Physical Properties of Group IIIB Elements

Group III B includes boron, aluminum, gallium, indium and thallium. All the members of group IIIB contain three electrons in the outermost orbit. Hence, they have an outer electronic configuration of ns2np1. As the outer most electrons are present in the p-shell they are included in the P-block. Here is a list of physical properties by these elements. Physical properties: Atomic and ionic radius: atomic radius increases from boron to thallium. From boron to aluminum, the atomic radius increases greatly. This increase is due to greater screening effect caused by the eight electrons present in the penultimate shell. This is not seen in case of boron as it has only two electrons in the penultimate shell. In case of ionic radius, it increases from boron to thallium. Density: Density increases from B to TI. This is due to increase in the size of the atom. Of all the elements, aluminum is of very low density and is widely used as a structural material. Melting and boiling points: Melting point decreases from B to Ga and then it gradually increases. Boron has a very high melting point due to its existence as a giant covalent polymer in both solid and liquid states. Gallium has a very low melting point and remains as liquid up to 2000. Ionization energy: Though the members of p-block have large nuclear charge and small size, the first ionization energies of these elements are less than the corresponding values of s-block elements. The electrons are far away from the nucleus and are held less tightly. Hence, they can be removed very easily. However, the average of the first three ionization energies is very high and decrease as we move down the group. Electropositive character: Electropositive nature increases from B to TI. Boron acts as a semi-metal while all the other elements show metallic nature. Oxidation states: As there are three electrons in the outermost orbit, they show oxidation states of +1 and +3. Boron exhibits only the +3 oxidation state and all the other elements show both the oxidation states. The stability of +1 oxidation state increases as we move down the group. Thus, thallium which shows a +1 oxidation state is highly stable. This is due to the inert pair effect. (Inert pair effect means the two s-electrons in the outer shell remain paired and do not participate in compound formation). Ability to form ionic compounds: The tendency to form ionic compounds increases as we move down the group. Boron forms only covalent compounds. This is mainly due to its high ionization energy and small size. The small size of boron enables it to exert strong polarizing effect on neighboring atoms and pulls off the electrons from neighboring atoms. As the ionic size increases as we move down the group, the tendency to form covalent bond decreases. Oxidation potential or reducing property: the oxidation potentials of the elements of group III B are very high. This is due to high heat of hydration which is due to high charge and small radius of trivalent ions M3+. Aluminum is a very strong reducing agent. Complex formation: the smaller size and greater charge of group IIIB elements enable them to have a greater tendency to form complexes than the s-block elements.

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Physical constants of group 13 elements

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1. Atomic and ionic radii

Back to Top The atomic and ionic radii of group 13 elements are compared to corresponding elements of group 2. This is due to the increase in nuclear charge when one moves from, element of group 2 to group 13 in the same period. As the elements are considered from left to right in the period, the magnitude of nuclear charge increases but the electrons are added to, the same shell. Since the electrons in the same shell do not screen each other, therefore, the electrons experience greater nuclear charge. In other words, effective nuclear charge increases and thus, size decreases. Therefore, the elements of this group have smaller size than the corresponding elements of second group. On moving down the group both atomic and ionic radii are expected to increase due to the addition of new shells. However, the observed atomic radius of Al (143 pm) is slightly more than that of Ga (l35 pm). Explanation: While going from Al (Z =13) to Ga (Z =31) there are also ten elements of the First transition series of d-block from (Z = 21 to 30) which have electrons in the inner d-orbitals. The d-orbitals do not screen the nucleus effectively because of their shapes and poor penetration power. As a result, the effective nuclear charge in Ga becomes more than in Al and its atomic radius, therefore, decreases slightly.

2. Melting and boiling points

Back to Top The melting points and boiling points decrease on moving down the group. However, the decrease in melting points is not as regular as in boiling points.

