Submitted by Bushra Qamar MS-63-815

Fluorescence is a "fast"

Photoluminescence. The effect is widely used in such everyday practical applications as industrial and residential lightning (neon and fluorescent lamps) as an analytical technique in science and as a quality and process control method in industry.

Phosphorescence is a

slow Photoluminescence. In contrast to Fluorescence, it demonstrates itself as a glowing that lasts long after the excitation light is gone. Phosphorescent materials are usually called "glowin-the-dark

 Photoluminescence is the emission of light which is

caused by the irradiation of a substance with other light. The term embraces both fluorescence and phosphorescence, which differ in the time after irradiation over which the luminescence occurs.
The energy of the emitted light (photoluminescence)

relates to the difference in energy levels between the two electron states involved in the transition between the excited state and the equilibrium state. The quantity of the emitted light is related to the relative contribution of the radiative process

 Photoluminescence is often used in the context of

semiconductor devices (e.g. semiconductor lasers or amplifiers, solar cells, or steerable absorbers) Excited by illumination of the device with light which has a photon energy above the bandgap energy. The PL then occurs for wavelengths around the bandgap wavelength. The spectrum of the photoluminescence (PL spectrum) and also the dependence of its intensity on the irradiation intensity and device temperature can deliver important information for device characterization.

 Various excitation wavelengths allow for varying

penetration depths into the material, and thus, varying levels of volume excitation. Detection of photoluminescence from 0.4 to 2.8 micrometers using diffraction and Fourier-transformbased systems. Mapping capabilities with 1-micrometer spatial resolution on the Fourier-transform-based system. Sample temperatures of 4 to 300 K. Sensitivity down to the level of parts per thousand, depending on impurity species and host

 In order to measure photoluminescence of semiconductors, there are various requirements: (a) a stable, powerful monochromatic light source, (b) optics to focus light on the sample, (c) sample holder, (d) collection optics, (e) monochromator (f ) detector for spectral analysis

Schematic setup of PL spectroscopy

 Sources
the source must be very intense. magnitude of the emitted radiation is directly

proportional to the power of the source. often employ a low-pressure mercury vapour lamp. This source produces intense lines at certain wavelengths. Spectrofluorometers, which need a continuous radiation source, are often equipped with a 75-450 W high-pressure xenon arc lamp. Lasers are sometimes used as excitation sources. A tunable dye laser, using a pulsed nitrogen laser as the primary source can produce monochromatic radiation between 360 and 650 nm. Since the radiation produced ismonochromatic, there is no need for an excitation monochromator.

 Filters and monochromators

Fluorometers use either interference or absorption filters. Spectrofluorometers are usually fitted with grating monochromators.
Detectors

Fluorescence signals are usually of low intensity. Photomultiplier tubes are in common use as detectors. Diode-array detectors are sometimes used.

 Upper Panel: Temporal

evolution of the band-toband photoluminescence spectr a (by detecting the total photoluminescence intensi ty) after sX and s+ -polarized pulsed laser excitation, respectively. Timeintegrated photoluminescence s pectra, under sX (black curve) and s+ (red curve) excitation, are shown in the inset. Lower Panel: Decay curves of the total intensity of the bandtoband photoluminescence under sX and s+ excitation, normalized to their peak intensity for easy comparison.

 to determine the bandgap energy and/or the

wavelength of maximum gain to determine the composition of ternary or quaternary layers to determine impurity levels to investigate recombination mechanisms Material Quality

 By far the most important advantage of

luminescence methods of chemical analysis is their ability to measure extremely low concentrations. This advantage arises because luminescence is measured relative to weak background signals. In contrast, methods based on the absorption of light require that a small difference between two large signals be measured.

Limitations of photoluminescence spectroscopy

Very low concentrations of optical centers can be

detected using photoluminescence, but it is not generally a quantitative technique. The main scientific limitation of photoluminescence is that many optical centers may have multiple excited states, which are not populated at low temperature. The disappearance of luminescence signal is another limitation of photoluminescence spectroscopy. For example, in the characterization of photoluminescence centers of silicon no sharp-line photoluminescence from 969 meV centers was observed when they had captured self-interstitials.