Geological Society of America Special Paper 323 1998

The role of accommodation zones and transfer zones in the regional segmentation of extended terranes
James E. Faulds
Nevada Bureau of Mines and Geology, University of Nevada, MS 178, Reno, Nevada 89557-0088 Robert J. Varga Department of Geology, The College of Wooster, Wooster, Ohio 44691

ABSTRACT All normal-fault systems must terminate both along and orthogonal to strike. As many as four terminations may be associated with a single culmination. Most normalfault systems terminate in either transfer zones or accommodation zones. In the nongenetic classification proposed here, transfer zones are defined as discrete zones of strike-slip and oblique-slip faulting that generally trend parallel to the extension direction and typically facilitate a transfer of strain between extended domains arranged in an en echelon pattern. Accommodation zones are belts of overlapping fault terminations and can separate either systems of uniformly dipping normal faults or adjacent domains of oppositely dipping normal faults. They can trend parallel, perpendicular, or oblique to the extension direction, A review of variously extended continental provinces and passive continental margins reveals that the style of deformation within transfer and accommodation zones is independent of the magnitude of extension. Strike-slip and oblique-slip faults within transfer zones are closely linked kinematically with major normal faults within the extended terranes. Transfer zones linking spatially separated loci of extension display along-strike variations in both magnitude and sense of motion, whereas local normal and reverse faults may develop in the vicinity of releasing and restraining fault bends. Strain within accommodation zones is transmitted directly between nornial-fault systems, geometries being controlled by the amount of overlap between and relative dip direction of competing sets of normal faults. Antithetic accommodation zones develop between oppositely dipping normal-fault systems, whereas synthetic accommodation zones occur between similarly dipping systems. In the synthetic zone, relay ramps commonly connect the hanging wall of one fault to the footwall of another fault and trend obliquely in zones that have significantly overlapping normal faults but transversely (parallel to extension direction) in zones that have minimal overlap. Antithetic zones exhibit a wider variety of geometries, including (1) strike-parallel (parallel to trend of rift) anticlines and syn- clines between normalfault systems having complete overlap that dip toward and away from one another, respectively, (2) obliquely trending anticlines and synclines in areas of partial fault overlap, and (3) transverse zones between minimally overlapping fault systems. The distinction between the strike-parallel and transverse accommodation zones is scale dependent; large strike-parallel segments are characterized by fine- scale offsets of hingelines along small transverse segments, and large transverse zones commonly contain small anticlinal and synclinal segments. The anticlines and syn- clines are manifestations of extensional strain, as opposed to localized shortening. Accommodation zones are essentially regional rupture barriers to normal-fault systems and are critical for evaluating seismic hazards in contemporary rifts and kinematic models of continental extension. The minimal displacements on normal faults suggest that accommodation zones in actively extending orogens are relatively low risk regions for major surface-rupture displacements. In addition, magmatism is commonly focused along the zones, suggesting that subjacent plutons and batholiths inhibit the lateral propagation of normal-fault systems.

Accommodation and transfer zones provide topographic frameworks and depositional settings in which sand-rich, potentially permeable rocks entering grabens near fault terminations can laterally interfinger with organic-rich, fine-grained rocks accumulating within hanging-wall depocenters developed near fault displacement maxima. Related fades changes, stratigraphie pinchouts, and onlap relations associated with the termination of half grabens generate abundant stratigraphie traps for migrating fluids. Potential structural traps include anticlines and intersecting conjugate normal faults. Dense fracture networks that characterize these zones may enhance permeability and promote hydrocarbon and ground-water accumulation.