3. Ionization energies
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The first ionization energies of group 13 elements are less than the corresponding members of the alkaline earths. Explanation: The first electron in the case of group 13 elements (ns2np1) is to be removed from p-orbital while in case of elements of group 2; the electron has to be removed from s-orbital. Since p-orbitals are at slightly higher energy than the s-orbitals, the electron in the atoms of group13 elements is weakly held by the nucleus and, therefore, the first ionization energy is less. However, second (IE2) and third (IE3) ionization energies are quite high. When one electron is removed from outermost p sub-shell, the resulting ion has completely filled s-orbital (ns2). Therefore, it becomes difficult to remove the second electron. On moving down a group, the ionization energies in general, decrease. Explanation: This is due to increase in atomic size and screening effect, which is more than to compensate the effect of increase in nuclear charge. Consequently, the electron becomes less and less tightly held by the nucleus as we move down the group. Hence, ionization energy decreases down the group.

The study of the above table shows an anomalous behavior - ionization energy decreases sharply from B to Al and then the ionization energy of Ga is unexpectedly higher than that of Al. Explanation: The sharp decrease in I.E. from B to Al is due to increase in size. In case of Ga, there are ten d-electrons in its inner electronic configuration. Since the d-electron shield the nuclear charge less effectively than the sand p-electrons, the outer electron is held fairly strongly by the nucleus. As a result, the ionization energy increases slightly in spite of the increase in atomic size as one moves from Al to Ga. The similar increase is also observed from In to Tl, which is due to the presence of 14 f-electrons in the inner electronic configuration of Tl, which have very poor shielding effect.

Electropositive (or metallic) character

Back to Top Due to high ionization energies, the elements of group 13 are less electropositive as compared to elements of group 2. On moving down the group the electropositive (metallic) character increases because ionization energy decreases. For e.g., Boron is a non-metal white the other elements are typical metals.

Oxidation states
Back to Top The atoms of these elements have three valence electrons, two in s-subshell and one in the p-subshell (ns2 np1). Therefore, all these elements can show maximum of +3 oxidation state. The common oxidation states, observed for group 13 elements are +3 and + l as shown below. The stability of the + 1 oxidation state increases in the sequence Al < Ga < In < Tl.

Except boron and aluminium, the other elements also show +1 oxidation state. The +1 oxidation state becomes more stable as one moves down the group from boron to thallium. In case of last element, thallium, +1oxidation state has been found to be more stable than + 3 oxidation state. Explanation: This is explained on the basis of inert pair effect. The elements of group 13 have three electrons in their valence shell (ns2npl) and, therefore, exhibit, oxidation state of + 3. However, it bas been observed that in addition to + 3 oxidation state, they also exhibit oxidation state of +1. The +1 oxidation state becomes more and more stable as one goes down the group from B, Al, Ga, In to Tl. The +1 oxidation state of Tl is more stable than +3 oxidation state. For e.g., thallous compounds such as TlOH and TlClO4 are more stable than their thallic compounds. This is attributed to the inert pair effect. In the case of last element, after the removal of one electron from p-orbital, the remaining ns2 (e.g. 6s2) electrons behave like stable noble gas and do not take part formation. This reluctance of the s-electron pair to take part in chemical combination is called inert pair effect. This helps to explain the stability of lower oxidation states for the heavier elements of a group.

Some physical constants of Group 14 elements

Back to Top C Atomic radius (pm) Ionic radius (pm) M M2+ Ionisation energy IE1(k.J mol-1) IE2 IE3 IE4 Electro negativity Melting point (K) Boiling point (K)
4+

Si 118 40 756 1577 3228 4354 1.8 1693 3550 122 53 73 761

Ge 140 69 118 708

Sn 146 78 119 715

Pb

77 1086 2352 4620 6220 2.5 4373 -

1537 3300 4409 1.8 1218 3123

1411 2942 3929 1.8 505 2896

1450 3081 4082 1.9 600 2024

The variation of the physical properties among the members of the group is discussed below:

Density
Back to Top The density of the members belonging to this group is found to increase down the group as usual. Explanation: It is because of the increase in mass per unit volume.

Atomic radii
Back to Top The atomic radii of group 14 elements are smaller than the corresponding elements of group 13. Explanation: This is because as one moves from group 13 to group 14 elements within the same period, the nuclear charge increases and consequently the size decreases. Within the group, the atomic radii increase on going down the group due to increase in the number of energy shells.

