The mechanical properties of lattice truss structures with loadbearing shells made of selectively laser melted Hastelloy X

The mechanical properties of lattice truss structures with loadbearing shells made of selectively laser melted Hastelloy X
Jonas Saarimki

Masters Degree Project 2011:07 KTH Industrial Engineering and Management Department of Production Engineering SE-105 71 Stockholm, Sweden

Summary

short story about Siemens, gas turbines, the SLM process, Hastelloy X and nickel was presented. The main part of this thesis discusses how mechanical testing was done to describe mechanical properties for open lattice truss structures and structures with load bearing shells. To do this Diamond and Octagon structures were built at 45 and 90 build angles with three different cell sizes. These structures where then subjected to tensile, compression and bend testing. Data was collected and used to determine engineering loads, rupture loads and finally to produce design maps that show stiffness versus weight. Acoustic emission was measured and recorded which might be an indication of fracture development and lead to failure first.

Abstract

his thesis discusses how to test the mechanical properties of open lattice truss structures and hybrids being a tube containing a lattice truss structure. By properties we mean strength, stiffness, thermal conductivity and so forth. Mechanical testing was done on two different structures to better understand how the load-bearing properties change when these structures are subjected to tensile, compressive and bending forces. The structures investigated were Diamond and Octagon built at 45 and 90. Acoustic emission was also used to evaluate and analyze the different behaviour of the structures. The test results were used to produce design criteria for properties in different cell structures manufactured of Hastelloy X. A map with design criteria containing stiffness and weight per cubic centimetre was produced for parts that would be subjected to compressive forces.

Keywords: Selective laser melting, SLM, lattice truss structure, lattice, tensile testing, compression testing, bend testing, superalloy.

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Sammanfattning
en hr uppsatsen tar upp hur man kan testa de mekaniska egenskaperna hos ppna fackverk och hybrider. En hybrid r en tub innehllande ett fackverk. Med mekaniska egenskaper menar vi styrka, styvhet, termisk ledningsfrmga osv.

Mekanisk provning utfrdes p tv olika strukturer fr att f en bttre frstelse av hur de lastbrande egenskaperna ndras nr strukturerna utstts fr drag, tryck och bjkrafter. Strukturerna som undersktes var Diamond och Octagon byggda i 45 och 90 graders vinkel. Akustisk emission anvndes fr att se och analysera de olika beteendena i strukturerna. Testresultaten anvndes till att ta fram design kriterium fr egenskaperna i olika cellstrukturer tillverkade av Hastelloy X. En designkarta togs fram som visar vilka strukturer som kan vljas beroende p hur styv och ltt man vill att en del ska vara nr den utstts fr tryck krafter.

Selective laser melting, SLM, lattice truss structure, lattice, tensile testing, compression testing, bend testing, superalloy.

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Preface
his thesis is the concluding project of my engineering education at the Royal Institute of Technology (KTH) in Stockholm Master of Science, Mechanical Engineering. The thesis work has been conducted at the Material science department at Siemens Industrial Turbomachinery AB, Finspng Sweden and Coached by Anders Hansson, KTH and Hkan Brodin, Siemens. The assignment was to find a way to test and analyze a selectively laser melted open lattice- and lattice truss structures with a load-bearing shell to better understand how the loadbearing properties change when these structures are subjected to tensile, compressive and bending forces and to see if the collected data can be used to produce design criteria for properties in different cell structures manufactured out of Hastelloy X that constructors and other engineers can use to choose combinations of materials and cell structures when designing a component.

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Acknowledgements

nders Hansson was my coach and examiner at KTH. Im very grateful for his support, good advice, and valuable ideas during my studies at Siemens Industrial Turbomachinery, Finspng, Sweden. I appreciate his willingness to help me fulfil my specialized education that would not have been possible without him. A special thank you to my coach at Siemens division of material science, Hkan Brodin, a man with great humour who helped me with guidance and expertise of great value both practically and theoretically. Also a special thank you to my Supervisor Helena Oskarsson who gave me this extraordinary opportunity to do my thesis at such an awesome department under great leadership in the modern field of selective laser melting and who arranged for the financial help for travel and living accommodations. Special thanks to the men and women working at Siemens division of material science for welcoming me with a great attitude and expert help on all fields from mechanical testing and standards to sample preparation and microscopy. Without them I would not have learned and had so much fun as I did doing my thesis, also to Jonas Eriksson and Vincent Sidenvall for the help with and fast manufacturing of test samples. Last but not least a big great thank you to the people who made my studies possible and who kept me on track when I had other things on my mind

Vlrdens Vctor Canicio

sta mamma Kaija Saarimki

Mariaana Saarimki and Charlie Christianson

Summer 2011 Jonas Saarimki

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Table of contents
List of tables................................................................................ xiv List of figures .............................................................................. xvi Introduction.................................................................................... 1 Gas turbines ................................................................................ 4 History...................................................................................... 4 Joule/Brayton cycle.................................................................. 8 The step by step explanation................................................... 9 Function ................................................................................. 11 Selective laser melting (SLM)..................................................... 13 Hastelloy X................................................................................ 17 Short history of Haynes International and the element nickel ... 17 Superalloys ................................................................................ 18 Nickel base superalloys ......................................................... 20 Iron-nickel base superalloys .................................................. 20 Cobalt base superalloys ........................................................ 20 Wrought superalloys .............................................................. 21 Cast superalloys .................................................................... 21 Powder metallurgy alloys....................................................... 22 Alloying elements in nickel base superalloys ........................ 22 Phases in nickel base superalloys......................................... 23 Purpose ........................................................................................ 25 Experimental procedure ............................................................. 27 Tensile testing of test bars made of regular and selectively laser melted Hastelloy X ................................................................. 27 Tensile testing of non standardized selectively laser melted Hastelloy X ............................................................................. 28 Compression testing of non standardized selectively laser melted Hastelloy X ............................................................................. 29 Three point bend testing of selectively laser melted Hastelloy X ............................................................................................. 30

Test bed 1 for non standardized tensile, compression and bend specimens.................................................................................. 35 Test bed 2 for non standardized compression specimens ........ 35 Test bed 3 for non standardized bend specimens .................... 36 Acoustic emission ...................................................................... 36 Sample preparation, light optical microscopy and SEM analysis ................................................................................................... 38 Limitations.................................................................................... 41 Results .......................................................................................... 43 Comparing regular and selectively laser melted tensile test bars according to Siemens internal material specification MAT890001 of Hastelloy X ......................................................................... 43 Comparing selectively laser melted nonstandardized Diamond 90 tensile test specimens of Hastelloy X ......... ..................... 49 Open lattice truss structure.................................................... 50 Tube....................................................................................... 51 Hybrid consisting of an open lattice truss structure and tube 52 Comparing test bars with non standardized tensile test specimens.................................................................................. 53 Tensile test fracture surface .................................................. 55 Acoustic emission .................................................................. 61 Compression test specimens .................................................... 65 Diamond 45........................................ .................................. 65 Diamond 90........................................ .................................. 67 Octagon 45........................................ ................................... 69 Octagon 90........................................ ................................... 71 Comparison of all compression specimens ........................... 73 Compressive test fracture surfaces ....................................... 78 Acoustic emission .................................................................. 82 Bend test specimens ................................................................. 95 Bend test fracture surfaces.................................................... 98 Acoustic emission .................................................................. 99

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Discussion.................................................................................. 101 Conclusions ............................................................................... 111 Tensile tests............................................................................. 111 Compression test..................................................................... 112 Bend tests ................................................................................ 113 References ................................................................................. 115 Appendices ................................................................................... A F values ....................................................................................... A

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List of tables
Table 1 - Specifications for EOSINT-M270............................................ 13 Table 2 - Composition of typical commercial wrought Ni-base superalloys [55]. ......................................................................................................... 21 Table 3 - Composition of typical commercial cast Ni-base superalloys [55]. ......................................................................................................... 21 Table 4 - Composition of typical commercial powder metallurgy superalloys [55]. ...................................................................................... 22 Table 5 - Effects of major alloying elements in nickel base superalloys [56]. ......................................................................................................... 23 Table 6 - Hastelloy X composition from Haynes [70] compared to SEM......................................................................................................... 43 Table 7 - Comparison of the mechanical properties from the 3 test samples of regular Hastelloy X at room temperature (20C)............................. 44 Table 8 - Comparison of the mechanical properties from the two test samples of selectively laser melted Hastelloy X at room temperature (20C). ..................................................................................................... 45 Table 9 - Comparison of the mechanical properties from the 2 test samples made of selectively laser melted Hastelloy X with build angle 0 and 90 and regular Hastelloy X at room temperature (20C).................... 46 Table 10 - Load-elongation vs. stress strain properties.............................A

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List of figures
Figure 1 - SLM compressor stator vane with built in air channels for measuring pressure inside the compressor................................................. 2 Figure 2 - Example of the three dimensional complexity that can be achieved using the SLM process. .............................................................. 2 Figure 3 - Lattice truss structure (non calibrated metric ruler). ................ 3 Figure 4 - Lattice truss structure................................................................ 3 Figure 5 - Herons steam ball [39]............................................................. 4 Figure 6 - Schematic picture of an open circuit gas turbine system [45]... 8 Figure 7 - Joule/Brayton cycle pressure vs. volume and temperature vs. Entropy [45]. ............................................................................................. 8 Figure 8 - Shows efficiency is dependent on temperature [45]. ................ 8 Figure 9 - Efficiency plotted against pressure difference [45]................... 8 Figure 10 - Combined cycle process [46].................................................. 9 Figure 11 - Cross section of a Siemens gas turbine SGT-750 [46].......... 11 Figure 12 - Schematic of the selective laser melting (SLM) process [1]. 14 Figure 13 - Schematic of the layer by layer method used in the selective laser melting (SLM) process [1].............................................................. 14 Figure 14 - a) Schematic of Yb-laser in the EOSINT-270 SLM machine. b) Schematic of Yb-laser [53]. ................................................................ 15 Figure 15 - Maximum service temperatures of various creep-resistant material groups [55]. ............................................................................... 19 Figure 16 - Face centered cubic (fcc) lattice structure [58]. .................... 19 Figure 17 - Gamma prime, , (Ni3Al, Ti) fcc crystal structure [59]. ..... 23 Figure 18 - Diamond 45 cell. ................................................................. 29 Figure 19 - Diamond 90 cell. ................................................................. 29 Figure 20 - Octagon 45. ......................................................................... 29 Figure 21 - Octagon 90. ......................................................................... 29 Figure 22 - Open square tube with wall thickness 1mm and LxWxD 20x15x15mm for compression testing..................................................... 31 Figure 23 - Open lattice truss structure Diamond 45 LxWxD 20x13x13mm for compression testing..................................................... 31

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Figure 24 - Combined hybrid structure Diamond 90 LxWxD 20x15x15mm for compression testing..................................................... 31 Figure 25 - Diamond 45_C2,2_BD0,73................................................. 32 Figure 26 - Diamond 45_C2,6_BD0,87................................................. 32 Figure 27 - Diamond 45_C3,0_BD1,00................................................. 32 Figure 28 - Diamond 90_C2,2_BD0,73................................................. 32 Figure 29 - Diamond 90_C2,6_BD0,87................................................. 33 Figure 30 - Diamond 90_C3,0_BD1,0................................................... 33 Figure 31 - Octagon 45_C2,2_BD0,73. ................................................. 33 Figure 32 - Octagon 45_C2,6_BD0,87. ................................................. 33 Figure 33 - Octagon 45_C3,0_BD1,00. ................................................. 34 Figure 34 - Octagon 90_C2,2_BD0,73. ................................................. 34 Figure 35 - Octagon 90_C2,6_BD0,87. ................................................. 34 Figure 36 - Octagon 90_C3,0_BD1,00. ................................................. 34 Figure 37 - Acoustic emission technology overview [68]. ...................... 36 Figure 38 - Acoustic emission defined [68]............................................. 37 Figure 39 - Different build angles varying from 0 to 90. ..................... 41 Figure 40 - Comparison of 3 test samples made of regular Hastelloy X at room temperature (20C)..................................................................... 43 Figure 41 - Different build angles varying from 0 to 90. ..................... 44 Figure 42 - Selectively laser melted Hastelloy X at 0 and 90........... 45 Figure 43 - Regular Hastelloy X compared with selectively laser melted at 0 and 90. ........................................................................................... 46 Figure 44 - Micro structure cut at 90 to the work surface X200. ........... 47 Figure 45 - Microstructure cut at 90 to the work surface X500. ............ 47 Figure 46 - Microstructure cut at 0 to the work surface X100. .............. 48 Figure 47 - Microstructure cut at 90 to the work surface X500. ............ 48 Figure 48 - Open 2,2 lattice truss structure tensile test specimen............ 49 Figure 49 - Hybrid tensile test specimen. ................................................ 49 Figure 50 - Comparing Diamond 90 with the three lattice truss structures. ................................................................................................................. 50 Figure 51 - Tensile tests of the hollow square tubes................................ 51