INTRODUCTION

The segmentation of extended terranes is produced by the heterogeneous distribution of slip on individual normal faults and fault systems. Slip on individual normal faults typically reaches a maximum at or near the mid-segment of the fault and progressively decreases toward the fault tips (e.g., King, 1986; Cowie and Scholz, 1992a) (Fig. 1). The overall length of a normal fault is generally proportional to the magnitude of displacement (Watterson, 1986; Walsh and Watterson, 1988; Gillespie et al., 1992; Cowie and Scholz, 1992b; Scholz et al., 1993). Although consistent linear relations between fault length and displacement are complicated by crustal heterogeneity and the eventual linking of originally separate faults (e.g., King, 1983; Martel et al., 1988; Bilham and Bodin, 1992; Li et al., 1994), length versus displacement observations are valuable in assessing seismic hazards within actively extending regions because they can be related to the probable magnitude and location of major earthquakes and the growth rate of faults (Walsh and Watterson, 1987; Cowie and Scholz, 1992a). Individual normal faults or small groups of faults terminate in a variety of discontinuities, including small gaps or stepovers (e.g., Crone and Haller, 1991; DePolo et al., 1991) and relay ramps (Larsen, 1988; Peacock and Sanderson, 1994). Relay ramps connect the hanging wall of one fault to the footwall of another fault (Fig. 2) and effectively transfer strain between en echelon synthetic normal faults. The alternation of displacement maxima and fault tips within these discontinuities produces a second order segmentation of extended terranes (i.e., at the scale of individual fault zones), which is ultimately responsible for generating individual basins and footwall uplifts (Fig. 1, B and C). Extended terranes are partitioned, however, into regionally extensive domains of uniformly dipping normal-fault systems and attendant tilt-block domains (Stewart, 1980; Bosworth, 1985; Rosendahl, 1987; Stewait et al., this volume) (Fig. 3). The structural asymmetry of extended terranes has long been recognized (Gregory, 1921; Evison, 1959) and is evident in field mapping and cross sections (e.g., Proffett, 1977, Anderson, 1977; Miller et al., 1983), sediment isopach maps (Patton et al., 1994; Schtz), seismic reflection profiles (e.g., Brown et al., 1980; Gibbs, 1984; Rosendahl, 1987; Tankard and Balkwill, 1989), and gravity data (e.g., Swain et al., 1981; Browne and Fairhead, 1983). Cumulative slip on normal-fault systems commonly reaches a maximum in areas of greatest tilting. In some extended terranes, normal-fault systems culminate (i.e., accommodate maximum displacement) in metamorphic core complexes (cf. Coney, 1980), where middle crustal rocks have been exposed in the footwalls of regionally extensive, gently dipping normal faults (i.e., detachment faults) (e.g., Crittenden et al., 1980; Reynolds and Spencer, 1985; Davis and Lister, 1988; Hill, 1994). The metamoiphic core complexes and regionally extensive domains of uniformly dipping normal faults and tilt blocks have inspired models invoking uniform-sense simple shear over broad regions whereby low- angle detachment faults, which are kinematically linked to arrays of uniformly dipping faults within the upper crust, accommodate appreciable horizontal translation of extensional allochthons and much of the bulk extension within the extended terrane (e.g., Wernicke, 1981, 1985). Highly deformed tectonites within the core complexes and steeply tilted fault blocks that expose cross- sectional views of much of the upper crust have prompted extensive studies of the culminations of normal-fault systems (e.g., Anderson, 1971; Proffett, 1977; Coney, 1980; Frost and Martin, 1982; Miller et al., 1983; Wernicke, 1985; Davis et al., 1986; Davis and Lister, 1988; Baldwin et al., 1993; Dilles and Gans, In contrast, the links between, and lateral terminations of, normal-fault systems, or essentially the first-order segmentation of extended terranes, have received much less attention.
This first-order segmentation is a fundamental component of all extended terranes. All normal-fault systems must terminate both along and across strike (i.e., parallel and orthogonal to the trend of the rift, respectively). As many as four terminations may therefore be associated with a single culmination. Understanding why a particular normal-fault system terminates in one area may be just as critical as comprehending the conditions favoring culmination in another area. Comprehensive three-dimensional models of continental extension must incorporate both the culminations and terminations of normal-fault systems. The first-order, or regional, segmentation of rifts is accommodated by groups of structures known as transfer zones and accommodation zones. In accord with the early definition of Gibbs (1984) and common usage, we define transfer zones as discrete zones of strike-siip and oblique-slip faults that strike parallel or slightly oblique to the extension direction (Fig. 4A) and typically facilitate a transfer of strain between extended domains that are not aligned along strike. Fault systems generally dip in the same direction on either side of a transfer zone. On the other hand, accommodation zones correspond to belts of overlapping fault terminations (Fig. 4B) and can separate either systems of synthetic (similar dip directions) (Bosworth, 1985) or antithetic (oppositely dipping) normal faults and attendant tilt-block domains (Bosworth, 1985; Rosendahl,

1987; Faulds et al., 1990). Accommodation zones can trend parallel, perpendicular, or oblique to the extension direction. Excluding the margins of an extended terrane, most normal-fault systems terminate within either transfer or a ccommodation zones. Thus, these zones are largely responsible for the regional segmentation of extended terranes. The primary putpose of this chapter is to review the geometry and kinematics of accommodation zones and transfer zones in a variety of terranes, including relatively narrow, mildly extended areas, such as the East African and Gulf of Suez rifts, and broad, highly extended terranes, such as the Basin and Range province and many passive continental margins. This information is synthesized to characterize the various structures that accommodate the termination of normal-fault systems and regional segmentation of extended terranes. In addition, the potential significance of these zones is discussed in the context of evaluating and developing models of continental extension, analyzing seismic hazards in active rifts, and assessing hydrocarbon, ground-water, and mineral resources in extended terranes. We also present a new nongenetic classification of rift-segmentation structures. Although the proposed classification is based on our review and synthesis, it is presented first to avoid confusion with existing terminology.