Ionization energy
Back to Top As the sizes of elements belonging to group 14 are smaller than the corresponding elements of group 13, their first ionization energies are higher than those of corresponding members of group 13. Among the members of the same group, the ionization energies (IE) follow the order C > Si > Ge > Sn < Pb. Explanation: In general, the ionization energy decreases down the group due to increase in size and screening effect of inner electrons. Therefore electrons become less and less tightly held by the nucleus and ionization energy decreases. The electropositive character (or metallic) increases down the group due to decrease in ionization energy.

Metallic character
Back to Top The elements of group 14 are less metallic due to relatively large values of ionization energies as compared to elements of group 13. The metallic character however increases down the group from C to Pb.

Electronegativity
Back to Top The elements belonging to this group are more electronegative than elements of group 13. It is because these have a small size. The electronegativity value decreases from top to bottom in the group.

Catenation
Back to Top A remarkable property of carbon is its ability to form compounds in which carbon atoms are linked to one another in chains or rings. This property of forming chains of identical atoms is called catenation. The property of catenation depends upon the strength of atom-atom bond. The greater the strength of the atomatom bond, greater is the extent of catenation. The elements of group 14 exhibit catenation. It is most extensive in the case of carbon because C-C bond is very strong. On going down the group, the atom-atom bond strength decreases and hence the extent of catenation also decreases. It varies in the order: C > > Si > Ge Sn > > Pb

Allotropy
Back to Top A characteristic property of the elements of groups 14 is that these show allotropy. Allotropy is the existence of an element in two or more forms, which are significantly different in physical properties but have similar chemical properties. The difference may be due to difference in crystal structure, the number of atoms in the molecule of a gas or the molecular structure of a liquid.

For e.g, Carbon has two important allotropic forms i.e., diamond and graphite. In diamond, carbon is sp3 hybridized and has a network of tetra-coordinated carbon atoms. Thus it is a network solid. On the other hand, in graphite the carbon atom is sp2 hybridized. Thus, it has a layer structure i.e., the three covalent bonds form hexagonal layers. The fourth unhybridized p-electron of each carbon forms an extended delocalized p-bonding system due to pp-pp bonds forming tendency of carbon atoms. Various layers are held together by weak Van der Waal forces. It is for this reason that it is used as a lubricant. For e.g, suspension of graphite in oil is used as lubricant in heavy machinery. It is known as oil dag. Similarly, colloidal dispersion of graphite in water is called aqua dag.

Oxidation States
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Oxidation States of Group 14 elements

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The electronic configuration of the valence shell reveals the presence of four valence electrons. Now, in order to acquire the noble gas configuration the carbon family members have to gain or lose four electrons forming ions of the type M4+or M4-. Since the formation of such ions would require a large amount of energy, which shall not be available under the conditions of bond formation, therefore they neither lose nor gain four electrons but share electrons to get stable noble gas configuration. Hence, the elements of group 14 form covalent bonds in their compounds, with the highest oxidation state of + 4. The elements of this group also exhibit an oxidation state of + 2. It is observed that the lower oxidation state becomes more stable with increase in atomic number, down the group. This is due to the inert pair effect. The elements in their lower oxidation state of + 2 are expected to form ionic bonds whereas in the higher oxidation state of + 4 these can form only covalent bonds in their compounds. This indirectly means that as we move down the group, the tendency to form ionic compounds increases. The stability of the divalent state increases markedly in the sequence. Ge< Sn

Some important physical constants of group 15 elements

Back to Top N Atomic radius (pm) Ionic radius (pm) Ionisation energy IE1(k.J mo1-1) IE2 IE3 Electronegativity 70 171 (N3 - ) 1402 2856 4577 30 110 212 (P3 - ) 1012 1903 2910 2.1 P 120 222 (As3 - ) 947 1798 2736 2.0 As 140 76 (Sb3 + ) 834 1594 2443 1.9 703 1610 2446 1.9 Pb Bi 150

N Melting point (K) Boiling point (K) Density (g cm )

-3

P 317.1 553.5 0.879 1089 888 5.778

As 904 1860 6.697

Pb

Bi 544.4 1837 9.808

63 77 0.879

The important physical characteristics are discussed below:

Atomic and ionic radii

Back to Top The atomic and ionic radii of group 15 elements are smaller than the atomic radii of the corresponding group 14 elements. This is because of increased nuclear charge. On going down the group, the atomic radii increase due to the increase in number of shells.