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Figure 52 - Comparison of the three different hybrid structures. ............ 52 Figure 53 - Comparison of regular tensile test bars and non standardized selectively laser melted tensile test specimens. ....................................... 53 Figure 54 - Stiffness vs. specific density. ................................................ 54 Figure 55 - 2,2 open lattice truss structure showing local shear fractures between individual struts. ........................................................................ 55 Figure 56 - 3,0 open lattice truss structure fracture surface..................... 55 Figure 57 - 2,2 Hybrid fracture surface. .................................................. 56 Figure 58 - 2,2 Hybrid cut fracture surface. ............................................ 56 Figure 59 - 3,0 fracture surface of a strut exposed to tensile load X110. 57 Figure 60 - 3,0 fracture surface of where a strut exposed to tensile load X85. ......................................................................................................... 57 Figure 61 - 3,0 fracture surface of where a strut exposed to tensile load X550. ....................................................................................................... 58 Figure 62 - 3,0 fracture surface of a sheared joint X75. .......................... 58 Figure 63 - Fracture surface of a 3,0 hybrid structure X65. .................... 59 Figure 64 - Dimple fracture surface of a 3,0 hybrid structure X400........ 59 Figure 65 - Dimple fracture surface of a 3,0 hybrid structure X2500...... 60 Figure 66 - The coarse surface of an as sintered part X950..................... 60 Figure 67 - 2,2 open Diamond 90. ......................................................... 61 Figure 68 - 2,6 open Diamond 90. ......................................................... 62 Figure 69 - 3,0 open Diamond 90. ......................................................... 62 Figure 70 - Tube Diamond 90................................................................ 63 Figure 71 - 2,2 hybrid Diamond 90........................................................ 63 Figure 72 - 2,6 hybrid Diamond 90........................................................ 64 Figure 73 - 3,0 hybrid Diamond 90........................................................ 64 Figure 74 - Diamond 45 containing open lattices, tube and hybrids...... 65 Figure 75 - Diamond 45 open. ............................................................... 65 Figure 76 - Diamond 45 Hybrid............................................................. 66 Figure 77 - Tube 45................................................................................ 66 Figure 78 - Diamond 90 containing open lattices, tube and hybrids...... 67 Figure 79 - Diamond 90 open. ............................................................... 67

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Figure 80 - Diamond 90 Hybrid............................................................. 68 Figure 81 - Tube 90................................................................................ 68 Figure 82 - Octagon 45 containing open lattices, tube and hybrids. ...... 69 Figure 83 - Octagon 45 open.................................................................. 69 Figure 84 - Octagon 45 Hybrid. ............................................................. 70 Figure 85 - Tube 45................................................................................ 70 Figure 86 - Octagon 90 containing open lattices, tube and hybrids. ...... 71 Figure 87 - Octagon 90 open.................................................................. 71 Figure 88 - Octagon 90 Hybrid. ............................................................. 72 Figure 89 - Tube 90................................................................................ 72 Figure 90 - Al open 2,2 structures. .......................................................... 73 Figure 91 - Al open 2,6 structures. .......................................................... 73 Figure 92 - Al open 3,0 structures. .......................................................... 74 Figure 93 - Al hybrid 2,2 structures......................................................... 74 Figure 94 - Al hybrid 2,6 structures......................................................... 75 Figure 95 - Al hybrid 3,0 structures......................................................... 75 Figure 96 - Tubes built at a 45 and 90 angle. ....................................... 76 Figure 97 - Stiffness vs. specific density. ................................................ 77 Figure 98 - All open lattice truss structure specimens significantly crushed at 77% compression a) Diamond 45 b) Diamond 90 c) Octagon 45 d) Octagon 90............................................................................................. 78 Figure 99 - Compressed tube built at 45. ............................................... 79 Figure 100 - Compressed tube built at 90. ............................................. 79 Figure 101 - Cross section of a compressed tube built at 45.................. 79 Figure 102 - Cross section of a compressed tube built at 90.................. 79 Figure 103 - Etched 2,2 Hybrid Diamond 90 compressed 12mm.......... 80 Figure 104 - Etched 2,2 Hybrid Diamond 90 compressed 12mm 12X. . 80 Figure 105 - Non etched 3.0 Hybrid compressed 10mm 12.5X. ............. 80 Figure 106 - Non etched 3,0 Open compressed 16mm Diamond 90. .... 80 Figure 107 - Non etched 2,2 open compressed 16mm Diamond 90........ 80 Figure 108 - Etched 2,2 Hybrid Diamond 90 compressed 12mm 50X. . 81

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Figure 109 - Etched 2,2 Hybrid Diamond 90 compressed 12mm 100X.81 Figure 110 - Etched 2,2 Hybrid Diamond 90 compressed 12mm 200X.81 Figure 111 - Etched 2,2 Hybrid Diamond 90 compressed 12mm 500X.81 Figure 112 - Non etched 3.0 Hybrid compressed 10mm 50X. ................ 81 Figure 113 - Non etched 3.0 Hybrid compressed 10mm 200X. .............. 81 Figure 114 - 2,2 open Diamond 45. ....................................................... 82 Figure 115 - 2,2 open Diamond 90. ....................................................... 82 Figure 116 - 2,2 open Octagon 45.......................................................... 83 Figure 117 - 2,2 open Octagon 90.......................................................... 83 Figure 118 - 2,6 open Diamond 45. ....................................................... 84 Figure 119 - 2,6 open Diamond 90. ....................................................... 84 Figure 120 - 2,6 open Octagon 45.......................................................... 85 Figure 121 - 2,6 open Octagon 90.......................................................... 85 Figure 122 - 3,0 open Diamond 45. ....................................................... 86 Figure 123 - 3,0 open Diamond 90. ....................................................... 86 Figure 124 - 3,0 open Octagon 45.......................................................... 87 Figure 125 - 3,0 open Octagon 90.......................................................... 87 Figure 126 - Tube 45.............................................................................. 88 Figure 127 - Tube 90.............................................................................. 88 Figure 128 - 2,2 Hybrid Diamond 45..................................................... 89 Figure 129 - 2,2 Hybrid Diamond 90..................................................... 89 Figure 130 - 2,2 Hybrid Octagon 45. ..................................................... 90 Figure 131 - 2,2 Hybrid Octagon 90. ..................................................... 90 Figure 132 - 2,6 Hybrid Diamond 45..................................................... 91 Figure 133 - 2,6 Hybrid Diamond 90..................................................... 91 Figure 134 - 2,6 Hybrid Octagon 45. ..................................................... 92 Figure 135 - 2,6 Hybrid Octagon 90. ..................................................... 92 Figure 136 - 3,0 Hybrid Diamond 45..................................................... 93 Figure 137 - 3,0 Hybrid Diamond 90..................................................... 93 Figure 138 - 3,0 Hybrid Octagon 45. ..................................................... 94

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Figure 139 - 3,0 Hybrid Octagon 90. ..................................................... 94 Figure 140 - All bend test specimens. ..................................................... 95 Figure 141 - All open Diamond 90 bend structures. .............................. 95 Figure 142 - All hybrid Diamond 90 bend structures. ........................... 96 Figure 143 - Tube 90 bend structure. ..................................................... 96 Figure 144 - Stiffness vs. specific density. .............................................. 97 Figure 145 - Bent 2,2 open lattice truss structure. ................................... 98 Figure 146 - Bent 3,0 open lattice truss structure. ................................... 98 Figure 147 - Cross section of a bent 3,0 hybrid structure. ....................... 98 Figure 148 - Buckling and crush behaviour of the bent tubes. ................ 98 Figure 149 - 2,2 Open Diamond 90. ...................................................... 99 Figure 150 - 2,6 Open Diamond 90. ...................................................... 99 Figure 151 - 3,0 Open Diamond 90. .................................................... 100 Figure 153 - 2,2 and 2,6 open lattice truss structure with acoustic emission for the 2,2 lattice truss structure. ........................................................... 102 Figure 154 - 2,2 and 2,6 open lattice truss structure with acoustic emission for the 2,6 lattice truss structure. ........................................................... 102 Figure 155 - 2,2 and 2,6 hybrid structure with acoustic emission for the 2,2 lattice truss structure........................................................................ 103 Figure 156 - Tensile super positioned stiffness (FEs) versus measured stiffness (FE). ......................................................................................... 104 Figure 157 - Compressive super positioned stiffness (FEs) versus measured stiffness (FE). ......................................................................................... 105 Figure 158 - Tensile super positioned engineering stiffness (FPs0,2) versus measured engineering stiffness (FP0,2). .................................................. 105 Figure 159 - Compressive super positioned engineering stiffness (FPs0,2) versus measured engineering stiffness (FP0,2). ....................................... 106 Figure 160 - Tensile super positioned rupture load (FRms) versus measured rupture load (FRm). ................................................................................. 106 Figure 161 - Diamond 45 open divided into 5 general areas: I, II, III, IV and V. .................................................................................................... 107 Figure 162 - Simplified weld bead with arrows showing directional forces. ............................................................................................................... 108 Figure 163 - Illustrations of F values.........................................................A

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Introduction
hen developing a gas turbine engineers and manufacturers always stride to optimize performance and efficiency. This is mainly done by trying to obtain an as high as possible operating temperature of the turbine. A higher operating temperature results in higher efficiency. We are now trying to make everything as environmentally sustainable and safe as possible, not only by reducing carbon dioxide emission and other pollutants but also through the use of new materials and fabrication methods with less material spillage. A new fabrication method that is being implemented at Siemens Industrial Turbomachinery (SIT AB) is selective laser melting (SLM) [1] also called a rapid prototyping (RP) [2] or rapid manufacturing (RM) [3, 4] process. There are several names for the rapid prototyping process such as:

3D micro welding (3DMW) [5] Additive layer manufacturing (ALM) [3] Additive manufacturing (AM) [6, 7] Direct laser deposition (DLD) [8] Direct light fabrication (DLF) [9] Direct metal deposition (DMD) [9] Direct metal laser fabrication (DMLF) [2] Direct metal laser sintering (DMLS) [10] Electron beam melting (EBM) [11] Fused deposition modelling (FDM) [12] Laminated object manufacturing (LOM) [12] Laser forming (LF) [9] Laser powder deposition (LPD) [9] Laser-engineered net shaping (LENS) [9] Rapid casting (RC) [2] Rapid tooling (RT) [2] Selective laser melting (SLM) [1] Selective laser sintering (SLS) [13, 14] Solid freeform fabrication (SFF) [15].

Solid ground curing (SGC) [12] Stereolithography (SL) [7] Stereolithography is also called (SLA) [12] Three dimensional printing (3DP) [16]

Instead of creating an object that is solid by adding unnecessary raw material SLM can be used to make components that are light with advanced geometries that are impossible to manufacture by conventional manufacturing processes. Examples are objects with cooling channels, turbine blades with lattice truss structures inside [17], sandwich and truss core panels [18-32] for reducing sound or creating strong light weight floors panels for high speed trains [33].

Figure 1 - SLM compressor stator vane with built in air channels for measuring pressure inside the compressor.

Figure 2 - Example of the three dimensional complexity that can be achieved using the SLM process.

Now what is a lattice truss structure? When I tried to explain it to my lovely mother she replied oh like corral, sponges and cancellous bone which was an excellent answer and absolutely correct. M. F. Ashby wrote a lattice truss or space frame means an array of struts, pin-jointed or rigidly bonded at their connections [20]. In engineering lattice truss structures are used to make light weight constructions such as scaffolding, electrical power line towers, the Eiffel Tower, houses and bridges. Lattices can be used as filters like the ones in our water taps, coffee makers and also insulation for sound or heat. Looking at a lattice structure as a plastic surgeon one might say that a lattice structure out of porous titanium could act as a substitute for bone because the porous lattice makes a good replacement material with good adhesive abilities for human tissue and it can be made with the same mechanical properties as bone to give it good strength and stiffness [3, 34-38]. 2

Figure 3 - Lattice truss structure (non calibrated metric ruler).

Figure 4 - Lattice truss structure.

When constructing a component with a solid shell containing a lattice truss structure inside one need to know what the mechanical properties are and by properties we mean strength, stiffness and so on. We want to know how we can test, measure and evaluate these properties so that maps of material properties can be made and used by engineers when they design and plan new products but also when repairing an existing part. The aim of the work was to examine lattice truss structures made of Hastelloy X in an EOSINT 270 SLM machine to see how load bearing properties vary between different lattice truss structures when the lattice truss structure stands free or has a load supporting shell. To examine this double and triple test samples were made with a variety of lattice truss structures and were subjected to compression and tensile testing. Tension and stress was measured with an extensometer and an exotic method such as acoustic emission (AE) was used. The course of the tests was videotaped. Mechanical properties and micro structures where examined to better understand the fracture mechanisms in the lattice truss structures. The goal was to create a better base for developing design criteria with which one can compare properties between different kinds of lattice truss structures made of Hastelloy X.

Gas turbines
History It all started with the development of the steam turbine that the Greek mathematician and physicist Heron from Alexandria described around 100 AD (Anno Domini). It was a reaction steam turbine constructed from a hollow metal ball with two approximately 90 bent hollow arms coming out of it. When filled with water and heated the water becomes steam that blows out of the arms and propels the ball to move in a circular rotational manner. The power was never harnessed or utilized for any practical purposes. It was in its time considered to be a magical device.

