[40] Ireland (3.8 million),[37] South Africa (3.7 million),[41] and New Zealand (3.6 million) 2006 Census.[42] No figure is given for the number of South African native speakers, but it would be somewhere between the number of people who spoke English only (3,008,058) and the total number of English speakers (3,673,623), if one ignores the 197,187 people who did not provide a usable answer[citation needed]. Countries such as the Philippines, Jamaica and Nigeria also have millions of native speakers of dialect continua ranging from an English-based creole to a more standard version of English. Of those nations where English is spoken as a second language, India has the most such speakers ('Indian English'). Crystal claims that, combining native and non-native speakers, India now has more people who speak or understand English than any other country in the world.[43][44] -speaking countries. Countries where English is a major language English is the primary language in Anguilla, Antigua and Barbuda, Australia (Australian English), the Bahamas, Barbados, Belize (Belizean Kriol), Bermuda, the British Indian Ocean Territory, the British Virgin Islands, Canada (Canadian English), the Cayman Islands, the Falkland Islands, Gibraltar, Grenada, Guam, Guernsey (Channel Island English), Guyana, Ireland (Hiberno-English), The Isle of Man (Manx English), Jamaica (Jamaican English), Jersey, Montserrat, Nauru, New Zealand (New Zealand English), Pitcairn Islands, Saint Helena, Saint Kitts and Nevis, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, Singapore, South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands, Trinidad and Tobago, the Turks and Caicos Islands, the United Kingdom, and the United States. In some countries where English is not the most spoken language, it is an official language; these countries include Botswana, Cameroon, Dominica, the Federated States of Micronesia, Fiji, Gambia, Ghana, India, Kenya, Kiribati, Lesotho, Liberia, Madagascar, Malta, the Marshall Islands, Mauritius, Namibia, Nigeria, Pakistan, Palau, Papua New Guinea, the Philippines (Philippine English), Rwanda, Saint Lucia, Samoa, Seychelles, Sierra Leone, the Solomon Islands, Sri Lanka, the Sudan, Swaziland, Tanzania, Uganda, Zambia, and Zimbabwe.

It is also one of the 11 official languages that are given equal status in South Africa (South African English). English is also the official language in current dependent territories of Australia (Norfolk Island, Christmas Island and Cocos Island) and of the United States (American Samoa, Guam, Northern Mariana Islands, Puerto Rico, and the U.S. Virgin Islands),[50] and the former British colony of Hong Kong. (See List of countries where English is an official language for more details.)

English is not an official language in either the United States or the United Kingdom.[51][52] Although the United States federal government has no official languages, English has been given official status by 30 of the 50 state governments.[53] Although falling short of official status, English is also an important language in several former colonies and protectorates of the United Kingdom, such as Bahrain, Bangladesh, Brunei, Malaysia, and the United Arab Emirates. English is not a de jure official language of Israel; however, the country has maintained official language use[clarification needed] a de facto role for English since the British mandate.[54] PUNTO 1.9
ANGLICISMO: Los anglicismos son prstamos lingsticos desde el idioma ingls hacia otro idioma. Muchas veces son un producto de traducciones deficientes de material impreso o hablado en ingls y otras veces ocurre lo contrario: se crean por la inexistencia de una palabra apropiada que traduzca un trmino o vocablo en especfico. Son muy comunes en: el lenguaje empleado por los adolescentes, debido a la influencia que los medios de comunicacin regionales y forneos tienen sobre su manera de hablar y expresarse; y en el lenguaje tcnico de ciencias e ingeniera, por los grandes aportes que los pases de habla inglesa hacen a la investigacin y el desarrollo de nuevas tecnologas. Tecnologa [editar] En las pginas de informacin cientfica y tecnolgica de los peridicos aparecen muchos prstamos. Los periodistas los usan porque piensan que, si las tradujesen, perderan rigor o precisin, y porque la traduccin implica el uso de ms palabras. Ejs.: sndrome del burnout sndrome del trabajador quemado; bluetooth dispositivo de transmisin de datos sin cables; blog diario en la red. Informtica [editar] Tambin hay muchos calcos semnticos en la Informtica, cuando se podran intentar traducir los trminos bien o usar palabras que ya existan en espaol. Por ejemplo: de hard copy se dice a veces copia dura, pero lo ms preciso es copia impresa; de directory se dice directorio, que en castellano podra ser gua; se traduce port por puerto en vez de va de entrada; se dice a veces remover por el verbo ingls remove, que en realidad significa eliminar. Economa [editar] La economa es otra seccin donde hay muchos prstamos lingsticos debido, en parte, a la globalizacin. Actualmente, la informacin econmica tiene una seccin especial en todos los peridicos, no como antes cuando era un pequeo recuadro con informacin burstil. Existen muchos anglicismos, ya que el ingls domina la economa. Algunos como "desinversin" (desinvestment), "coaseguro" (coinsurance), "estanflacin" (stagflation), "refinanciacin" (refinancing) o "diseconoma" (diseconomy) se han adaptado. Pero trminos como cash, flow, trust, dumping, holding o stock se mantienen e incluso algunos se han incluido en el diccionario de la Real Academia. OTROS EJEMPLOS:

Originalmente la palabra inglesa football era un anglicismo. Despus se castellanizaron su ortografa y su pronunciacin y qued ftbol. Ahora se dice que ftbol es una palabra castellana de origen ingls. Aunque balompi es un sinnimo de ftbol, ha quedado bastante en desuso. La palabra hippie (o hippy) tiene una pronunciacin castellanizada /jipi/; la adaptacin ortogrfica propuesta en el espaol es jipi. La palabra parking equivale al ingls britnico "car park" y tampoco se ha castellanizado su ortografa. La adaptacin grfica propuesta en castellano es parquin, plural: prquines. El uso de este anglicismo adaptado es aceptado por la Real Academia Espaola,[1] pero se aconseja el uso de las voces espaolas aparcamiento, estacionamiento y parqueadero.

Ocurre algo similar con la expresin inglesa O.K.: "Zero Killed " Trmino atribudo a los cados en batalla ("oqui" o "All known") que puede sustituirse con las frases de acuerdo, perfecto y otras.

COGNATES FALSE FRIENDS Los cognados son palabras "transparentes" de un idioma a otro, suponiendo que te refieras al ingls, algunos cognados son: action = accin, exam = examen, car =carro, Por otra parte, los falsos cognados son palabras muy similares en su escritura de un idioma a otro, pero que en realidad tienen un significado muy distinto; algunos "falsos cognados" son: library, qu significa biblioteca y no librera como uno podra pensar. carpet, que significa alfombra y no carpeta. success, que significa xito y no suceso.

Un galicismo es un extranjerismo derivado del francs e incorporado al castellano. Ejemplos de galicismos son:

Amateur:,Beige, Bricolaje, Bulevar, Cabaret ,Cap, Carn, Chalet, Chef, Chfer

Un arabismo es una palabra derivada del rabe, e incorporada a otro idioma. Adems se denomina arabismo a la disciplina cientfica que se ocupa del estudio de la lengua y cultura rabe. Algunos arabismos proceden originalmente de otra lengua, como el persa, de la que pasaron al rabe. Ejemplos de arabismos en castellano son:

aceituna, azcar asesino zanahoria ajedrez, albacea, albahaca, albahaca, albail

Los germanismos son los extranjerismos que proceden del alemn, y tambin cualquier vocablo, giro o modo de expresin procedente de las antiguas lenguas germnicas.

De procedencia antigua: blanco espuela guante), rico (), yelmo, yo te lo ofrezco), bigote, guarecer, etc. De procedencia moderna: cobalto, cuarzo, nquel, LSD, etc. Palabras alemanas que se utilizan en espaol: Bundesliga, Edelweiss, Gestapo, Fhrer, Kindergarten, Leitmotif (en aleman= Leitmotiv), Luftwaffe, Putsch, Reichstag, Zeppelin,

Un italianismo es un extranjerismo derivado del italiano e incorporado a otra lengua. Ejemplos de italianismo en castellano son: soneto, lira, silva, novela, esdrjulo, designio, marchar, banca, capricho, bagatela, balcn, cortejar,