Melting and boiling points

Back to Top Melting points (except for antimony and bismuth) and boiling points increase on going down the group from N to Bi.

Ionization energies
Back to Top The first ionization energies of the group 15 elements are higher than the corresponding members of the group 14 elements. Explanation: The larger ionization energy is due to greater nuclear charge, small size and stable configuration of the atoms of group 15 elements. The electronic configuration of atoms of group 15 is half filled, energie s. On going down the group, the ionization energies decrease. This is due to increase in atomic size and screening effect, which overweigh the effect of increased nuclear charge.

Electronegativity
Back to Top The electronegativity values of elements (of group 15 are higher than the corresponding elements of group 14. Explanation:

The elements of group 15 have smaller size and greater nuclear charge of atoms and therefore they have higher electronegativity values. On going down the group the electronegativity value decreases. This is due to increase in size of the atoms and shielding effect of inner electron shells on going down the group.

Metallic character
Back to Top The elements of group 15 are less metallic. However on going down the group, the metallic character increases from N to Bi. For e.g.,, N and P are non-metallic, As and Sb are partly non-metallic while Bi is a metal.

Catenation
Back to Top The elements of group 15 also show a tendency to form bonds with itself known as catenation. All these elements show this property but to a much smaller extent than carbon. For e.g., hydrazine (H2N-NH2) has two N atoms bonded together, hydrazoic acid, (N3H), has three N-atoms, azide ion, , has also three N atoms bonded together, while diphosphine (P2H4) has two phosphorus atoms bonded together. The lesser tendency of elements of group 15 to show catenation in comparison to carbon is their low (M-M) bond dissociation energies. Bond Bond energy C-C 353.3 N-N 163.8 P-P 201.6 As - As 147.4

Allotropy
Back to Top Except nitrogen and bismuth, all other elements of this group show allotropy. For e.g., Phosphorus exists as - white, black or red phosphorus Arsenic exists as - yellow or grey arsenic Antimony exists as - yellow or silvery grey allotropic forms.

Oxidation states
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These elements have five electrons in the valence shell. The loss of five electrons is quite difficult because of energy considerations. Hence they do not form ionic compounds by loss of 5 electrons. On the other hand, these elements can also gain three electrons to complete their octets. But gain of 3 electrons is also not energetically favorable. However, they do form N3-and P3- ions by gaining three electrons from highly electropositive elements, e.g. Mg3N2, Ca3P2. In addition to - 3 oxidation state, the elements of group 15 exhibit +3 and +5 oxidation states. For e.g., phosphorus forms pentahalides such as PF5, PCl5 (+5 oxidation state) and trihalides PCl3, PF3 (+3 oxidation state). Nitrogen exhibits various oxidation states from -3 to +5 in its hydrides, oxides and oxo acids. For e.g., Compound NH3 Ammonia N2H4 Hydrozine N2 Nitrogen N2O Nitrous Oxide NO Nitric Oxide N2O3 Nitrogen trioxide N2O4 Nitrogen tetraoxide N2O5 Oxidation state -3 -2 0 +1 +2 +3 +4 +5

Some physical properties of the elements of group 16

Property Atomic radius (A ) Ionic (M ) radius (A ) Ionization energy (kJ mol-1) Electronegativity Electron affinity (k.J mol ) Melting point (K) Boiling Point (K) Oxidation state Density (g cm-3) (in solid state)
-1 2+ o o

Oxygen 0.73 1.40 1314 3.5 141.4 54 90 -2 1.14 1.09 1.85

Sulphur

Selenium 1.16 1.98 941 2.4 195.5 490 958 - 2, + 2 + 4,+6 4.79

Tellurium 1.35 2.21 869 2.1 190.0 723 1263 - 2, + 2 + 4,+6 6.25 -

Polonium

1000 2.5 208.8 392 718 - 2, + 2 + 4, + 6 2.07

2.0 527 1235 - 2, + 4 9.4

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Group 16 Elements (Chalcogens) - Introduction 1. Atomic and ionic radii

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The atomic and ionic radii of the elements of this group increase on going down the group. This is due to the increase in the number of electron shells.