Figure 5 - Herons steam ball [39].

However, the incredible steam ball laid the path for future steam engines that where invented and improved so that they could be used for general work. There are indications that such turbines were used in Germany in the late 16th century for practical purposes. 1629 Italian architect Giovanni Branca described a steam wheel turbine that was driven by steam that was blown out of a nozzle against a wheel with vanes [40]. 4

James Sadler an engineer in Oxford received a patent in 1781 for a reaction turbine that in many ways was similar to the S-shaped turbine that Gustaf de Laval constructed a hundred years later [40]. From the later decades of the 18th century there are several turbine constructions by amongst others Wolfgang de Kempelen and James Watt. Kempelen and Watts machines where very similar both were granted patents since they had worked independently on their inventions. Inventors and engineers like Thomas Savery, Thomas Newcomen and James Watt are some of the key people that made the steam engine to a useable and productive engine that was used to drive pumps and other machinery for different industries such as mining and textile. John Ericsson received a patent 1830 (nr: 5961) for a steam turbine. The steam turbine consisted of two main parts an outer shell in the shape of a flattened sphere with a nozzle in its side which steam could flow through. Within this sphere there is a likewise flattened half sphere that contained three radial wings with 120 between them. When steam was let inside the outer sphere it passed through three channels and blew against the wings which made it rotate. John Ericsson points out in his patent description that the turbine can be driven just as well in both directions. During the 1830-40ies several patents were granted, among these Pilbrows patent in 1843 for a reversible turbine with gradual expansion. Also the German von Rathen obtained numerous patents during the forties on rotating steam and pneumatic machines. What was of great interest was that he states the suitability to use nozzles with a diverging feed channel. English Robert Wilson accomplished after tedious experiments in 1848 impulse steam turbines with a series of wheels partly concentric and ordered in an axial series. This could be the predecessor to the impulse turbine that later was developed by others such as Siemens and AB de Lavals ngturbin. Already in 1870 a reaction steam turbine was used at Motala Factory in Sweden to drive the circular saws that were used to cut rolled rail. 1879 Conrad Samuel Tegander received a patent on a machine that worked by steam power. This machine is considered to be the predecessor to the rotating steam engine constructed by the Swedish Hult brothers during the 1890 ies [40]. As time went by new technological and metallurgical advances were made that eventually led to the invention of the steam turbine in the late 19th century that in turn led to the development of the gas turbine in the early 20th century.

In 1913 the Ljungstrm brothers created STAL, Svenska Turbinfabriks Aktiebolaget Ljungstrm (Swedish Turbine Factory AB Ljungstrm) and became a subsidiary company to ASEA in 1916 that got in to the gas turbine business in 1945. STAL was asked to develop and manufacture the first Swedish jet engines: Skuten, Dovern and Glan for the aviation industry under the management of Curt Nicolin. (1921-2006). Curt Nicolin who was a young driven engineer schooled at KTH (Royal Institute of Technology), Stockholm, Sweden was employed by STAL in 1945 to lead the development and manufacturing project of the Swedish jet engines. The project did not deliver any jet engines because the Swedish aviation administration (Flygfrvaltningen) was given the right to buy English Avon engines. This instead led SIT, Finspng in to the gas turbine market for power plants, boats, pumps, agriculture, oil [41] and much more. STAL merged with AB de Laval ngturbin 1959 and changed its name to Turbin Aktiebolaget de Laval Ljungstrm that became STAL-LAVAL Turbinaktiebolag in 1962. During the sixties the Suez crisis increased the need for supertankers with a large demand for maritime axial steam turbines with large gears to reduce the number of revolutions to drive propellers. STAL-LAVAL Turbinaktiebolag became ASEA STAL AB in 1984 and after the merging of ASEA and Brown Boveri that became ABB in 1988 changed ASEA STAL AB to ABB STAL AB. ABB STAL AB merged with the French company ALSTOM in 2000 changed name to ALSTOM Power Sweden AB. In 2003 Siemens acquisitioned ALSTOM that led to its current name Siemens Industrial Turbomachinery (SIT). Today Siemens Industrial Turbomachinery (SIT) is one of the largest developer and manufacturer of gas turbines in the world and is used for electrical power generation and mechanical drive for pumps, compressors and ships. Siemens gas turbines are made in all sizes from a few kilo watts up to 375 mega watts that the SGT5-8000H delivers [42].

Simple-cycle gas turbines can, according to [43], be classified into five general groups:

Frame Type Heavy-Duty Gas Turbines. Frame units are large power generating units that range from 3 MW to 480 MW in a simple cycle configuration, with efficiencies ranging from 30-46%.

Aircraft-Derivative Gas Turbines Aero-derivative. As the name indicates, these are power generating units, which originated in the aerospace industry as the prime mover of aircraft. These units have been adapted to the electrical generation industry by removing the bypass fans, and adding a power turbine at their exhaust. These units range in power from 2.5 MW to about 50 MW. The efficiencies of these units can range from 35-45%.

Industrial Type-Gas Turbines (IGT). These vary in range from about 5 MW-40 MW [44]. This type of turbine is used extensively in many petrochemical plants to drive compressors. The efficiencies of these units is between 15-35% [44].

Small Gas Turbines. These gas turbines are in the range from about 0.5 MW-2.5 MW. They often have centrifugal compressors and radial inflow turbines. Efficiencies vary from 15-25%.

Micro-Turbines. These turbines are in the range from 20 kW-350 kW. All gas turbines work according to the same principle. This is shown and explained with the basic thermo dynamic process and a general step by step explanation of the different steps in the SGT-750 (Siemens Gas Turbine).

Joule/Brayton cycle

Figure 6 - Schematic picture of an open circuit gas turbine system [45].

Figure 7 - Joule/Brayton cycle pressure vs. volume and temperature vs. Entropy [45].

The gas turbine process can be explained by the Joule/Brayton cycle as seen in figures 6 and 7. Figure 7 shows that the ideal Joule/Brayton cycle has one stage of isentropic compression between points a and b and an isentropic expansion stage between points c and d. Energy (q1) also called fuel is added at constant pressure between b and c and this results in an increase of temperature and volume. Figures 8 and 9 show the Joule/Brayton cycle and how efficiency is depending on temperature. The aim is always to maximize the operating temperature because this is what decides the efficiency.

Figure 8 - Shows efficiency is dependent on temperature [45].

Figure 9 - Efficiency plotted against pressure difference [45].

The step by step explanation The process can also be explained in another way such as a gas is compressed and the compressed gas spins the turbine. The gas consists of compressed air and fuel, both liquid and gaseous fuels can be used. The most common liquid fuels are oils, ethanol and methanol and the most common gaseous fuels are natural gas, propane and butane [44]. The fuel is mixed with the compressed air and then combusted. The heat from combustion process expands the air which in turn drives the turbine. It is very important that only gases goes through the turbine otherwise the turbine blades will wear out quickly due to drop erosion. There are different gas turbine designs based on different theories of what works best for example annular combustion chambers or can-annular combustion chambers that are new to the SGT-750. Some also say that a gas turbine will only work properly if it has an odd number of burners and will always fail if it has an even number of burners. This could be due to beliefs from the olden days when combustor design was referred to as a black art [41].

Figure 10 - Combined cycle process [46].

In figure 11 you can see a cross section of the Siemens industrial gas turbine SGT-750. The SGT-750 is a large turbine that can produce 37MW [42] and can be used for mechanical drive and electrical power generation or combined power and heat generation that is illustrated above which can result in a total efficiency of ~90%.The main disadvantage for gas turbine engines compared to reciprocating/equivalent diesel engines of the same size is the prize. Because gas turbines spin at high speeds and have very high operating temperatures they are hard to design and manufacture. Gas turbines prefer a constant rather than a fluctuating load. But it makes gas turbines superior for applications like power plants, transcontinental jet aircraft, helicopters and it could be one of the main reasons why we dont have them in our cars. Gas turbines like the SGT-500, 600, 700 and 750 are biaxial and can therefore be used to drive machinery such as boats like Stena Carisma in Gteborg that traffics between Gteborg and Fredrikshavn. Carisma is driven by two of the immensely popular SGT500 that produces approximately 34000kW and can travel at speeds up to forty knots. Gas turbines like the SGT-500, 600, 700 and 750 are also used to drive oil and gas pipeline pumps all over the world in environments where the weather conditions vary from the arctic colds in Siberia to the hot climates of Thailand [42]. When used to drive other machinery the turbines are connected to two separate shafts, one for the compressor and the other for mechanical work.

10

Function

Figure 11 - Cross section of a Siemens gas turbine SGT-750 [46]. Air is sucked in at approximately 130 m3 per second [46] through the air intake that acts as a huge funnel to the compressor. The air goes through variable guide vanes to optimize the performance. The guide vanes direct the intake air depending on the intake air quality taking in to account weather conditions, temperature range and particle size of air born contaminants to get an optimum flow through the compressor. The air then moves through a 13-stage axial flow compressor with a 23.8:1 pressure ratio [46]. Between every compression stage there is a stage of vanes that are stationary and redirect the flow of the compressed air. The compressed air is mixed with fuel in the can combustors with DLE (dry low emission) burners. Different types of fuels can be used in gas turbines such as natural gas, propane, kerosene and jet fuel but the SGT-750 runs on natural gas. The fuel mixture is combusted at a temperature of more than +1400C and expands the air. The combustor design is divided in two distinct configurations, annular and can-annular. The annular combustor is generally placed inside and the can-annular outside the envelope of compressor and turbine. The annular combustor is a

1.

2.

3.

4.

11

single combustor with multiple fuel nozzles and an inner wall that act as a heat shield to protect the rotor. The can-annular combustors can also be divided into two groups, one with a straight flow-through combustor and the other with a reverse flow combustor. The reverse flow combustor that is used in heavy industrial gas turbines facilitates the use of a regenerator, which improves overall thermal efficiency. Combustors in heavy industrial gas turbines usually have long combustion chambers which makes them more suitable for burning lower quality fuels that are cheaper and more freely available [41]. 5. The exhaust temperature begins to decrease and goes through the first hot stage blades of the turbine. The first hot stage blades are subjected to very high temperatures and pressure. To protect them they are coated with a ceramic thermal barrier coating (TBC). The temperature keeps decreasing and goes through the last stages of the turbine. The turbine rotates at speeds above 6000 rpm [46, 47] which results in strong centrifugal forces. With higher operating temperature a higher efficiency can be achieved. Because of the centrifugal forces and high temperatures all parts must be of the best possible materials, typically Ni-base, this is where the men and women at Siemens Material Science Laboratory put in a lot of effort and research. The remaining heat from the exhaust can be around 500C [46] and depending on the user needs it can be used in combined cycle processes to produce steam for steam turbines and/or heat water in regenerative heat-exchangers to supply warm water for district heating. By combining a gas turbine with a steam turbine and district heating the overall efficiency can be increased to over 90% [46]. To get the gas turbine started an electrical starter motor is connected to the shaft. This in turn rotates the rotor until a high enough speed has been achieved to make it self-sustained. When the turbine is creating enough power to drive the compressor the electrical starter engine can be disconnected. Some turbines use diesel engines as starter motors and in the early days of gas turbine development they also used to blow pressurized air in to the air intake to get it rotating.

6.

7.

8.

12

Selective laser melting (SLM)

elective laser melting has been developed from the selective laser sintering (SLS) process [14] also called a rapid prototyping (RP) process [3, 48]. The main difference when using SLS is that a bonding material is used but in SLM the materials as such are completely melted and joined by the laser just like in laser welding. With the high powered lasers that are available today the SLM method can be used to make parts ready for use from materials such as nickel-based alloys, stainless steel, tool steel, titanium, aluminium and other alloy powders [49]. The laser used in the SLM process is a solid state laser e.g. Yb-fibre laser (Ytterbium-doped) or an Nd:YAG (Neodymium-doped Yttrium Aluminium Garnet) laser with powers up to 500W [1]. The SLM machine used in this thesis is an EOSINT-M270 dual-mode. Dual mode means that different gases can be used. Table 1 shows operational properties for the EOSINT-M270.

Table 1 - Specifications for EOSINT-M270. Yb-fibre laser, rated output Wave length Scan speed Variable focus diameter Layer thickness 200W 1060-1100nm up to 7000mm/s 100-500m 20-100m

When sintering Hastelloy X 100% nitrogen is used as a protective atmosphere with a maximum of 0.1% oxygen left in the chamber [50]. Making a part with the SLM machine requires that a 3D CAD model is made but no other tools or moulds are necessary [51]. The 3D CAD model is then converted in to an STL (standard triangle language) file format which is used by most RP systems [35] and divided into thin layers so the model can be built layer by layer [10]. The building process can be divided into three steps and are illustrated in figures 12-14. The first step is where the lasers work surface can be pre heated and the first thin layer of powder is spread evenly over the work surface. When the first layer has been spread the laser will melt the contour of the first layer from the sliced model. When the laser melting of the spread layer is done the second and third step is lowering the lasers work surface and recoating a new thin layer of powder that will be melted on to the previous layer. The last step is to remove the part from the work

13

surface usually by electro-discharge machining (EDM) and, if necessary, the built part is post processed

Figure 12 - Schematic of the selective laser melting (SLM) process [1].