NOMENCLATURE
Although the above usage of the terms accommodation zone and transfer zone is in accord with many recent studies, much confusion exists in the literature over the appropriate terminology. Previous attempts to classify these structures have generally been based on data from individual rifts. We propose a new classification that encompasses data from a variety of extended terranes. Our proposed classification is defined in Table 1 and illustrated in Figures 5 and 6. Before discussing the proposed classification, however, the semantic history of these structures is reviewed. Table 1 also provides a comparison of the proposed and previously published nomenclature. Semantic history The term accommodation zone has been associated with the terminations of normal-faut systems and reversals in the asymmetry of rifts (i.e., tilt direction of fault blocks) since the early 1980s. Moustafa (1976) referred to areas of tilt reversal as hinge zones. Bosworth (1985) broadened this term to accommodation zone, because the tilt direction remains constant at some subbasin boundaries. Bosworth et al. (1986) later restricted the use of accommodation zone to the lateral terminations of oppositely dipping normal-fault systems and detachment faults, where the direction of fault-block tilt reverses. Several workers then followed this usage, describing accommodation zones as areas of dip reversal in normal-fault systems and fault blocks (e.g., Rosendahl, 1987; Chapin, 1989; Faulds et al., 1990) (Table 1). Rosendahl (1987) recognized that the geometry of accommodation zones is largely dependent on the extent of overlap between normalfault systems (Fig. 7). The anticlinal welts observed between overlapping, inwardly dipping normal faults were referred to as low-relief accommodation zones. The term low-relief was used because most of these zones within the East African rift were engulfed within large basins even though they were elevated relative to large depocenters in the individual, adjoining half grabens (Fig. 8). Relatively unsubsided regions between the overlapping tips of outwardly dipping normal faults, which correspond to large regional synclines, were termed interbasinal ridges by Rosendahl et al. (1986) and high-relief accommodation zones by Reynolds (1984) and Rosendahl (1987). Scott and Rosendahl ( 1989) later modified the terms low- relief and high-relief accommodation zones to interference and isolational accommodation zones, respectively (Table 1). They also used the term strike-slip accommodation zone to describe those zones with virtually no overlap between oppositely dipping half grabens and normal fault zones. The inferred, but undocumented, strike-slip motion was related to diametric lateral transport of fault blocks in the upper plates of opposing detachment faults. Faulds et al. (1990) noted, however, that strike-slip faulting does not characterize accommodation zones with minimal overlap and that strike-slip faulting is not kinematically required between the upper plates of opposing detachment terranes. The tenu transfer zone was originally applied to overlapping thrust faults within contractional settings (Fig. 9) (see review by OKeefe and Steams, 1982). Dahlstrom (1970) described transfer zones as structures, including faults and folds, that enable either the conservation of shortening or a smooth and regular change in shortening between the overlapping tips of thrust faults. OKeefe and Stearns (1982) divided transfer zones in fold and thrust belts into three end members: (1) tear-faulted transfer zones; (2) distributed strain transfer zones; and (3) localized strain transfer zones. The tear-faulted zones correspond to discrete strike-slip faults that transfer strain between two thrust faults, whereas the distributed and localized strain models involve a variety of structures that develop between overlapping thrust faults. Dahlstrom (1970) and OKeefe and Stearns (1982) considered only those transfer zones that separate synthetic thrust faults. Because the term transfer zone had been applied to overlapping thrust faults in contractional settings, many workers have preferred the term transfer zone over accommodation zone for belts of overlapping normal faults in extended terranes (e.g., Morley et al., 1990; Gawthorpe and Hurst, 1993). Morey et al. (1990) grouped transfer zones into conjugate and synthetic types (Fig. 10 and Table 1), which incorporate structures that accommodate displacement transfer between faults that dip in opposite directions and faults that dip in the same direction, respectively. Their synthetic and conjugate transfer zones are analogous to the relay ramps of Larsen (1988) and Peacock and Sanderson (1994) and the accommodation zones of Bosworth et al. (1986) and Rosendahl (1987), respectively. The conjugate transfer zone was further divided (Morey et al., 1990) into a convergent type, where faults dip toward one another, and a divergent type, where faults dip away from one another (Fig. 10). The convergent and divergent types correspond, respectively, to the interference and isolational accommodation zones (Table 1) of Scott and Rosendahl (1989). An additional subdivision of the conjugate and synthetic transfer zones was based on the amount of overlap between the sets of competing faults (Fig. 10 and Table 1). The classification of Morley et al. (1990) is more robust than earlier classifications of rift-segmentation structures, because it incorporates both the synthetic and antithetic case, as well as variations in the degree of overlap between competing sets of faults. The distinction between overlapping and approaching fault sets is valuable because (1) it may reflect stages in the evolution of a transfer zone as two fault tips propagate toward and then past each other (Morley et al., 1990) and (2) the degree of overlap affects the deformational style within the transfer zone. Morley et al. (1990) concluded that belts of overlapping fault tips characterize rift-segmentation structures, but recognized that transverse (i.e.,