2. Ionization energies
Back to Top The ionization energies of the elements of oxygen family are less than those of nitrogen family. As we move down the group from oxygen to polonium, the ionization energy decreases. Explanation: We expect that the ionization energy of oxygen should be more than that of N because of decrease in size. However, oxygen has unexpectedly low ionization energy than N. This is due to the reason that nitrogen has completely half filled orbitals and the configuration is stable because half filled and completely filled configurations have extra stability. But the configuration of O is less stable and therefore, has less ionization energy.

As one moves down a group there is increase in nuclear charge. But at the same time the atomic size as well as the number of inner electrons, which shield the valence electrons from the nucleus increase. The overall effect of increase in atomic size and the shielding effect is much more than effect of increase in nuclear charge. Consequently, the outermost electron is less and less tightly held by the nucleus as we move down the group and hence ionization energy decreases.

3. Melting and boiling points

Back to Top The melting and boiling points increase with the increase in atomic number as we go down the group. Explanation: When we move down the group, the molecular size increases. As a result, the magnitude of the van der Waals forces also increases with increase in atomic number and therefore melting point also increases. The melting point of polonium is, however, small.

4. Electronegativity
Back to Top Oxygen is the second most electronegative element, the first being fluorine. The electronegativity decreases on going down the group. This is due to increase in size of the atoms.

5. Metallic and non-metallic character

Back to Top The first four elements namely oxygen, sulphur, selenium and tellurium are non-metals. The non-metallic character is stronger in O and S and weaker in Se and Te. On the other hand, last element is markedly metallic. However, it is radioactive and is only short-lived. .

6. Electron affinity
Back to Top The elements of this family have high electron affinities. The values decrease down the group from sulphur to polonium. Oxygen unexpectedly has low electron affinity. This is attributed to the small size of oxygen atom so that its electron cloud is distributed over a small region of space and therefore, it repels the incoming electron. Thus, the electron affinity of oxygen is unexpectedly less in the family.

7. Catenation
Back to Top Catenation is the tendency of an atom to form bonds with identical atoms. In this group only sulphur has a strong tendency for catenation. Oxygen also shows this tendency to a limited extent. Thus the polyoxides and polysulphides of the following types are known: H2 O 2 , H - O - O - H Polyoxides H2S2, H-S-S-H H2S3, H-S-S-S-H H2S, H-S-S-S-S-H Polysulphides

8. Elemental state
Back to Top Oxygen exists as diatomic molecule. Under normal conditions oxygen exists as a gas. In oxygen molecule there is pp-pp overlap between two oxygen atoms forming double bond, O = O. The intermolecular forces in oxygen are weak van der Waals forces and therefore, oxygen exists as a gas. On the other hand the other elements of family do not form stable pp-pp bonds and do not exist as M2 molecules. On the other hand the other atoms are linked by single bonds and form polyatomic complex molecules. For e.g., sulphur and selenium molecules have eight atoms per molecule (S8 and Se8) and have puckered ring structure. The puckered ring structure of S is as shown below.

The Puckered ring structure of S8 molecule

9. Allotropy
Back to Top All the elements of the group exhibit allotropy. For e.g., oxygen exists as O2 and O3 (ozone). Sulphur exists in a number of allotropic forms such as rhombic, monoclinic, plastic sulphur. All these allotropic forms of sulphur are non-metallic. Selenium has two common forms-red and grey. Similarly tellurium and polonium occur in allotropic forms.