The SLM method can be used to create parts with low weight and advanced geometries such as turbine blades with a lattice truss core that acts as cooling channels [52] and other light weight products [22] suitable for space engineering, sports applications and medical implants [3, 34-38]. By being able to create different lattice structures parts can be engineered to be light but strong in the directions needed and last but not least also material spillage and production times and energy consumption can be reduced which, in turn, helps keep the planet green.

Figure 13 - Schematic of the layer by layer method used in the selective laser melting (SLM) process [1].

14

Mirror Yb-laser Filling shoe Collimator lenses + Lens

Pow a)

Component Table

Powder

b) Figure 14 - a) Schematic of Yb-laser in the EOSINT-270 SLM machine. b) Schematic of Yb-laser [53].

15

16

Hastelloy X
Short history of Haynes International and the element nickel

astelloy X is a nickel-base alloy and derives from the first nickel-base superalloys that were introduced in the late 19th century. The nickel-base alloy has been developed through time and is now one of the most important classes of engineering materials due to its ability to withstand harsh environments, high temperatures and corrosion resistance in applications such as power generation, aqueous, petrochemical, chemical processing, aerospace and pollution control. With appropriate alloying additives nickel-base alloys have excellent high and low temperature corrosion resistance, high strength at high temperatures and ductility and toughness at cryogenic temperatures.

The element nickel was initially named by the Swedish scientist Axel Fredrik Cronstedt in 1754 when he published Continuation of Results and Experiments on the Los Cobalt Ore (Rn och frsk, gjorda med en malmart frn Los kobolt-grufvor). Earlier in the 17th century it was known that nickel existed in a reddish mineral that contained approximately 30% nickel, the mineral consisted of nickel arsenateoctahydrate that became known as annabergite after the town Annaberg, Saxony in Germany. In the area of Erzgebirge, a mountain chain in Germany and the Czech Republic, another red colored ore called nicolite or nickel arsenide was found. Because of the red color it was believed that it contained copper. When the workers smelted the ore the arsenicbearing fumes that where generated made the workers extremely noxious which made it hard to isolate the nickel. The workers therefore thought that Old Nick (nick name for the devil) was making their lives hard and arduous. So it was not until 100 years after nickel was found that it was named Nickel by Axel Fredrik Cronstedt. In December 1912 a nickel producer, the Haynes Stellite Company was founded by Elwood Haynes in Kokomo, Indiana. Haynes had been working on nickel and cobalt alloys with additions of chromium and was granted patents on Ni-Cr and Co-Cr alloys. Haynes Stellite has been owned by Union Carbide Corporation and by Cabot Corporation and is known as Haynes International [54]. Haynes International make and develop Hastelloy X a nickel-chromium-iron-molybdenum alloy with good oxidation, fabricability and thermal properties and welding characteristics which makes it perfect in powder form in the SLM (selective laser melting) process. Due to its chemical composition it withstands hot petrochemical applications as well. The ability to withstand hot petrochemical applications makes it ideal for repairing burner nozzles

17

which would be its main use at SIT (Siemens Industrial Turbomachinery), Finspng.

Superalloys
When developing a gas turbine, basic thermodynamic considerations have always shown that an as high as possible turbine inlet temperature is beneficial for the efficiency of the turbine. The turbine inlet temperature is limited by the turbine blade and vane material, cooling techniques and that is where the superalloy comes in to question. The superalloys are a group of nickel-, iron-nickel and cobalt-base materials that combine mechanical properties and corrosion resistance that can be used successfully at temperatures above 540C. Superalloys most commonly have a face cubic centred (fcc) austenitic crystal structure of the matrix phase [55-57]. Superalloys are not only used in turbine blades but in many applications such as burner nozzles, power plants, aqueous, space, petrochemical applications and many others. Superalloys became more and more popular in the late fifties during the race for supremacy in military and civil avionics. Turbine blade technology was moving forward and the blades where becoming more and more advanced with complex internal cooling and better aerodynamics that led to the gradual increase of load on the blades. These new blades required materials that had a combination of better mechanical and thermal properties such as creep, thermal fatigue and oxidation resistance and microstructural stability at even higher temperatures, which can today exceed 1100C [56]. This in turn led to better processing and manufacturing methods of turbine blades from having regular grains to directionally solidified grains and so far to the superior single-crystal turbine blades to eliminate the problem of thermal fatigue damage at grain boundaries [56]. Because of the excellent mechanical properties at high temperatures shown in figure 15 superalloys have gained much interest from turbine manufacturers. A special feature for nickel-base alloys is their use in load-bearing applications at temperatures that are above 80% of their incipient melting temperatures (Tm), this is higher than any other class of engineering alloys [55].

18

Ni-base superalloys Fe-base superalloys Austenitic steels Co-base superalloys Refractory metals

Figure 15 - Maximum service temperatures of various creep-resistant material groups [55].

For parts working in high temperatures, nickel-base superalloy is a well chosen material, even though nickel-base superalloys are very advanced. They usually contain more than 10 different alloying elements. The different behaviours of the alloying element have often been well documented [55-57]. The nickel base matrix in superalloys consists of a face centred cubic (fcc) austenitic phase shown in figure 16 which is very stable and shows very little volume changes when heated, the nickel-base superalloys have no ductile to brittle transition temperature (DBTT) due to its fcc crystal structure.

Figure 16 - Face centered cubic (fcc) lattice structure [58].

19

Hastelloy X is a nickel-base superalloy that is also manufactured as a powder alloy and is the material used in this thesis. We will concentrate on the nickel base superalloys and the three main groups it has been divided into [44, 55-57]. Mechanical testing has been done on the Hastelloy X alloy.

Nickel base superalloys There are three basic types of high temperature nickel-base superalloys: Solid solution strengthened alloys contain very little or no aluminium, titanium or niobium Precipitation hardenable alloys contain aluminium, titanium and sometimes niobium several percent

Oxide-dispersion strengthened (ODS) alloys contain fine oxide particles of Y2O3 in small amounts between 0.5 and 1%

Iron-nickel base superalloys Iron-nickel-base superalloys contain >10% Fe but usually somewhere between 18 and 55% and >25% Ni and can be divided in to three main groups. Iron-nickel base superalloys with an austenitic matrix and strengthened by . Iron-nickel base superalloys that contain small amounts of iron usually have additions of niobium and tantalum getting their strength from . Iron-nickel base superalloys containing higher amounts of carbon is strengthened by carbides, nitrides, carbonitrides and solid solution strengthening.

Cobalt base superalloys Cobalt base superalloys are strengthened by solid solution alloying and carbide precipitation. No inter metallic phase have been found in cobalt base superalloys that will give the material the same strength as and in nickel and iron-nickel base superalloys instead grain boundary carbides inhibit grain boundary sliding in the cobalt base superalloys.

20

Wrought superalloys Wrought superalloys are often used for parts made by machining such as turning, milling and welding and are mostly strengthened by solid solution strengthening and/or the formation of phase by precipitation during heat treatment. Table 2 shows a few examples of typical commercial wrought Ni-base superalloys.

Table 2 - Composition of typical commercial wrought Ni-base superalloys [55].

Alloy trade name Haynes 230 Hastelloy X Inconel 718 Composition Alloying element [%] Ni Co Cr Fe 55 <5 22 <3 49 <1,5 22 15,8 52,5 3 19 18,5

W 14 0,6

Mo Ti 2 9 0,9

Nb

5,1

C 0,1 0,15 0,08

Al 0,35 2 0,5

B 0,015

La 0,02

Cu

<0,15

Cast superalloys Cast superalloys come in three forms: polycrystalline, directionally solidified (DS) and the more advanced single crystal alloys (SC) (where no high angle grain boundaries exist). Cast alloys are harder to machine by turning, milling and welding due the higher amount of that is only achievable when casting. A high amount of improves creep resistance at high temperatures because carbides prevent grain boundary sliding but when is subjected to long work cycles at elevated temperatures can transform in to M23C6 that acts as a low friction film between grain boundaries and in worst case scenarios matrix inversion can occur when the content is high [42]. This is why content is kept around 40% in turbine blades and vanes due to the long work cycle. And in aero engines that have a lot more start and stop cycles the content can be as high as 75% [42]. Table 3 shows a few examples of typical commercial cast Nibase superalloys

Table 3 - Composition of typical commercial cast Ni-base superalloys [55].

Alloy trade name Hastelloy X Inconel 738 Inconel 939 Waspalloy Composition Alloying element [%] Ni Co Cr Fe 48,5 1,5 21,75 18,5 61,5 8,5 16 49,8 19 22,4 57,5 13,5 19,5 1

W Mo 0,6 9 2,6 1,75 2 4,2

Ti

Nb Al

3,4 2 3,7 1 3

C 0,1 3,4 0,1 0,17 1,9 0,15 1,2 0,09 0,07

Zr

B 0,01 0,01 0,005 0,005

21

Powder metallurgy alloys Powder metallurgy (PM) alloys have gained increasing interest from turbine manufacturers such as Siemens Industrial Turbomachinery, Finspng, because of the SLM process that allows more advanced designs. There are two main groups of PM alloys. The first type of alloy is produced of spherical prealloyed powder where too large particles are screened out and discarded. The remaining powder is then mixed together and finally made into products by hot isostatic pressing (HIP). The other group includes mechanically alloyed PM that is strengthened by dispersed oxide (oxide dispersive strengthening (ODS) such as yttria (Y2O3). Table 4 shows a few examples of typical commercial powder metallurgy superalloys

Table 4 - Composition of typical commercial powder metallurgy superalloys [55].

Alloy trade name (SEM analyzed) Hastelloy X Nimonic Composition Alloying element [%] Ni Co Cr Fe Mo Ti C Al B Si Zr 44,55 2,12 22,73 18,4 11,11 * * * * 0,18 * bal 13,6 19,3 * 4,2 3,6 0,04 1,3 0,005 * 0,048

Alloying elements in nickel base superalloys All elements commonly used in superalloys have different effects which are shown in table 5. Chromium improves corrosion and aluminium improves oxidation resistance but both also strengthen the matrix although aluminium has a high affinity to create phase. To harden the matrix heavy elements are used such as molybdenum, tungsten (wolfram), niobium and tantalum. The downside of using heavy elements is the increased density which is the opposite of what is optimal for aeronautical applications. Even though these elements have positive properties, when used excessively they form topologically close-packed phases (TCP) such as the brittle and phase [55-57]. The principal elements that are used when forming are aluminium and titanium, in some cases niobium and tantalum. Since tantalum can replace titanium in single crystal superalloys and is used to raise the solidus temperatures the volume fraction of can be increased to between 70 and 80% in single crystal alloys.

22

Table 5 - Effects of major alloying elements in nickel base superalloys [56].

Element Matrix Cr Mo W Ta Nb Ti Al Fe Co Re C B, Zr Slight Moderate Moderate Moderate Increase in Grain boundaries M23C26 & M7C3 M6C and MC Other effects Improves corrosion resistance Promotes TCP phases Increases density Promotes TCP phases Promotes phase Promotes phase Improves oxidation resistance Decreases oxidation resistance Promotes TCP phases , Laves Raises solidus temperature Retards coarsening Increases misfit Carbides Inhibit carbide coarsening Improves grain boundary strength Improves creep strenght and ductility

+ + + + +

strenghtening volume fraction Moderate Moderate High High High High Moderate Moderate Moderate Moderate Large Large Very large Very large , , , Moderate in some alloys

NbC TiC

+ + +

Phases in nickel base superalloys The most common phases that are present in nickel base superalloys are listed below. Gamma matrix, , which is the constituting nonmagnetic matrix in an fcc nickel-base phase that usually contains high amounts of solid-solution elements such as cobalt, iron, chromium, molybdenum and tungsten [55]. Gamma prime, , has an fcc crystal structure and is required for hightemperature strength and creep resistance. To create aluminium and titanium but also niobium, tantalum and chromium are required to precipitate fcc (Ni3Al, Ti) which precipitates coherently with the matrix [55] that can be seen in figure 17.

Ni

Other alloy Figure 17 - Gamma prime, , (Ni3Al, Ti) fcc crystal structure [59].

23

Gamma double prime, , has a bct (body centred tetragonal) crystal structure and is most common in nickel-iron superalloys [55]. In nickel and niobium form bct (body centred tetragonal) Ni3Nb in the presence of iron which is coherent with the matrix. The phase induces large mismatch strains and provides high strength at temperatures up to 650C but becomes unstable at higher temperatures [55]. Grain-boundary, , can be achieved during heat treatments and when exposed to higher temperatures during service. The creates a film along the grain boundaries that prevents grain boundary dislocations but can become unstable and instead of preventing dislocations it can become a low friction film that is undesired [42]. Carbides are created when up to 0.2% of carbon is added combined with carbide reactive elements such as titanium, tantalum, hafnium and niobium. Parts can be inadvertently heat treated when service cycles are long. As a result carbides can decompose and generate other carbides such as M23C6 and/or M6C, usually at grain boundaries. The M element is usually chromium, nickel, cobalt, iron, molybdenum, tungsten, niobium, hafnium, thorium, zirconium and tantalum [55]. Borides are found in superalloys in the form of M3B2, with a tetragonal unit cell. The boride particles are formed when boron segregates to grain boundaries. Small additions of boron are essential to improve creep rupture resistance in superalloys. Borides are hard particles, blocky to half moon in appearance, that are observed at grain boundaries [55] Topologically close packed (tcp) type phases, are either plate or needle-like phases such as , , and Laves that may form for some compositions under certain conditions and cause lowered rupture strength and ductility. The phase has a tetragonal crystal structure and is most common in iron- and cobalt-base superalloys and usually appears as irregularly shaped globules that are formed after extended exposure for temperatures between 540 and 980C. The phase has a rhombohedral crystal structure and can be found in alloys containing large amounts of molybdenum or tungsten and appears as coarse irregular Widmansttten platelets that are formed at high temperatures. The Laves phase has a hexagonal crystal structure and is most common in iron- and cobalt-base superalloys and appears as irregularly shaped globules or platelets when exposed to high temperatures for extended periods of time [55].