parallel to extension direction) to oblique strike-slip faults (their approaching and collinear transfer zones) may link both antithetic and synthetic normal fault zones that have minimal overlap (Fig. 10, A, D, G, H). In contrast, Gibbs (1984) defined transfer faults as transverse to oblique faults having a large component of strike-slip motion (Fig. 4A). Gibbs (1984) noted that (1) complex rotational and both dip- and strike-slip components accommodate the transfer of strain along the transfer faults, and (2) the apparent sense of displacement on transfer faults can change at different levels in the section and along the fault trace, depending on the relative motion between extended terranes and individual fault blocks. The transfer faults of Gibbs (1984) are analogous to the tear-faulted transfer zones of OKeefe and Stearns (1982) within contractional settings. Dahlstrom (1970, p. 375) described contractional tear faults as thinskinned strike-slip faults that permit changes in patterns, of deformation and differential movement between individual pails of thrust sheets. Thus, the transfer faults of Gibbs (1984) differ significantly from the characteristic transfer zones of Morley et al. (1990). The transfer zones of Morley et al. (1990) are analogous to the accommodation zones of Bos worth (1985) and Rosendahl (1987), whereas the transfer faults of Gibbs (1984) are not. As a consequence, the literature on extended terranes contains a confusing mixture of these terms. In many studies, the terms transfer zone and accommodation zone are used interchangeably (e.g., Gawthorpe and Hurst, 1993; Benes et al., 1994). In some cases, transfer zones have been discussed as a type of accommodation zone (e.g., Lee et al., 1996). In other cases, transfer zones have been distinguished from accommodation zones according to the classifications of Gibbs (1984) and Rosendahl (1987) (e.g., Faulds et al, 1990; Duebendorfer and Black, 1992). Although little consensus exists on what to call structures that accommodate the regional segmentation of extensional orogens, the apparent consistency in the geometry of such structures in a variety of extended terranes advocates development of a consistent nomenclature. Proposed classification In hopes of clarifying the general styles of segmentation and of simplifying the present confusion of terms in the literature, we propose a revised, nongenetic classification of structures (e.g., accommodation and transfer zones) that accommodate the regional segmentation of extended terranes (Table 1 and Figs. 5 and 6). The proposed classification is based primarily on geometry and borrows heavily from several earlier contributions (e.g., Stewart, 1980; Gibbs, 1984; Rosendahl, 1987; Scott and Rosendahl, 1989; Morley et al., 1990; Gawthorpe and Hurst, 1993) . Our classification is organized into several subdivisions and can therefore be utilized at varying levels of detail. A basic premise of our classification is that normal-fault systems terminate in one of two general types of structures: (1) strike- slip or oblique-slip fault zones, which generally link spatially separated loci of extension, here referred to as transfer zones, and (2) more diffuse belts of overlapping fault terminations, here referred to as accommodation zones. The review of rift-segmenta- tion structures that follows our proposed classification demonstrates that most extended terranes, including both low- and high-strain rifts, contain these two general groups of structures. Transfer zone. In accord with Gibbs (1984) definition of transfer faults, we define transfer zones as transversely oriented (i.e., parallel to extension direction) to moderately oblique fault zones that accommodate a large component of strike-slip motion. Transfer zones can form an abrupt lateral boundary to an extended terrane, but more commonly link spatially separated domains of extension. The first division of transfer zones is into antithetic, synthetic, and rift-margin types (Fig. 5, Table 1). Antithetic transfer zones link oppositely dipping normal fault systems, whereas synthetic zones connect fault systems that dip in the same direction. Rift-margin transfer zones serve as abrupt along-strike boundaries to entire extended terranes. Synthetic transfer zones are much more common than antithetic zones. Rift-margin zones are rare, at least at the scale of a typical extended terrane, because rifts tend to progressively narrow along strike rather than end abruptly. Most rift-margin zones correspond to transform faults that link extended terranes to other deformational belts (e.g., Alpine fault, New Zealand; Anatolian fault, Turkey). Transfer zones are further divided on the basis of the dominant mode of deformation (Fig. 5, Table 1). As Gibbs (1984) noted, the style of deformation along transfer zones can be complex and vary both vertically and along strike within the zone. Strike-slip motion is most common, but individual segments of a transfer zone can accommodate oblique normal, oblique reverse, or purely normal or reverse slip depending on (1) the relative motion between individual fault blocks or domains on either side