Some physical properties or group 17 elements

Back to Top Atomic Radius (A) 0.72 0.99 1.14 1.33 Ionic Ionization Energy Melting Radius (A) (kJ mol-1) point (K) 1.86 1.81 1.95 2.16 1681 1255 1142 1007 53 172 266 386 Boiling point (K) 85 238 332 456 Electron affinity 332.6 348.5 324.7 295.5 Electro negativity 4.0 3.0 2.8 2.5 Element F Cl Br I

1. Atomic and ionic radii

Back to Top The halogens have the smallest atomic radii in their respective periods due to maximum effective nuclear charge. Among themselves, the atomic and ionic radii increase with increase in atomic number. This is due to increase in the number of electron shells.

2. Ionization energies
Back to Top The ionization energies of halogens are very high. This indicates that they have very little tendency to lose electrons. However, on going down the group from fluorine to astatine, the ionization energy decreases. This is due to gradual increase in atomic size, which is maximum for iodine. Consequently, it has the least ionization energy in family.

3. Melting and boiling points

Back to Top The melting and boiling points of halogens increase with increase in atomic number down the group. Explanation: The forces existing between these molecules are weak Van der Waals forces, which increase down the group. This is also clear from the change of state from fluorine to iodine. At room temperature, fluorine and chlorine are gases; bromine is a liquid while iodine and astatine are solids.

4. Electron affinities
Back to Top (i) All these have maximum electron affinities in their respective periods. This is due to the fact that the atoms of these elements have only one electron less than the stable noble gas (ns2np6) configurations. Therefore, may have maximum tendency to accept an additional electron. (ii) In general, electron affinity decreases from top to bottom in a group. This is due to the fact that the effect of increase in atomic size is much more than the effect of increase in nuclear charge and thus, the additional electron feels less attraction by the large atom. Consequently, electron affinity decreases. . (iii) Fluorine has unexpectedly less electron affinity than chlorine. Therefore, chlorine has the highest electron affinity in this group. The lower electron affinity of fluorine as compared to chlorine is due to very small size of the fluorine atom. As a result, there are strong inter-electronic repulsions in the relatively small 2p subshell of fluorine and thus the incoming electron does not feel much attraction. Therefore, its electron affinity is small. Thus, electron affinity among halogens varies as: F < Cl > Br > I. Chlorine has the highest electron affinity in the periodic table.

5. Electronegativity
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Halogens have large electronegativity values. The values decrease down the group from fluorine to iodine because the atomic size increases and the effective nuclear charge decreases. Fluorine is the most electronegative element in the periodic table.

6. Metallic or non-metallic character

Back to Top Because of very high ionization energy values, all halogens are non-metallic in character. The non-metallic character decreases as we go down the group. Therefore, the last element, iodine is a solid with a metallic lustre and forms positive ions such as I+ and I3+.

7. Color
Back to Top All the halogens are colored. The color of different halogens are given below: Halogen Colour Explanation: The color of halogens is due to the fact that their molecules absorb radiations from visible light and the outer electrons are easily excited to higher energy levels. The amount of energy required for excitation depends upon the size of the atom. Fluorine atom is the smallest and the force of attraction between the nucleus and the outer electrons is very large. As a result, it requires large excitation energy and absorbs violet 1ight (high energy) and therefore, appears pale yellow. On the other hand, iodine needs very less excitation energy and absorbs yellow light of low energy. Thus it appears dark violet. Similarly, we can explain the greenish yellow color of chlorine and reddish brown color of iodine. Fluorine Light yellow Chlorine Greenish yellow Bromine Reddish brown Iodine Dark violet

www.tutorvista.com/content/chemistry/chemistry-iv/p-block-elements/halogenphysical.. carbon silicon colour of colourless (diamond), black gray element (graphite) germanium tin lead colour of white metallic (beta), gray bluish white white metallic element (alpha) metallic

Applications and Uses

The group 14 elements each have very different and a wide range of applications within industries, varying from the coating of tin cans to the high-tech silicon chip.