24

Purpose
ind a way to test and analyze a selectively laser melted open lattice and lattice truss structures with load bearing shells. To better understand how the load-bearing properties change when these structures are subjected to tensile, compressive and bending forces, and finally see if the collected data can be used to produce design criteria for properties in different cell structures manufactured of Hastelloy X. Through this study constructors and other engineers will be able to choose combinations of materials and cell structures when designing a component.

25

26

Experimental procedure
he mechanical properties need to be investigated, this is done by tensile, compression and bend tests on six different lattice truss structures called Diamond and Octagon that have been previously programmed in the software from EOS. The structure sizes are called 2,2, 2,6 and 3,0 because of the dimensions that are calculated with the formula w/s=v. w = cell size, s = lattice diameter and v is value that needs to be less than three to be manufactureable. This implies that struts cannot be manufactured to slender because the re-coater will otherwise break the struts when distributing a new layer of powder.

Tensile testing of test bars made of regular and selectively laser melted Hastelloy X
The tensile testing of regular test bars was done according to ISO standard 6892-1 [60] and the manufacturing of test bars were done according to an internal drawing plan 70001782-3 [61]. The testing was done in SCHENCK TREBEL (fabrication serial number: 37162 calibrated 200711-29 by MTS) multi testing machine at Siemens Industrial Turbomachinery, Finspng. The machine was controlled with an EDC100/120 console and a separate computer (E7SFC-11034) was used to control and record data from the EDC-100/120 console using Inersj CyclicEdc 120 software. An extensometer (Sandner A 10/2x Serial number: 289 calibrated 2007-11-28 by MTS) was used to measure the first 2% of elongation so that the E-modulus could be well estimated. Thereafter further elongation was measured as displacement of the sled. All generated data was recorded and stored in RAW-files that were processed and analyzed in Excel.

27

Tensile testing of non standardized selectively laser melted Hastelloy X

Tensile testing was done using the Diamond structure on the three different types of specimens a hollow tube, open lattice truss structure and a hybrid consisting of a tube containing a lattice truss structure shown in figures 12-24 containing the three different types of lattice truss structures shown in figure 28-30. The specimen sizes where chosen to be (LxWxD) 40x15x15 for the tube and hybrid and (LxWxD) 40x13x13 for the open lattice truss structure. The test specimens for tensile testing were designed with input from Olaf Rehmes book Cellular design for laser freeform fabrication [62] and according to DIN 50125 [63]. The specimen size was chosen to be (LxWxD) 40x15x15 and (LxWxD) 40x13x13 to contain a sufficient amount of cells that would fit inside the hybrid specimen. The smaller cell sizes were chosen because the larger ones would allow only approximately three whole cells in the specimen, with the cell sizes used the amount of cells varied between four and six. The testing was done in a Instron machine at Linkpings Universitet, Sweden with clamping fixtures in which the tensile test specimens could be firmly attached without slipping. The machine was connected to two separate computers, one recording force and elongation with an Instron extensometer measuring up to 12.5mm and the other with acoustic emission [64-67] testing software for recording and analyzing the signals from two microphones that were connected to the fixtures. Photographs were also taken and video recordings were done to be able to see and locate individual struts when they break and collapse. The instrument set up will be discussed later in chapter Test bed.

28

Compression testing of non standardized selectively laser melted Hastelloy X

All compression tests were done on Hastelloy X on three different types of specimens: hollow tube, open lattice truss structure and a hybrid consisting of a tube containing a lattice truss structure built with a build angle of 45 and 90 shown in figures 22-24. The tube can contain three different Diamond and Octagon lattice truss structures shown in figures 25-36. Figures 18-21 show CAD models of the individual cells built at 45 and 90. The specimen sizes were chosen to be (LxWxD), 20x15x15mm and (LxWxD) 20x13x13mm for the open lattice truss structure. A component will always keep its dimensions but the lattice truss structure can be altered to withstand higher loads.

Figure 18 - Diamond 45 cell.

Figure 19 - Diamond 90 cell.

Figure 20 - Octagon 45.

Figure 21 - Octagon 90.

29

The specimen size was chosen to be (LxWxD) 20x15x15 and (LxWxD) 20x13x13 due to manufacturing time and so that a sufficient amount of cells would fit inside the hybrid specimen and to avoid buckling. The smaller cell sizes where chosen because the larger ones would allow only approximately three whole cells in the specimen. With the specimens used the amount of cells varied between four and six and also due to earlier research done by Olaf Rehme et.al. on open lattice truss structures subjected to compression testing shows that fewer cells should give good results [62]. The testing was done in an Instron machine connected to two separate computers one recording compression and force using an Instron extensometer measuring up to 2.5 millimetre compression and the other with acoustic emission [64-67] testing software for recording and analyzing the signals from two microphones connected to the compression fixtures. Photos and video recordings were also done to be able to see and locate individual strut breaking and collapsing sequences. This instrument set up will be discussed later in the chapter test bed. New fixtures were designed and manufactured so that the extensometer could be used to minimize the error when evaluating the value of stiffness and also so that the fixtures could easily be modified to accommodate other test geometries for future testing.

Three point bend testing of selectively laser melted Hastelloy X

All bend tests were done on Hastelloy X on three different types of specimens: hollow tube, open lattice truss structure and a hybrid consisting of a tube containing a lattice truss structure shown in figure 2224, the tube can contain three different Diamond 90 lattice truss structures shown in figure 28-30. The specimen sizes where chosen to be (LxWxD), 36x15.1x15.1mm and (LxWxD) 36x13.1x13.1mm for the open lattice truss structure. A component will always keep its dimensions but the lattice truss structure can be altered to withstand higher loads. The specimen size was chosen to be (LxWxD) 36x15.1x15.1 and (LxWxD) 36x13.1x13.1 due to manufacturing time and that a sufficient amount of cells would fit inside the hybrid specimen. The testing was done in an Instron machine connected to two separate computers one recording compression and force and the other with acoustic emission [64-67] testing software for recording and analyzing the recorded signals from two microphones connected to the bending fixtures. Video recordings were also done to be able to see and locate individual strut breaking and collapsing sequences. This instrument set up will be discussed later in the chapter test bed for bend testing.

30

Figure 22 - Open square tube with wall thickness 1mm and LxWxD 20x15x15mm for compression testing.

Figure 23 - Open lattice truss structure Diamond 45 LxWxD 20x13x13mm for compression testing.

Figure 24 - Combined hybrid structure Diamond 90 LxWxD 20x15x15mm for compression testing.

31

Figure 25 - Diamond 45_C2,2_BD0,73.

Figure 26 - Diamond 45_C2,6_BD0,87.

Figure 27 - Diamond 45_C3,0_BD1,00.

Figure 28 - Diamond 90_C2,2_BD0,73.

32

Figure 29 - Diamond 90_C2,6_BD0,87.

Figure 30 - Diamond 90_C3,0_BD1,0.

Figure 31 - Octagon 45_C2,2_BD0,73.

Figure 32 - Octagon 45_C2,6_BD0,87.

33

Figure 33 - Octagon 45_C3,0_BD1,00.

Figure 34 - Octagon 90_C2,2_BD0,73.

Figure 35 - Octagon 90_C2,6_BD0,87.

Figure 36 - Octagon 90_C3,0_BD1,00.

34

Test bed 1 for non standardized tensile, compression and bend specimens
Tests on the non standardized test samples were done at the mechanical testing lab at Linkpings Universitet. To do the tests an Instron 5582 (System ID: 5582 H 1327) with 100kN capacity was used with wedge clamping fixtures. For the tensile tests flat clamping fixtures was used and for the compression and bending clamping fixtures with groves were used because the fixtures for compression and bending had round 13mm brackets. The clamps were controlled with an Instron model OP715-25 that hydraulically fastened the clamps with a pressure of approximately 200bars. To approximate the E-modulus an Instron extensometer (CAT. No: 2630-106, Gauge length: 25mm, Travel: +12.5mm/-2.5mm, Serial No:89) was used for the first millimetres of displacement, thereafter displacement of the crosshead. The tensile, compression and bend testing requires customized programs, which were done using Introns Bluehill software (Bluehill-5582). Two computers were used for running the tests, one for the Instron machine (Dell optiplex GX520) containing the Instron software and customized programs for the different specimens and the other computer had acoustic emission (AE) software Mistras installed and was used together with two microphones with a 40dB amplification. All fixtures were designed with some freedom so that the extensometer could be used without being crushed and to make it easy and accessible to mount the microphones as close as possible to the test sample. All generated data was recorded and logged into RAW-files that were processed, analyzed and made in to graphs in Excel. All tests were photographed and filmed using a Canon EOS 5D Mark 2 camera with full HD video and a Cannon EF 100mm 1:2.8 ultrasonic macro lens.

Test bed 2 for non standardized compression specimens

Some of the non standardized compression test samples were done at the mechanical testing lab at Linkpings Universitet. To do the tests a 300kN MTS (311.21) frame with an Instron 8800 controller using Instron series IX software for recording data was used. All generated data was recorded and logged into RAW-files that were processed, analyzed and made in to graphs in Excel. All tests were photographed and filmed using a Canon EOS 5D Mark 2 camera with full HD video and a Cannon EF 100mm 1:2.8 ultrasonic macro lens.

35

Test bed 3 for non standardized bend specimens

Some bend testing was done at Siemens, Finspng using a SCHENCK TREBEL (fabrication serial number: 37162 calibrated 2007-11-29 by MTS) multi testing machine. The machine was controlled with an EDC100/120 console and a separate computer (E7SFC-11034) was used to control and record data from the EDC-100/120 console using Inersj CyclicEdc 120 software. All generated data was recorded and logged into RAW-files that were processed, analyzed and made in to graphs in Excel. All tests were photographed and filmed using a Canon EOS 5D Mark 2 camera with full HD video and a Cannon EF 100mm 1:2.8 ultrasonic macro lens.

Acoustic emission
Acoustic Emission is based on the detection and conversion of high frequency elastic waves to electrical signals. Acoustic Emission provides some measure of the total quantity of detected emission for correlation with time and/or load. This is done by directly coupling piezoelectric transducers on the surface of the structure or fixtures when testing the structures. Sensors are coupled to the structure and the output of each piezoelectric sensor during structure loading is amplified through a lownoise preamplifier, filtered to remove any extraneous noise and then processed with Mistras software [68]. Figure 37 illustrates the basic setup of the acoustic emission equipment and figure 38 shows how the different output signals are defined.

Figure 37 - Acoustic emission technology overview [68].

36

Figure 38 - Acoustic emission defined [68].

Definition: AE is the short rapid, release of energy in the form of a transient elastic wave [68]. Source: The Acoustic Emission source is created by a defect (crack) or discontinuity (e.g. high tension wire break) that becomes active due to changes in operating loads, overloading conditions or degradation of the material in (e.g. stress corrosion cracking, corrosion fatigue & hydrogen embrittlement) [68]. Detection: The Acoustic Emission waveform has several parameters that can be used for characterization of the source defect or discontinuity [68]. Amplitude: How loud or strong the signal is, measured in volts or decibels [68]. Energy: Equal to the energy under the curve, one of the best ways to measure AE activity [68]. Counts: The number of threshold crossings [68].

37

Sample preparation, light optical microscopy and SEM analysis

Cutting Cutting was done using two machines. A Struers Discotom-5 and a smaller Buehler IsoMet 5000 linear precision saw for more accuracy.

Grinding Regular grinding was done on non significant sharp edges using a Struers Knuth Rotor water grinder and a hand held Gesswein SA-90 was used to grind and polish fixtures that where impossible to grind on the Struers Knuth Rotor grinder.

Sample preparation method one Samples were cut from selectively laser melted bars produced in an EOSINT M270 SLM machine to various shapes and sizes in order to see structures and orientation of the selectively laser melted beads. The samples were mounted in conductive Bakelite, ground in 5 stages using a Struers Rotopol-2/Pedemat with 120, 240, 320, 600 and 1000 grit paper and polished in two steps using a DP-Mol polishing cloth together with 6m diamond slurry and finally with a MRE polishing cloth together with 1m diamond slurry. Between each step all samples were cleaned with water and ethanol. The samples were also etched for approximately 5 seconds by electrolytic etching using 10vol% oxalic acid and 4.50.5V.