of the zone and (2) variation in the strike of the zone, which can induce development of releasing (Fig. 5h) or restraining bends. The actual sense of strike-slip motion can also change if (1) the relative motion between juxtaposed domains differs along the trace of the zone, which may develop in zones that link multiple domains of extension (Fig. 4A), or (2) if the zone accommodates a scissors-like motion between the upthrown and downthrown parts of an individual fault block. Transfer zones that are dominated by such complexities are referred to as composites. Rotational transfer zones are zones that accommodate relative motions largely through vertical-axis rotation of structural blocks (Fig. 5g) (e.g., Hudson et al, this volume). Most transfer zones accommodate upper-crustal heterogeneities in strain. However, some transfer zones may function in a way similar to that of transform faults, inasmuch as they link separate loci of extension above a mid-crustal inviscid zone (e.g., McCarthy et al., 1991; Wernicke, 1992). Thus, the similarity in the terms transform fault and transfer zone seems appropriate. Accommodation zone. We define an accommodation zone as the group of structures that accommodate the transfer of strain between overlapping zones or systems of normal faults. The primary division of accommodation zones is into antithetic and synthetic types (Fig. 6, Table 1). Antithetic accommodation zones incorporate oppositely dipping, overlapping normal faults and are directly analogous to the accommodation zones of Rosendahl (1987) and Faulds et al. (1990) and the conjugate transfer zones of Morley et al. (1990). The term antithetic was used in lieu of conjugate because activities on the opposing normal faults are not necessarily synchronous in all accommodation zones (e.g., Axen, 1986; Varga and Faulds, 1995; Thenhaus and Bamhard, this volume). Synthetic accommodation zones comprise uniformly dipping, overlapping normal-fault systems and correspond with the synthetic transfer zones of Morley et al. (1990). Contrary to Rosendahl (1987) and Faulds et al. (1990), but in accord with Bosworth (1985), the definition of accommodation zone is broadened to include the synthetic case because the segmentation of rifts is

commonly accomplished by overlapping faults of similar rather than opposed dip. Both antithetic and synthetic accommodation zones can be further divided on the basis of the degree of overlap between the fault systems. Transverse zones, which trend approximately parallel to the extension direction, develop where overlap is small (Fig. 6, a, f) (also see approaching transfer zones of Morley et al., 1990; Fig. 10, a, d, h). Oblique zones form where overlap is moderate (Fig. 6, b, c, g). Strikeparallel segments, which trend approximately parallel to the strike of normal faults and overall trend of the rift, develop where overlap is large (Fig. 6, d, e). With large amounts of overlap, the synthetic case essentially becomes part of a normal-fault system and is not distinguishable. Individual relay ramps are common in both the synthetic and antithetic transverse types of accommodation zones (Fig. 2). The anticlinal and synclinal types of both strike-parallel and oblique antithetic zones occur where the overlapping fault systems dip toward and away from each other, respectively. The terms anticlinal and synclinal are used because they convey a clear image of the dominant geometry in the zones and are independent of topographic expression. These terms are more applicable than the high-relief and low-relief zones of Rosendahl and the interference and isolational zones of Scott and Rosendahl (1989). For example, in the Basin and Range province some anticlinal zones (low-relief zones of Rosendahl, 1987) are topographic highs, whereas some synclinal zones (high- relief zones of Rosendahl, 1987) reside in topographic swales with relatively little relief. The word interference is also potentially misleading, because the amount of interference between oppositely tilted fault blocks is dependent on both the relative timing and motions, and may be insignificant. Similarly, the terms anticlinal and synclinal are favored over the terms convergent and divergent (Morley et al., 1990) because they cannot be construed as implying relative translations or types of strain within an accommodation zone (e.g., convergent could imply contractional strain, although Morley et al. [1990] did not use it in this way). It is important to note that regional accommodation zones can contain both antithetic and synthetic segments (e.g., Thenhaus and Barnhard, this volume), as well as both strike-parallel and transverse segments (e.g., Faulds et al., 1990; Faulds, 1994; Varga et al., 1996). It is also noteworthy that accommodation and transfer zones are not always mutually exclusive. Some accommodation zones contain minor transfer faults, and some transfer zones incorporate subordinate accommodation zones. Where transversely oriented oblique- and strike-slip faults and overlapping fault terminations occur in roughly equivalent proportions, classification as either a transfer zone or accommodation zone may be difficult. This problem is in part scale dependent because individual segments of such zones can generally be distinguished. Nonetheless, such problems may, in some cases, warrant usage of the broader term transverse zone to describe transversely oriented structures that are transitional between, or contain elements of both, accommodation and transfer zones (Table i) (e.g., Rowley, this volume; Hudson et al., this volume; Axen, this volume).