Carbon
The first element in this group has a large number of uses, namely due to the different chemical and physical properties of its 3 allotropes, Graphite, Diamond and the Fullerenes. Diamond: diamond has an exremely high commercial value as a gemstone and there is a lot of importance placed on it. It is also wellknown for being the hardest and strongest known substance/mineral, this feature has made its extensive use in industry extremely important. It is applied in the cutting and grinding of tools , abrasives and other hard materials. Graphite: graphite has numerous properties as a result of its structure that allow it to be used in various applications and industries.At high temperatures this element is used as a lubricant to prevent friction, wear, overheating and rusting (due to the layers of carbon rings which make up its lattice). The material is also added to lead used in pencils as the layers are able to slide over each other and onto the paper since they are bonded by the weak van der Waals forces. These weak bonds between adjacent layers are also the reason for graphite being a good electrical conductor. The electrons involved in these bonds are delocalised over the rings of carbon and are free to move throughout the structure, parallel to the layers. It is this property, therefore, that is important for the use of graphite electrodes in electrolysis processes for extraction. Charcoal: charcoal and animal charcoal are microcrystalline forms of graphite which are supported on calcium phosphate. Their adsorption properties are commercially important for gases and for purifying and clarifying liquids. This property is a result of charcoal being a porous form of carbon. Charcoal from wood is also used for burning. Carbon fibres have great tensile strength as they contain graphite crystallites, and so these are used for strengthening materials including plastics. Many composites of carbon are reinforced with fibres making them chemically inert , thermally stable, high strength, rigid and highly resistant to thermal shock. For these reasons, certain compounds are used for the outer body of the space shuttle. The extensive range of hydrocarbons that carbon forms have intense importance in the petrochemical industry.

Silicon and Germanium

These 2 elements in group 14 hold major importance in the semiconductor industry and electronics. Their semi-conduction properties have revolutionised the computer industries with the production of the silicon chip. Silicon is of great value in these industrial areas, while germanium is being taken over by more advanced and efficient materials being developed. The various different compounds that these elements form have many different properties and uses within numerous areas. Silica is an extremely important commercial material for glass production and in the form of sand for the building industry. Silica gel is used as a drying agent, as the stationery phase in chromotography, and as a heterogeneous catalyst. Germanium oxide has very important optical properties and has specialised use in lenses, infra-red detectors, and in spectrometers.

Tin
Tin also has a number of uses within everyday industries. As a result of its high resistance to corrosion it has been used as the plating on steel cans for many years and is unlikely to be replaced as it is not a toxic metal. The metal itself is soft, but when added to other materials to produce tin alloys often the properties are much improved. These alloys include pewter, solder metal, bronze and ddie casting and have a greater commercial value than pure tin. Tin dioxide is an opacifier and used in enamels and paints, also in gas sensors. Tin based compounds and chemicals act as flame retardants.

Lead
Lead is also a soft metal in its pure form and is used in the plumbing industry, as old water pipes, due to being malleable. Its use is declining, however, as awareness of its toxicity increases. Lead has been a common componant in the mixtures for petrol fuels over many years. This is also diminishing as a result of its toxicity, as its use as an additive to form tetraethyl in leaded fuels can attack the nervous system and cause great damage. More environmentally friendly lead-free fuels, therefore, are taking over the leaded counterparts.

Large amounts of lead are used in another area of the automobile industry, as lead-acid batteries. It is also used for building roofs since it resists corrosion and is malleable. It is a dense metal and acts as an effective shield foe preventing unecessary exposure to X-rays and other types of radiation. Lead salts are extremely toxic and accidental ingestion of such salts will result in acute poisoning. Lead based paints are also common, yet long term exposure can cause chromic poisoning.

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Uses: Carbon forms numerous and varied compounds with limitless applications. Many thousands of carbon compounds are integral to life processes. Diamond is prized as a gemstone and is used for cutting, drilling, and as bearings. Graphite is used as a crucible for melting metals, in pencils, for rust protection, for lubrication, and as a moderator for slowing neutrons for atomic fission. Amorphous carbon is used for removing tastes and odors.

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