Sample preparation method two Samples were cut from selectively laser melted compression specimens produced in an EOSINT M270 SLM machine to various shapes and sizes in order to see cracks, structures and orientation of the selectively laser melted material. The samples were mounted in conductive Bakelite, ground once in a Struers AbraPlan-20. The pieces were then polished in three steps using a Buehler PowerPro 5000 variable speed grinder and polisher. The first step of the polishing process a Hercules grinding disk with 9m diamond slurry was used. The second step using a VerduTex abrasive cloth and 3m diamond slurry. In the third and final step a ChemoMet polishing cloth was used together with aluminium oxide.

38

Light optical microscopy Light optical microscopy was performed using a Zeiss Observer D1m with magnification up to 500X, equipped with a Zeiss Axio Cam 1Cc1 video camera, to see structures and orientation of the selectively laser melted beads.

Stereomicroscopy Stereomicroscopy was performed using a Leica Wild M10 with magnification up to 50X, equipped a camera from Leica and two light sources one Intralux 6000 and two smaller spotlights from Photonic.

SEM analysis SEM analysis was performed on non etched samples of selectively laser melted Hastelloy X in a Jeol JSM-6610LV.

39

40

Limitations
General limitations Only Hastelloy X was tested. Test methods were limited to tensile, compression and bend testing. The environmental settings were ambient room temperature and humidity. Dimensions were chosen so that a sufficient amount of cells would fit in the test samples varying from 4 to 6 cells. No pre or post heat treatments were done to the test samples. Powder handling according to internal standard DL0789-1 [69].

Tensile testing of regular test bar limitations Tensile testing was done according to ISO 6892-1 on regular test bars made of Hastelloy X according to an internal drawing plan 70001782-3. Tensile testing was done on selectively laser melted Hastelloy X according to ISO 6892-1 with build angles 0 and 90 shown in figure 39 and manufactured in to bars according to an internal drawing plan 70001782-3.

Build Angle Orientation z y x a) 0 b) 45 y x c) 90 y x

Figure 39 - Different build angles varying from 0 to 90.

41

Tensile testing of non standardized test specimen limitations The lattice truss structure was chosen from previously programmed structures from Netfab. Diamond was chosen because it had a lower density than Octagon. The specimen sizes where chosen to be (LxWxD) 40x15x15 for the tube and hybrid and (LxWxD) 40x13x13 for the open lattice truss structure

Compression test limitations The lattice truss structures were chosen from previously programmed structures from Netfab, Diamond and Octagon was chosen to get a good comparison between the two structures. Compression testing was done as sintered specimens. Specimens were built in both 45 and 90. Diamond specimens built at 90 were built as triplicates. Diamond specimens built at 45 were built as duplicates. Octagon specimens built at 90 were built as duplicates. Octagon specimens built at 45 were built as duplicates. The specimen sizes where chosen to be (LxWxD), 20x15x15mm for the tube and Hybrid and 20x13x13mm for the open lattice truss structure

Bend test limitations The lattice truss structure was chosen from previously programmed structures from Netfab, Diamond and Octagon was chosen to get a good comparison between the two structures. Bend testing was done on as sintered specimens. Diamond Specimens were built as duplicates with a 90 build angle.

42

Results
Comparing regular and selectively laser melted tensile test bars according to Siemens internal material specification MAT890001 of Hastelloy X

EM analysis was done to be able to compare selectively laser melted Hastelloy X based on material specification MAT890001 with regular Hastelloy X and can be seen in table 6.

Results from tensile strength tests on regular Hastelloy X test bars were performed in order to get data for comparison between wrought, laser melted, laser melted open lattice truss structures and hybrid structures.

Table 6 - Hastelloy X composition from Haynes [70] compared to SEM.

Nominal Chemical Composition, Weight Percent Ni Cr Fe Mo Co W C Mn Si B Regular Hastelloy 47 22 18 9 1,5 0,6 0,1 <1 <1 <0,008 SEM, sinterd Hastelloy 44,6 22,7 18,4 11,1 2,1 0,8 * 0,1 0,2 * powder are to low to be measured accurately * values

900 800 700 600 Stress, MPa 500 400 300 200 100 0 0 10 20 30 40 50 Strain, % 60 70 56287, HX 3 56285, HX 1 56286, HX 2

Figure 40 - Comparison of 3 test samples made of regular Hastelloy X at room temperature (20C).

43

From the three different test samples of regular Hastelloy X a comparison of the mechanical properties were done and shown in table 7.

Table 7 - Comparison of the mechanical properties from the 3 test samples of regular Hastelloy X at room temperature (20C).

Tensile strength tests were done on selectively laser melted Hastelloy X at build angles of 0 and 90. The results show that the materials mechanical properties vary considerably depending on the build angle. Build angle is defined with the specimen compared to the work plate and shown in figure 41.

Build Angle Orientation z y x a) 0 b) 45 y x c) 90 y x

Figure 41 - Different build angles varying from 0 to 90.

44

900 800 700 600 Stress, MPa 500 400 300 200 100 0 0 5 10 15 20 Strain, % 25 30 35 40
56289, HX LS, T19, 0 56288, HX LS, T20, 90

Figure 42 - Selectively laser melted Hastelloy X at 0 and 90.

In figure 42 the two selectively laser melted test samples are compared and the mechanical properties are shown in table 8.

Table 8 - Comparison of the mechanical properties from the two test samples of selectively laser melted Hastelloy X at room temperature (20C).

When comparing the tensile strength curves of the two selectively laser melted test samples with the regular non sintered test samples, the curves show that the regular one has better ductility, its E-modulus is between the two selectively laser melted ones and its rupture values are significantly lower than the ones for the selectively laser melted ones. A comparison is shown in table 9 and figure 37.

45

900 800 700 600 Stress, MPa 56287, HX 3 500 400 300 200 100 0 0 10 20 30 Strain, % 40 50 60 70 56289, HX LS, T19, 0 56288, HX LS, T20, 90

Figure 43 - Regular Hastelloy X compared with selectively laser melted at 0 and 90.

Table 9 - Comparison of the mechanical properties from the 2 test samples made of selectively laser melted Hastelloy X with build angle 0 and 90 and regular Hastelloy X at room temperature (20C).

The difference in ductility can be explained by the crystal orientation in the selectively laser melted material. As seen in figure 44-47 the crystals grow fanlike in the weld bead, this makes it more ductile in the direction parallel to the crystals and weaker in the direction perpendicular to the crystals.

46

Figure 44 - Micro structure cut at 90 to the work surface X200.

The weld beads are approximately 100m wide and 50m tall with varying lengths depending on the object being built. In figure 44 and 45 crystals that grow fanlike can be seen. Also build direction is shown with the red arrows.

Figure 45 - Microstructure cut at 90 to the work surface X500.

47

Figure 46 - Microstructure cut at 0 to the work surface X100.

Figures 46 and 47 show how the laser turns 30 for each layer that is being melted.

Figure 47 - Microstructure cut at 90 to the work surface X500.

48

Comparing selectively laser melted nonstandardized Diamond 90 tensile test specimens of Hastelloy X
All the tensile test specimens were built with Diamond structures with a 90 build angle. Although the struts are thicker in the 3,0 structure and the structure appears to be more open in comparison, it still weighed the same as the two other structures 2,2 and 2,6, thus resulting in having the same strength. Figures 48 and 49 show how the different tensile test specimens where designed.

Figure 48 - Open 2,2 lattice truss structure tensile test specimen.

Figure 49 - Hybrid tensile test specimen.

49

Open lattice truss structure

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15000 Load, N

10000

LS HX 2,2 Open nr.8 LS HX 2,6 Open nr.11 LS HX 3,0 Open nr.10

5000

0 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 Elongation, mm

Figure 50 - Comparing Diamond 90 with the three lattice truss structures.

Figure 50 shows that there is no significant variation in strength in the three different structures however when comparing acoustic emission (AE) data it is shown that the 2,2 Diamond structure emits more recordable sound in the initial elongation phase than the two other structures 2,6 and 3,0 and is shown in figures 67-73 furthermore, it is shown that the fracture elongation does not significantly differ between the structures. When first inspecting the open lattices it was observed that the whole structure had suffered multiple shear fractures and that the common fracture behaviour of the open lattice truss structure was shear along preferred planes as can be seen in figures 55-66.

50

Tube

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Load, N

15000

10000

LS HX 2,2 Open nr.8 LS HX 2,6 Open nr.11 LS HX 3,0 Open nr.10

5000

0 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 Elongation, mm

Figure 51 - Tensile tests of the hollow square tubes.

Figure 51 shows the typical behaviour of the tube specimen. The tube is significantly stronger than the open lattice and hardly emits any signals when using the acoustic emission software as shown in figure 70. The tube shows a significant waist forming before breaking. The fracture surface shows that the tube broke due to shear tensile forces.

51

Hybrid consisting of an open lattice truss structure and tube

70000 60000 50000 40000 30000 20000 10000 0 0 5 10 Elongation, mm 15 20

LS HX 2,2 hybrid nr.19 LS HX 2,6 hybrid nr.7 LS HX 3,0 Hybrid nr.10

Figure 52 - Comparison of the three different hybrid structures.

Figure 52 shows the typical behaviour of the hybrid structures. It is obvious that a hybrid structure is significantly stronger than the open lattice and tube and hardly emits any signals when using the acoustic emission software even though it contains the open lattice truss structure. Acoustic emission results are shown in figures 71-73. The hybrid structure shows a significant waist forming before breaking. The fracture surface shows that the hybrid structure broke due to shear tensile forces and is shown in figures 57, 58, 63-65.

L o a d, N

52

Comparing test bars with non standardized tensile test specimens

70000 60000 50000 Load, N 40000 30000 20000 10000 0 0 5 10 15 20 25 Elongation, mm

2.2 Hybrid nr19 2.6 Hybrid nr.7 3.0 Hybrid nr.10 Tube nr.17 2.2 Open nr.8 2.6 Open nr.11 3.0 Open nr.10 56287 HX 3 56288 HX LS T20 90 56289 HX LS T19 0

Figure 53 - Comparison of regular tensile test bars and non standardized selectively laser melted tensile test specimens.

Figure 53 illustrates the most significant difference between the specimens. That the E-modulus is higher for the cast test bars than the selectively laser melted open lattice truss structures, tubes and hybrids. Figure 54 is a design map showing stiffness versus apparent density. Stiffness (FP) is used instead of E-modulus because the evaluation of a cross sectional area of an open lattice truss or hybrid structure is not feasible. So the regular equation for the E-modulus F/=E does not give a reliable value. Therefore all specimens have been weighed and measured to evaluate an as accurate apparent density as possible.

53

Figure 54 - Stiffness vs. specific density.

54

Tensile test fracture surface The main fracture mechanism in all specimens was shear. This conclusion was based on the 45 coarse dimple fracture surfaces that are shown in figures 55-66.

Figure 55 - 2,2 open lattice truss structure showing local shear fractures between individual struts.

Figure 56 - 3,0 open lattice truss structure fracture surface.

55

Figure 57 - 2,2 Hybrid fracture surface.

Figure 58 - 2,2 Hybrid cut fracture surface.

56

Figure 59 - 3,0 fracture surface of a strut exposed to tensile load X110.

Figure 60 - 3,0 fracture surface of where a strut exposed to tensile load X85.

57

Figure 61 - 3,0 fracture surface of where a strut exposed to tensile load X550.

Figure 62 - 3,0 fracture surface of a sheared joint X75.

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Figure 63 - Fracture surface of a 3,0 hybrid structure X65.

Figure 64 - Dimple fracture surface of a 3,0 hybrid structure X400.

59

Figure 65 - Dimple fracture surface of a 3,0 hybrid structure X2500.

Figure 66 - The coarse surface of an as sintered part X950.

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Acoustic emission Figures 67-73 shows hits versus time and energy versus time graphs. These were done to find out if there was a significant difference between the cell sizes of the structures and to see which one might lead to failure and cracking first when subjected to tensile forces.

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Figure 67 - 2,2 open Diamond 90.

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Figure 68 - 2,6 open Diamond 90.

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Figure 69 - 3,0 open Diamond 90.

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Figure 70 - Tube Diamond 90.

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Figure 71 - 2,2 hybrid Diamond 90.

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Figure 72 - 2,6 hybrid Diamond 90.

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Figure 73 - 3,0 hybrid Diamond 90.

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Compression test specimens

Compression test specimens were built as open lattice, tube and hybrids with a Diamond and Octagon structure. The specimens were built with a 45 and 90 build angle. All specimens within their groups have approximately the same weight. This leads to specimens having approximately the same strength in the elastic region which is usually used for stress calculations. Figure 74-96 shows the typical behaviour of these structures while figure 97 is a design map that shows stiffness (N/mm) versus density (g/cm3). Diamond 45

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2,2 Hybrid Diamond 45 nr.3 2,2 Hybrid Diamond 45 nr.4

200000 2,6 Hybrid Diamond 45 nr.7 150000 Load, N 2,6 Hybrid Diamond 45 nr.8 3,0 Hybrid Diamond 45 nr.11 100000 3,0 Hybrid Diamond 45 nr.12 Tube 45 nr.13 50000 2,2 Open Diamond 45 nr.1 2,6 Open Diamond 45 nr.5 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 3,0 Open Diamond 45 nr.9

Compression, mm

Figure 74 - Diamond 45 containing open lattices, tube and hybrids.