GEOMETRY AND KINEMATICS

Modern concepts of rift segmentation have been developed over approximately the past 30 years. The literature relating to extensional transfer and accommodation zones is consequently voluminous. Since about 1970, concepts of rift segmentation have evolved from the common depiction of simple strike-slip faults at the margins of fault blocks and more regionally extended terranes (e.g., Fleck, 1970; Anderson, 1973; Davis and Burchfiel, 1973; Bally, 1982) to recognition of more complex boundaries comprising intermeshing normal and oblique-slip faults (e.g., Rosendahl, 1987; Faulds et al., 1990; Morley et al., 1990; Moustafa, 1996). Interest in accommodation zone geometry has increased rapidly in recent years as the focus of research has shifted somewhat from the across-strike geometry of detachment faults, metamorphic core complexes, and highly extended terranes to the three-dimensional geometry of extended orogens. Interest in rift-segment boundaries as potential targets for hydrocarbon exploration (e.g., Tankard and Welsink, 1989; Morley et al., 1990; Nelson et al., 1992) and as barriers to earthquake rupture (King, 1986; Fonseca, 1988; Thenhaus and Barnhard, 1989, this volume) has fueled this shift in emphasis. In this section we briefly review the geometry and kinematics of transfer and accommodation zones in both mildly and highly extended terranes. Our synthesis of prior studies is the basis for our proposed, nongenetic classification of rift-segmentation stmctures (Table 1). For the sake of consistency and to avoid confusing the reader with a vast array of historical terminology, we discuss the previously published examples of transfer and accommodation zones in terms of our new classification. Lowstrain rifts East Africa. The Miocene to recent East African rift system wraps around the relatively unextended Tanganyikan shield and comprises western and eastern rift branches (Gregory, 1921). These branches join to the south to form the Malawi rift zone (Fig. 11) and to the north to form the Ethiopian rift and Afar depression. The western rift branch includes several large, distinct segments, including the Albert, Tanganyika, and Rukwa rifts, that contain large lakes and a paucity of extension-related volcanic rocks. In contrast, the Gregory and Turkana rift segments of the eastern branch are associated with voluminous volcanic material and generally lack large lakes (e.g., Rosendahl, 1987). Individual rift flanks are generally uplifted as much as ~2 km (Ebinger et aL, 1987; Keller et al., 1991), although the timing of uplift relative to basin subsidence is controversial (Rosendahl, 1987). The East African rift system is a low-strain rift; estimates of extension are <20% (e.g., Rosendahl, 1987; Ebinger, 1989; Morley, 1989; Keller et al, 1991). Age relations show that deformation propagated along the length of individual rift segments (Ebinger et al. 1987; Flannery and Rosendahl, 1990). Summaries of East African rift geology can be found in Rosendahl (1987) and Baker et al. (1972). Segmentation of the East African rift system has been extensively studied and has been the topic of several summary papers that classify the segment boundary types (Rosendahl, 1987; Scott and Rosendahl, 1989; Morley et al., 1990). Figures 7 and 10 show the classification of linking modes of Scott and Rosendahl (1989) and Morley et al. (1990), respectively. The East African rift system is segmented at many scales, but the fundamental unit of segmentation is the half graben (Rosendahl, 1987). Large rift segments, such as the Kivu-Rusizi (Ebinger, 1989), Malawi (Ebinger et al., 1987), and Tanganyika (Rosendahl et al., 1986) rifts, are composed of numerous smaller half grabens, with along-strike

spacings of -70-100 km. The grabens are linked along the rift axis by various types of accommodation and transfer zones (Fig. 8). Individual half grabens are generally bounded on one side by an arcuate boundary fault. Throw is generally at a maximum near fault centers and decreases along strike toward fault tips. Several authors have suggested that the larger half grabens are floored by uniform-sense detachment faults that change polarity in the vicinity of antithetic accommodation zones (Bosworth, 1985; Bosworth et al., 1986; Morley, 1989), although these detachments are not evident in the field or on seismic reflection profiles. Depth-to-detachment calculations range between 15 and 30 km (Morley, 1989). The tliree fundamental types of linkage that have been recognized between oppositely tilted half grabens and opposing normal-fault systems in East African rifts are anticlinal antithetic accommodation zones, synclinal antithetic accommodation zones, and antithetic transfer zones (Figs. 5, c, d, and 6, a, b; Table 1) (Rosendahl, 1987; Scott and Rosendahl, 1989). The dominant type of linkage is strike parallel to oblique anticlinal accommodation zones formed by two overlapping, inwardly dipping border- fault systems and half grabens of opposed polarity' that dip away from one another (Table 1 ; Figs. 6c and 7). Reflection seismic data from East African lakes show that anticlinal antithetic accommo dation zones (interference accommodation zones of Scott and Rosendahl, 1989) typically include structurally high central blocks and flanking depocenters adjacent to opposing border-fault systems, with strata defining crude anticlines (Fig. 8A) (Rosendahl, 1987; Scott and Rosendahl, 1989; Flannery and Rosendahl, 1990). Detailed sequence stratigraphies demonstrate that subsidence alternated between border faults in some opposing half grabens in the Malawi rift in response to temporal switching of faulting events on either side of the accommodation zone (Flannery and Rosendahl, 1990). Oblique synclinal antithetic accommodation zones are associated with minimally overlapping, outwardly dipping normal-fault systems and half grabens of opposite polarity that dip toward one another (Fig. 6c). A structurally high hoist commonly lies between the tips of the two, outwardly dipping border-fault systems (Fig. 8B). These synclinal zones (termed high-relief and isolational accommodation zones by Rosendahl, 1987, and Scott and Rosendahl, 1989, respectively; Table 1) have been observed on seismic reflection profiles (Fig. 8B) (Rosendahl, 1987) and in the field (e.g., Ebinger, 1989). A well-documented example of such a zone separates the Rusizi and Kivu half grabens (Fig. 12). Antithetic transfer zones (strike-slip accommodation zone of Scott and Rosendahl, 1989) (Table 1 ; Figs. 5, c, d, and 7) comprising transversely oriented strike-slip faults are uncommon in the East African rift system (King, 1978; Crossley, 1979; Griffiths, 1980; Morley etal., 1990). Links between half grabens with similar polarity are common in East African rifts (King, 1978; Crossley, 1979; Griffiths, 1980; Morley et al., 1990). Such linking transmits displacement between en echelon synthetic fault tips (Figs. 2 and 6, f, g), and in our classification (Table 1) is termed a synthetic accommodation zone. Typically, the terrain between en echelon synthetic fault tips forms a sloping relay ramp (Larsen, 1988; Peacock and Sanderson, 1994) (Table 1) that connects sediment source regions in the footwall to graben depocenters (Fig. 13A) (Gawthorpe and Hurst, 1993; Peacock and Sanderson, 1994). The ramps may be broken by oblique normal faults that transfer displacement between border faults (Fig. 6f). Gulf of Suez. The Gulf of Suez rift, or Clysmic rift, is a northwest-trending zone of largely Neogene continental extension that separates North Africa from the Sinai Peninsula at the northern end of the northwestward-propagating Red Sea rift (Robson, 1971; Garfunkel and Bartov, 1977; Patton et al., 1994) (Fig. 14). Block faulting and opening of the Gulf of Suez began in the late Oiigocene (Robson, 1971; Scott and Govean, 1984; Sell wood and Netherwood, 1984; Chenet et al., 1987) in response to northeast-southwest extension (Angelier, 1985; Lyberis, 1988). Opening of the Gulf of Suez largely ceased during Pliocene time when extension of the northern Red Sea was taken up by the sinistral, Dead Sea-Aqaba transform fault system (Garfunkel, 1981) . The Gulf of Suez comprises a 90-100-km-wide zone of tilted fault blocks bounded on the southwest and northeast by major borderfault systems and flanking uplifts (Fig. 14). Syn-rift sedimentation was largely confined to the extended and subsided crust between border faults (Steckler, 1985; Garfunkel, 1988; Patton et al., 1994). Total structural relief between the rift and flanking uplifts is 4-5 km (Garfunkel, 1988). Estimated extension is about 5%-10% in the northern part of the rift and increases to 35%~40% to the south (Colletta et al, 1988). The Gulf of Suez incorporates three major domains within which major fault blocks and normal faults have consistent dip directions (Fig. 14) (Moustafa, 1976, 1996; Patton et al., 1994). Southwest-tilted fault blocks and northeast-dipping normal faults dominate the northern and southern domains, whereas northeast- tilted fault blocks and south west-dipping faults characterize the central domain (Fig. 14). The domain boundaries across which the polarity of faulting reverses are defined by two northeast-trending, transverse antithetic accommodation zones (Table 1 ; Fig. 6e), the Galala-Zenima zone in the north and the Morgan zone in the south (Figs. 14 and 15). These zones have previously been referred to as hinge zones (Moustafa, 1976), twist zones (Colletta et al., 1988), and conjugate transfer zones (Patton et al., 1994). Although envisaged by early workers as primarily zones of strike-slip faulting (Moustafa, 1976; Angelier, 1985), geologic mapping and subsurface data (drill hole and seismic reflection profiles) indicate that the change of polarity across antithetic accommodation zones in the Gulf of Suez is accomplished mainly through interaction of rift-parallel normal faults of the opposing dip domains (Fig. 15) (Colletta et al., 1988; Patton etal., 1994). Transverse cross sections across the rift show that major normal faults of opposing dip domains lose displacement toward, and intermesh within, the Galala-Zenima and Morgan accommodation zones. In addition, the zones include strike- parallel to oblique anticlinal and synclinal segments (Figs. 15 and 6, a-d; Table 1) (graben- and horst-twist zones, respectively, of Colletta et al., 1988). The Gulf of Suez also contains synthetic accommodation zones, including several that link en echelon, overlapping southwest-dipping normal faults within the central northeast-tilted domain (Patton et al., 1994). Major antithetic accommodation zones in the Gulf of Suez have been related to changes in orientation and polarity of