80000 70000 60000 50000 Load, N 40000 30000 20000 10000 0 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 3,0 Open Diamond 45 nr.9 2,2 Open Diamond 45 nr.1 2,6 Open Diamond 45 nr.5

Compression, mm

Figure 75 - Diamond 45 open.

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250000

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150000 Load, N

2,2 Hybrid Diamond 45 nr.3 2,6 Hybrid Diamond 45 nr.8 3,0 Hybrid Diamond 45 nr.12

100000

50000

0 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16

Compression, mm

Figure 76 - Diamond 45 Hybrid.

40000 35000 30000 25000 Load, N 20000 Tube 45 nr.13 15000 10000 5000 0 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16

Compression, mm

Figure 77 - Tube 45.

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Diamond 90

100000 90000 80000 70000 60000 Load, N 50000 40000 30000 20000 10000 0 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 Compression, mm

2,2 Hybrid Diamond 90 nr.14 2,6 Hybrid Diamond 90 nr.8 3,0 Hybrid Diamond 90 nr.1 Tube 90 nr.20

2,2 Open Diamond 90 nr.17 2,6 Open Diamond 90 nr.11 3,0 Open Diamond 90 nr.5

Figure 78 - Diamond 90 containing open lattices, tube and hybrids.

45000 40000 35000 30000 Load, N 25000 20000 15000 10000 5000 0 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 Compression, mm 2,2 Open Diamond 90 nr.17 2,6 Open Diamond 90 nr.11 3,0 Open Diamond 90 nr.5

Figure 79 - Diamond 90 open.

67

100000 90000 80000 70000 60000 Load, N 50000 40000 30000 20000 10000 0 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 Compression, mm 2,2 Hybrid Diamond 90 nr.14 2,6 Hybrid Diamond 90 nr.8 3,0 Hybrid Diamond 90 nr.1

Figure 80 - Diamond 90 Hybrid.

40000 35000 30000 25000 Load, N 20000 Tube 90 nr.20 15000 10000 5000 0 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16

Compression, mm

Figure 81 - Tube 90.

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Octagon 45

250000

200000

150000 Load, N

2,2 Hybrid Octagon 45 nr.3 2,2 Hybrid Octagon 45 nr.4 2,6 Hybrid Octagon 45 nr.7 2,6 Hybrid Octagon 45 nr.8 3,0 Hybrid Octagon 45 nr.11 3,0 Hybrid Octagon 45 nr.12 Tube 45 nr.13 2,2 Open Octagon 45 nr.1 2,2 Open Octagon 45 nr.2 2,6 Open Octagon 45 nr.5 2,6 Open Octagon 45 nr.6 3,0 Open Octagon 45 nr.9 3,0 Open Octagon 45 nr.10

100000

50000

0 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 Compression, mm

Figure 82 - Octagon 45 containing open lattices, tube and hybrids.

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200000 2,2 Open Octagon 45 nr.1 150000 Load, N 2,2 Open Octagon 45 nr.2 2,6 Open Octagon 45 nr.5 100000 2,6 Open Octagon 45 nr.6 3,0 Open Octagon 45 nr.9 50000 3,0 Open Octagon 45 nr.10

0 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 Compression, mm

Figure 83 - Octagon 45 open.

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2,2 Hybrid Octagon 45 nr.3 2,2 Hybrid Octagon 45 nr.4

150000 Load, N

2,6 Hybrid Octagon 45 nr.7 2,6 Hybrid Octagon 45 nr.8 3,0 Hybrid Octagon 45 nr.11

100000

50000 3,0 Hybrid Octagon 45 nr.12 0 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 Compression, mm

Figure 84 - Octagon 45 Hybrid.

40000 35000 30000 25000 Load, N 20000 Tube 45 nr.13 15000 10000 5000 0 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16

Compression, mm

Figure 85 - Tube 45.

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Octagon 90

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2,2 Hybrid Octagon 90 nr.3 2,2 Hybrid Octagon 90 nr.4 2,6 Hybrid Octagon 90 nr.7 3,0 Hybrid Octagon 90 nr.11 3,0 Hybrid Octagon 90 nr.12

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200000 Load, N

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Tube 90 nr.20 2,2 Open Octagon 90 nr.2 2,2 Open Octagon 90 nr.1 2,6 Open Octagon 90 nr.6 2,6 Open Octagon 90 nr.5

100000

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0 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 Compression, mm

3,0 Open Octagon 90 nr.10 3,0 Open Octagon 90 nr.9

Figure 86 - Octagon 90 containing open lattices, tube and hybrids.

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2,2 Open Octagon 90 nr.1 2,2 Open Octagon 90 nr.2 2,6 Open Octagon 90 nr.5

200000 Load, N

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2,6 Open Octagon 90 nr.6 3,0 Open Octagon 90 nr.9 3,0 Open Octagon 90 nr.10

100000

50000

0 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 Compression, mm

Figure 87 - Octagon 90 open.

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300000

250000

200000 Load, N

2,2 Hybrid Octagon 90 nr.3 2,2 Hybrid Octagon 90 nr.4 2,6 Hybrid Octagon 90 nr.7

150000

100000

3,0 Hybrid Octagon 90 nr.11 3,0 Hybrid Octagon 90 nr.12

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0 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 Compression, mm

Figure 88 - Octagon 90 Hybrid.

40000 35000 30000 25000 Load, N 20000 Tube 90 nr.20 15000 10000 5000 0 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16

Compression, mm

Figure 89 - Tube 90.

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Comparison of all compression specimens

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2,2 Open Diamond 45 nr.1 2,2 Open Diamond 90 nr.17

150000 Load, N

2,2 Open Octagon 45 nr.1 2,2 Open Octagon 45 nr.2 2,2 Open Octagon 90 nr.1

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2,2 Open Octagon 90 nr.2

0 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 Compression, mm

Figure 90 - Al open 2,2 structures.

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2,6 Open Diamond 45 nr.5 2,6 Open Diamond 90 nr.11 2,6 Open Octagon 45 nr.5

150000 Load, N

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2,6 Open Octagon 45 nr.6 2,6 Open Octagon 90 nr.5

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2,6 Open Octagon 90 nr.6

0 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 Compression, mm

Figure 91 - Al open 2,6 structures.

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3,0 Open Diamond 45 nr.9 3,0 Open Diamond 90 nr.5

150000 Load, N

3,0 Open Octagon 45 nr.9 3,0 Open Octagon 45 nr.10 3,0 Open Octagon 90 nr.9

100000

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3,0 Open Octagon 90 nr.10

0 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16

Compression, mm

Figure 92 - Al open 3,0 structures.

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2,2 Hybrid Diamond 45 nr.3 2,2 Hybrid Diamond 45 nr.4

150000 Load, N

2,2 Hybrid Diamond 90 nr.14 2,2 Hybrid Octagon 45 nr.3 2,2 Hybrid Octagon 45 nr.4

100000

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2,2 Hybrid Octagon 90 nr.3 2,2 Hybrid Octagon 90 nr.4

0 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16

Compression, mm

Figure 93 - Al hybrid 2,2 structures.

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250000

200000

2,6 Hybrid Diamond 45 nr.7 2,6 Hybrid Diamond 45 nr.8

150000 Load, N

2,6 Hybrid Diamond 90 nr.8 2,6 Hybrid Octagon 45 nr.7 2,6 Hybrid Octagon 45 nr.8

100000

50000

2,6 Hybrid Octagon 90 nr.7

0 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16

Compression, mm

Figure 94 - Al hybrid 2,6 structures.

250000 3,0 Hybrid Diamond 45 nr.11 3,0 Hybrid Diamond 45 nr.12 150000 Load, N 3,0 Hybrid Diamond 90 nr.1 3,0 Hybrid Octagon 45 nr.11 3,0 Hybrid Octagon 45 nr.12 50000 3,0 Hybrid Octagon 90 nr.11

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100000

0 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16

Compression, mm

Figure 95 - Al hybrid 3,0 structures.

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40000 35000 30000 25000 Load, N 20000 15000 10000 5000 0 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 Tube 90 nr.20

Tube 45 nr.13

Compression, mm

Figure 96 - Tubes built at a 45 and 90 angle.

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Figure 97 - Stiffness vs. specific density.

77

Compressive test fracture surfaces Figures 98-113 shows the different behaviour in the structures, mainly shear and how the grain boundaries smear out when the specimens have been compressed.

Figure 98 - All open lattice truss structure specimens significantly crushed at 77% compression a) Diamond 45 b) Diamond 90 c) Octagon 45 d) Octagon 90.

78

Figures 99-102 shows the main difference in buckling between tubes built at 45 and 90.

Figure 99 - Compressed tube built at 45.

Figure 100 - Compressed tube built at 90.

Figure 101 - Cross section of a compressed tube built at 45.

Figure 102 - Cross section of a compressed tube built at 90.

79

Figure 103 - Etched 2,2 Hybrid Diamond 90 compressed 12mm.

Figure 104 - Etched 2,2 Hybrid Diamond 90 compressed 12mm 12X.

Figure 105 - Non etched 3.0 Hybrid compressed 10mm 12.5X.

Figure 106 - Non etched 3,0 Open compressed 16mm Diamond 90.

Figure 107 - Non etched 2,2 open compressed 16mm Diamond 90.

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Figure 108 - Etched 2,2 Hybrid Diamond 90 compressed 12mm 50X.

Figure 109 - Etched 2,2 Hybrid Diamond 90 compressed 12mm 100X.

Figure 110 - Etched 2,2 Hybrid Diamond 90 compressed 12mm 200X.

Figure 111 - Etched 2,2 Hybrid Diamond 90 compressed 12mm 500X.

Figure 112 - Non etched 3.0 Hybrid compressed 10mm 50X.

Figure 113 - Non etched 3.0 Hybrid compressed 10mm 200X.

81

Acoustic emission Figures 114-139 shows hits versus time and energy versus time graphs. The graphs indicate that the Diamond structure is more prone to cracking and might lead to failure more rapidly than the other structures.

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Figure 114 - 2,2 open Diamond 45.

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Figure 115 - 2,2 open Diamond 90.

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Figure 116 - 2,2 open Octagon 45.

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Figure 117 - 2,2 open Octagon 90.

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Figure 118 - 2,6 open Diamond 45.

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Figure 119 - 2,6 open Diamond 90.

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Figure 120 - 2,6 open Octagon 45.

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Figure 121 - 2,6 open Octagon 90.

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Figure 122 - 3,0 open Diamond 45.

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Figure 123 - 3,0 open Diamond 90.

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Figure 124 - 3,0 open Octagon 45.

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Figure 125 - 3,0 open Octagon 90.

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Figure 126 - Tube 45.

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Figure 127 - Tube 90.

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Figure 128 - 2,2 Hybrid Diamond 45.

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Figure 129 - 2,2 Hybrid Diamond 90.

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Figure 130 - 2,2 Hybrid Octagon 45.

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Figure 131 - 2,2 Hybrid Octagon 90.

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Figure 132 - 2,6 Hybrid Diamond 45.

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Figure 133 - 2,6 Hybrid Diamond 90.

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Figure 134 - 2,6 Hybrid Octagon 45.

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Figure 135 - 2,6 Hybrid Octagon 90.

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Figure 136 - 3,0 Hybrid Diamond 45.

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Figure 137 - 3,0 Hybrid Diamond 90.

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Figure 138 - 3,0 Hybrid Octagon 45.

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Figure 139 - 3,0 Hybrid Octagon 90.

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Bend test specimens

All bend tests were done on Hastelloy X on three different types of specimens: hollow tube, open lattice truss structure and a hybrid consisting of a tube containing a lattice truss structure. The lattice truss structures are: Diamond 2,2, 2,6, 3,0 built at 90. The specimen sizes where chosen to be (LxWxD), 36x15.1x15.1mm and (LxWxD) 36x13.1x13.1mm for the open lattice truss structure. The general behaviour of these structures is shown in figures 140-143 and figure 144 is a design map that shows stiffness versus weight.

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2,2 Hybrid Diamond 90 nr.3 2,2 Hybrid Diamond 90 nr.4 2,6 Hybrid Diamond 90 nr.6

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2,6 Hybrid Diamond 90 nr.7 3,0 Hybrid Diamond 90 nr.10 3,0 Hybrid Diamond 90 nr.11 2,2 Open Diamond 90 nr.1

Load, N

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2,2 Open Diamond 90 nr.2 2,6 Open Diamond 90 nr.5 3,0 Open Diamond 90 nr.8

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0 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 Displacement, mm

3,0 Open Diamond 90 nr.9

Figure 140 - All bend test specimens.

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2,2 Open Diamond 90 nr.2

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2,6 Open Diamond 90 nr.5

3,0 Open Diamond 90 nr.8

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3,0 Open Diamond 90 nr.9

0 0 5 10 Displacement, mm 15 20

Figure 141 - All open Diamond 90 bend structures.