underlying detachment faults (Perry and Schamel, 1985; Garbee, 1987; Moustafa, 1996). However, Colletta et al. (1988) suggested that the structural asymmetry is confined to the upper brittle crust and does not reflect dip reversals in underlying detachments.In addition to accommodation zones, transfer zones that truncate major fault blocks are common within dip provinces of the Gulf of Suez and create the zig zag pattern typical of continental rift zones (Fig. 14) (e.g., Moustafa and Abd-Allah, 1992; Gawthoipe and Hurst, 1993; Patton et al., 1994). Well-documented examples include several northeast-striking transfer zones at the north end of the large, east-tilted Gebel Araba block (Fig. 14) (Chenet and Letouzey, 1983; Schamel and Wise, 1984; Ott dEstevou et al., 1986; Chenet et al, 1987), where major, rift-parallel normal faults curve into transfer segments and define listric, spoon-shaped fault geometries with oblique-slip on transverse segments. In addition, northeast-striking,

high-angle transfer faults, with highly variable slip components, characterize the southwestern extension of the Morgan accommodation zone on the western margin of the gulf, where opposing normal-fault systems overlap and terminate across a narrow (~5 km wide) zone (Coffield and Schamel, 1989). This area is associated with a major basement promontory (Dara uplift, Fig. 14), which may predate extension (Colletta et al., 1988). Rio Grande rift. The >i000-km-long Rio Grande rift (Fig. 3) is essentially an eastern ami of the Basin and Range province that tapers northward from a broad >200-km-wide extended terrane in northern Mexico and west Texas to a narrow ~5-km-wide rift in central Colorado. The wedge shape of the rift reflects the generally greater magnitude (-50%) and earlier onset (ca. 35 Ma) of extension in the south relative to the northern part (8%-12% extension, ca. 27 Ma) (Chapin et al., 1978a; Chapin and Cather, 1994; Mack et al., 1996). The most rapid phase of extension occurred in the middle to late Miocene (Chapin and Cather, 1994). The Rio Grande rift comprises a series of asymmetric half grabens linked by antithetic transfer zones and antithetic transverse and strikeparallel accommodation zones (Fig. 3), across which the polarity of fault systems and fault blocks reverses (Chapin, 1978, 1989; Maler, 1990; Lewis and Baldridge, 1994; May and Russell, 1994; Chapin and Cather, 1994). Typical half-graben basins range from 80 to 240 km in northsouth length, average about 50 km in width, and contain as much as 5-6 km of fluvio-lacustrine and volcanic fill. Structural relief across the master bounding faults of the half grabens is typically about 5 km but can locally exceed 8 km (Lozinsky, 1988; Chapin and Cather, 1994). At least two rift-segment boundaries that separate oppositely tilted half grabens in the Rio Grande rift contain transverse faults that accommodated strike-slip motion. The northeast-trending Embudo zone (Figs. 3 and 16), which links the west-dipping border fault of the easttilted San Luis basin with the east-dipping border fault of the west-tilted Espaola basin (Aldrich, 1986; Cather, 1992; Chapin and Cather, 1994), includes a western segment with oblique dextral movement (Aldrich, 1986) and an eastern segment with oblique sinistral motion (Muehlberger, 1979). The magnitude of strike-slip offset has not been documented for either segment. A reverse component of motion has also been noted in the eastern segment (Muehlberger, 1979) and within north-northeast-striking restraining bends in the western segment of this zone (Aldrich, 1986). Farther south, the northeast-striking Tijeras fault zone (Tijeras accommodation zone of Cather, 1992), which is exposed east of Albuquerque, projects into the boundary between the east-tilted northern and west-tilted southern Albuquerque basins (Fig. 17): 3 km of postCretaceous sinistral slip have been suggested for this zone (Kelley and Northrop, 1975). Russell and Snelson (1990) interpreted poor-quality' seismic reflection data across a portion of the Tijeras zone as compatible with negative flower structures, features commonly associated with strike-slip fault zones. Thus, the Embudo and Tijeras zones may both represent antithetic transfer zones (Fig. 5, c, d; Table 1). Perhaps the best-documented antithetic accommodation zone in the Rio Grande rift is the Socorro transverse zone (Fig. 3) between the southern Albuquerque and Socorro basins (Chapin, 1978, 1989; Chapin and Cather, 1994). Although the 2-km-wide, topographically high zone separates steeply (60-70) tilted half grabens of opposite polarity, it is not marked by a transverse fault zone. The trace of the zone crosses prerift structures without apparent strike-slip offset. Geologic mapping demonstrates that the zone is a narrow belt of intermeshing, oppositely dipping normal faults with relatively low stratal dips (Chapin, 1989). Several strike-parallel anticlinal and synclinal accommodation zones are also found in the Rio Grande rift (Figs. 3, 16, and 17), but have not been studied in detail. In addition, synthetic accommodation zones are common within the Rio Grande rift. The north-sloping ramp-like structure of the northern Sandia Mountains probably represents a large relay ramp, or synthetic accommodation zone, that transfers displacement between the Rincon-Placitas and La Bajada fault zones (Fig. 16).