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70000

60000

2,2 Hybrid Diamond 90 nr.3 2,2 Hybrid Diamond 90 nr.4 2,6 Hybrid Diamond 90 nr.6 2,6 Hybrid Diamond 90 nr.7

50000

40000 Load, N

30000

20000
3,0 Hybrid Diamond 90 nr.10

10000
3,0 Hybrid Diamond 90 nr.11

0 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16

Displacement, mm

Figure 142 - All hybrid Diamond 90 bend structures.

14000

12000

10000

8000 Load, N

6000

Tube 90 nr.12

4000

2000

0 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Displacement, mm

Figure 143 - Tube 90 bend structure.

96

Figure 144 - Stiffness vs. specific density.

97

Bend test fracture surfaces Shear was the main fracture mode except for the tubes that showed more buckling and crushing behaviour. This behaviour is shown in figures Figures 145-148.

Figure 145 - Bent 2,2 open lattice truss structure.

Figure 146 - Bent 3,0 open lattice truss structure.

Figure 147 - Cross section of a bent 3,0 hybrid structure.

Figure 148 - Buckling and crush behaviour of the bent tubes.

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Acoustic emission Figures 149-152 shows hits versus time and energy versus time graphs. These were done to see if there was a significant difference in behaviour between the structures and to see which structure might lead to failure and crack first when subjected to bending forces.

Figure 149 - 2,2 Open Diamond 90.

Figure 150 - 2,6 Open Diamond 90.

99

Figure 151 - 3,0 Open Diamond 90.

Figure 152 - 2,2 Hybrid Diamond 90.

100

Discussion

n this thesis mechanical properties and the way they can be tested have been discussed and investigated. It shows different ways of how the results can be used in technical calculation environments.

Tensile test samples were the hardest ones to design. One way to get better results could be to make lattice truss structures that are built sturdier and denser at fixture points and become more sparse until the desired lattice truss structure have been achieved at desired areas. This would reduce stress concentrations at the immediate transition between solid and lattice truss structure and make it easier for a waist to form. A specimen manufactured with the 2,2 lattice truss structure will contain more complete cells compared to the specimen built with a larger lattice truss structure such as the 2,6 and 3,0. This means that the 2,2 lattice truss structure contains more struts that can and will break when subjected to tensile and compressive forces. This is more easily understood if one looks at a lattice truss structure containing a high number of struts for example 500. If one strut breaks only 0.2% of its load-bearing capability has been lost but if one strut breaks in a lattice truss structure containing 100 struts 1% of its load-bearing capability have been lost. The struts in the lattice truss structure are hardly ever subjected to forces that are parallel to its build direction which means that the struts aligns along the load direction before they break. This aligning effect is thought to emit sounds earlier and lead to earlier breaks within the material but which does not necessarily mean that the specimen will break before a specimen built with a larger cell size as discussed earlier. While still on the subject of acoustic emission it can be seen in figures 153-154 that the 2,2 open lattice truss structure begins to fracture earlier than the rougher 2,6 open lattice truss structure and emits more recordable sounds at approximately mark shown with a black line in the graphs. When combining an open lattice truss structure with a load-bearing shell like the hybrid structure it can be seen in figure 155 that the whole structure emits less recordable sound

101

25000

140000

120000 20000 100000 15000 Load, N

LS HX 2.2 Open nr.8 LS HX 2.6 Open nr.11 AE 2,2 open, energy

80000

10000

60000

40000 5000 20000

0 0 2 4 6 Elongation, mm 8 10 12

Figure 153 - 2,2 and 2,6 open lattice truss structure with acoustic emission for the 2,2 lattice truss structure.

25000

160000 140000

20000 120000 100000 80000 10000 60000 40000 5000 20000 0 0 2 4 6 Elongation, mm 8 10 12 0
LS HX 2.2 Open nr.8 LS HX 2.6 Open nr.11 AE 2,6 open, enregy

15000 Load, N

Figure 154 - 2,2 and 2,6 open lattice truss structure with acoustic emission for the 2,6 lattice truss structure.

102

70000

1000 900

60000
200000

800 700 600 500

LS HX 2,2 hybrid nr.19 LS HX 2,6 hybrid nr.7 AE 2,2 Hybrid, energy

50000

Load, N

40000

30000

400 300 200

20000

10000 100 0 0 4 8 12 16 20 Elongation, mm 0

Figure 155 - 2,2 and 2,6 hybrid structure with acoustic emission for the 2,2 lattice truss structure.

Strut length and diameters could also be altered to see if it is correct that the coarser lattice truss structures emits less sound and might therefore resist micro cracks better than the finer lattice truss structures and if a rubber re-coater could be used to make really fine lattice truss structures without breaking the individual struts in the manufacturing process. The amount of cells could also be changed so that specimens could contain a larger amount of whole cells. This would show if there is a greater advantage for the lattice truss structure or if it is the thickness of the load-bearing shell that makes the significant difference in load bearing ability.

103

Hybrid specimens were a lot stronger than initially expected at the beginning of tests when superpositioning was believed to be appropriate. It is shown in figures 156-160 that superpositioning does not always work correctly when dealing with hybrid structures. A reason for this is probably that the fixture points between the lattice truss structure and load-bearing shell are not accounted for and neither the fact that the loadbearing shell prevents a lot of distortion and buckling, especially in the initial phases of distortion that occurred during tensile, compression and bending. The super positioned values for stiffness FEs is higher than the measured FE values as shown in figures 156 and 157. Super positioned rupture loads FRms are in general lower than the measured values and are shown in figure 160. But the rupture load FRms value is not reliable because the open lattice truss structure, tube and hybrid structure all show different elongation and cannot be recommended for calculations in general even though it shows lower values than the measured ones. In actual practice superpositioning works quite well when estimating the engineering tensile load FPs0,2 as shown in figure 158 and 159. When comparing the super positioned engineering load FPs0,2 with the measured engineering load FP0,2 between tensile and compression specimens it is shown that they show quite similar values as they should and are shown in figure 157 and 159.

Figure 156 - Tensile super positioned stiffness (FEs) versus measured stiffness (FE).

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Figure 157 - Compressive super positioned stiffness (FEs) versus measured stiffness (FE).

Figure 158 - Tensile super positioned engineering stiffness (FPs0,2) versus measured engineering stiffness (FP0,2).

105

Figure 159 - Compressive super positioned engineering stiffness (FPs0,2) versus measured engineering stiffness (FP0,2).

Figure 160 - Tensile super positioned rupture load (FRms) versus measured rupture load (FRm).

106

Compression curves can be divided in to five general areas as shown in figure 161. The same areas can also be seen in figures 75, 79, 83 and 87 but have not been marked.

I. The linear elastic region. II. Linear area before the material becomes seriously compacted. III. Linear area where load increases rapidly due to the earlier compaction. IV. Linear area where the material begins to bend significantly. V. Linear area where the material becomes significantly crushed (approximately 77.3%).

II

II

IV

Figure 161 - Diamond 45 open divided into 5 general areas: I, II, III, IV and V.

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When using the selective laser melting process it could be said that a part is made of a series of welded layers and each layer consist of several weld strands. Figure 53 shows the regular test bars made from wrought Hastelloy X and selectively laser melted Hastelloy X bars built at 0 and 90 have different RP values and that elongation varies significantly. This difference in mechanical properties could be understood with a look at the micro structure shown in figures 44-47 and at the simplification of a weld bead with its fanlike crystals shown in figure 162. It is obvious that the weld will be stronger in the vertical direction compared to the horizontal direction which would lead to tear. When a weld cools down and solidifies it always becomes stronger on its sides due to segregation of alloying elements. Segregation in metals means that the alloying constituents and pollutants with lower melting points show susceptibility to differ from the homogenous mixture and accumulate in the sections that last solidified. These segregations can lower quality of the metal and make it inferior for its planned use. Segregations can commonly be seen as strips or fanlike shapes in the microstructure. But it can also be looked at a more practical way. A weld cools from the outside and inwards. As it is commonly known that a liquid takes up more space than a solidified solution it can also be deducted that the centre of the weld will have to retract the outer part which in turn leads to inner tensions that usually makes the material weaker.

Figure 162 - Simplified weld bead with arrows showing directional forces.

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Different heat treatments would affect the material. The material might become a lot stronger if the material was stress-relieve annealed. It would be interesting to see how the microstructure would change and affect the mechanical properties when subjected to other types of testing such as: LCF, HCF, TMF and creep testing to see how the material acts long term. Impact testing could be of interest to see how much energy the specimens could absorb

It would also be interesting to see how the specimens that have powder enclosed for damping vibrations and specimens that have been slurry polished so that all surfaces are smooth to prevent easy crack initiation behave when tested. Materials that do not consist of an fcc matrix could be subjected to high temperature and cryogenic testing to determine the ductile to brittle transition temperature When testing open lattice truss and hybrid structures it was always a challenge to come up with new ways of mounting the extensometer. This could be solved with a video extensometer that could be used for all types of specimens. The main advantage of a video extensometer would be that it would work independently. It would not matter what kind of fixtures that were used during testing. While discussing exotic equipment highly sensitive thermo cameras could be used to see when individual struts break within the load-bearing shells but also 3D pictures could be made if more advanced acoustic emission hardware and software was used. Something that was not a part of this thesis was FEM modeling that could be a useful tool to better understand how the lattice truss structures might perform. Something that might be a bit more futuristic but still be possible would be to make lattice truss structures with mixed materials and to see if they could be tested the same way we do testing today.Examples of such mixed materials could be a carbon steel lattice truss structure with a stainless steel load-bearing shell.

109

110

Conclusions
Tensile tests
All lattice truss structures were built using Netfab with fixed values for strut dimensions. This led to all specimens having approximately the same density and all specimens having the same strengths. The engineering loads for the different structures were approximately: Hybrid ~50kN, Tube ~32kN and the open lattices ~14kN. The regular bars have higher stiffness value than non standardized test specimens. E-modulus in descending order would be: Regular test bar, hybrid structures, tube and last the open lattice truss structures. The 2,2 Diamond structure emitted more recordable sound in the initial elongation phase than the two other structures 2,6 and 3,0. The main fracture mode was shear at 45 and the fracture surface showed dimples. When designing open lattice truss structure specimens for tensile testing the structure should gradually go from a denser structure and decrease in until the correct structure has been achieved. Specimens should be long enough so that a waist can form gradually. The open lattice truss structures emits more sounds than the tube and hybrids, specifically the 2,2 lattice. Hybrids and tubes are basically quiet until final fracture.

111

Compression test
All lattice truss structures were built using Netfab with fixed values for strut dimensions. This led to all specimens having approximately the same density and all specimens having the same strengths. The engineering loads for the different structures were approximately: Hybrid ~50kN, Tube ~35kN and the open lattices ~13kN. I general the Diamond structures built at 45 and 90 are stiffer than the Octagon structures built at 45 and 90. The Diamond 90 structure is the weakest when looking at load versus compression. The open Octagon structure allows less freedom than the open Diamond structures and collapses on to itself and therefore becomes denser. The diamond 45 and Octagon 45 structures show a lot of bending when being compressed resulting in a lot of shearing forces. The tubes also show significant differences in buckling behaviour. The tube built a 90 buckles with three sides going outwards and one inwards. The tube built at 45 buckles with two sides going outwards and two inwards. The tube built at 45 collapses more plastically than the tube built at 90. The tube built at 45 shows a lot less tearing than the tube built at 90. Design maps showing stiffness versus weight show that the tube is the preferred structure when designing a part. Buckling behaviour shows that the tube is to be avoided and therefore hybrid structures would be the recommended choice. Both the hybrid Diamond structures built at 45 and 90 shows a little bit better values for stiffness than the hybrid Octagon structures built at 45 and 90.

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Bend tests
All lattice truss structures were built using Netfab with fixed values for strut dimensions. This led to all specimens having approximately the same density and all specimens having the same strengths. The engineering loads for the different structures were approximately: Hybrid ~20kN, Tube ~10kN and the open lattices ~6kN. The open lattice truss structures have been shown to be equally strong regardless of cell sizes. The hybrid structures have been shown to be equally strong regardless of cell sizes. Testing of tubes did not result in usable data due to buckling and instabilities. The testing resulted in local collapses and crushing rather than bending. When comparing stiffness versus weight cells with thicker struts such as 2,6 and 3,0 are stronger than the 2,2 structure. Acoustic emission shows that the 2,2 structures emitted more sound and more frequently than the larger cell structures. The main fracture mode was shear as it has been shown to be in tensile and compressive testing as well.

113

Final conclusion
Thats the way the cookie crumbles!

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Appendices
F values
Figure 163 explains how the different F values are both calculated and estimated. The main difference between the load-elongation curve and a regular stress-strain curve is shown in table 10.

Table 10 - Load-elongation vs. stress strain properties. Load-Elongation X-axis Y-axis Elongation (mm) Load (N) Stress-Strain Strain (m/m) Stress (MPa)

Load-Elongation Curve 0.2% offset line (FP0.2) Ultimate tensile load (Fm) Fracture load (FRm) Load, N Yield load point

Linear elastic region Stiffness (FE)

Elongation, mm

Uniform elastic deformation

Uniform plastic deformation and necking

Fracture

Figure 163 - Illustrations of F values.