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ZENER DIODE

PHY152

SUBMITTED TO: SUMAN RANI

SUMITTED BY: NAKUL KUMAR GIRI


R255A13 B.TECH.M.TECH(CSE)(HONS)

INTRODUCTION

A Zener diode is a type of diode that permits current to flow in the forward direction like a normal diode, but also in the reverse direction if the voltage is larger than the rated breakdown voltage or "Zener voltage". The device was named for Clarence Zener, who discovered this electrical property. A conventional solid-state diode will not let significant current flow if reverse-biased below its reverse breakdown voltage. By exceeding the reverse bias breakdown voltage, a conventional diode is subject to high current flow due to avalanche breakdown. Unless this current is limited by external circuitry, the diode will be permanently damaged. In case of large forward bias (current flow in the direction of the arrow), the diode exhibits a voltage drop due to internal resistance. The amount of the voltage drop depends on the design of the diode.

A Zener diode exhibits almost the same properties, except the device is especially designed so as to have a greatly reduced breakdown voltage,

the so-called Zener voltage.


. Current-voltage characteristic of a Zener diode with a breakdown voltage of 17 volt. Notice the change of voltage scale between the forward biased (positive) direction and the reverse biased (negative) direction

A Zener diode contains a heavily doped p-n junction allowing electrons to tunnel from the valence band of the p-type material to the conduction band of the n-type material. A reverse-biased Zener diode will exhibit a controlled breakdown and let the current flow to keep the voltage across the Zener diode at the Zener voltage. For example, a diode with a Zener breakdown voltage of 3.2 V will exhibit a voltage drop of 3.2 V if reverse biased. However, the current is not unlimited, so the Zener diode is typically used to generate a reference voltage for an amplifier stage, or as a voltage stabilizer for low-current applications. The breakdown voltage can be controlled quite accurately in the doping process. Tolerances to within 0.05% are available though the most widely used tolerances are 5% and 10%. Another mechanism that produces a similar effect is the avalanche effect as in the avalanche diode. The two types of diode are in fact

constructed the same way and both effects are present in diodes of this type. In silicon diodes up to about 5.6 volts, the zener effect is the predominant effect and shows a marked negative temperature coefficient. Above 5.6 volts, the avalanche effect becomes predominant and exhibits a positive temperature coefficient. In a 5.6 V diode, the two effects occur together and their temperature coefficients neatly cancel each other out, thus the 5.6 V diode is the part of choice in temperature critical applications. Modern manufacturing techniques have produced devices with voltages lower than 5.6 V with negligible temperature coefficients, but as higher voltage devices are encountered, the temperature coefficient rises dramatically. A 75 V diode has 10 times the coefficient of a 12 V diode. All such diodes, regardless of breakdown voltage, are usually marketed under the umbrella term of 'zener diode'

A Zener diode is a type of diode that permits current in the forward direction like a normal diode, but also in the reverse direction if the voltage is larger than the breakdown voltage known as "Zener knee voltage" or "Zener voltage". The device was named after Clarence

Zener, who discovered this electrical property. A conventional solid-state diode will not allow significant current if it is reverse-biased below its reverse breakdown voltage. When the

reverse bias breakdown voltage is exceeded, a conventional diode is subject to high current due to avalanche breakdown. Unless this current is limited by external circuitry, the diode will be permanently damaged. In case of large forward bias (current in the direction of the arrow), the diode exhibits a voltage drop due to its junction built-in voltage and internal resistance. The amount of the voltage drop depends on the semiconductor material and the doping concentrations. A Zener diode exhibits almost the same properties, except the device is specially designed so as to have a greatly reduced breakdown voltage, the so-called Zener voltage. A Zener diode contains a heavily doped p-n junction allowing electrons to tunnel from the valence band of the p-type material to the conduction band of the n-type material. In the atomic scale, this tunneling corresponds to the transport of valence band electrons into the empty conduction band states; as a result of the reduced barrier between these bands and high electric fields that are induced due to the relatively high levels of dopings on both sides. A reverse-biased Zener diode will exhibit a controlled breakdown and allow the current to keep the voltage across the Zener diode at the Zener voltage. For example, a diode with a Zener breakdown voltage of 3.2 V will exhibit a voltage drop of 3.2 V if reverse bias voltage applied across it is more than its Zener voltage. However, the current is not unlimited, so the Zener diode is typically used to generate a reference voltage for an amplifier stage, or as a voltage stabilizer for low-current applications. The breakdown voltage can be controlled quite accurately in the doping process. While tolerances within 0.05% are available, the most widely used tolerances are 5% and 10%. Another mechanism that produces a similar effect is the avalanche effect as in the avalanche diode. The two types of diode are in fact

constructed the same way and both effects are present in diodes of this type. In silicon diodes up to about 5.6 volts, the Zener effect is the predominant effect and shows a marked negative temperature coefficient. Above 5.6 volts, the avalanche effect becomes predominant and exhibits a positive temperature coefficient. In a 5.6 V diode, the two effects occur together and their temperature coefficients neatly cancel each other out, thus the 5.6 V diode is the component of choice in temperature-critical applications. Modern manufacturing techniques have produced devices with voltages lower than 5.6 V with negligible temperature coefficients, but as higher voltage devices are encountered, the temperature coefficient rises dramatically. A 75 V diode has 10 times the coefficient of a 12 V diode. All such diodes, regardless of breakdown voltage, are usually marketed under the umbrella term of "Zener diode". Uses Zener diodes are widely used to regulate the voltage across a circuit. When connected in parallel with a variable voltage source so that it is reverse biased, a Zener diode conducts when the voltage reaches the diode's reverse breakdown voltage. From that point it keeps the voltage at that value.

In the circuit shown, resistor R provides the voltage drop between UIN and UOUT. The value of R must satisfy two conditions:

R must be small enough that the current through D keeps D in reverse breakdown. The value of this current is given in the data sheet for D. For example, the common BZX79C5V6[1] device, a 5.6 V 0.5 W Zener diode, has a recommended reverse current of 5 mA. If insufficient current exists through D, then UOUT will be unregulated, and less than the nominal breakdown voltage (this differs to voltage regulator tubes where the output voltage will be higher than nominal and could rise as high as UIN). When calculating R, allowance must be made for any current through the external load, not shown in this diagram, connected across UOUT. 2. R must be large enough that the current through D does not destroy the device. If the current through D is ID, its breakdown voltage VB and its maximum power dissipation PMAX, then IDVB < PMAX.
1.

A Zener diode used in this way is known as a shunt voltage regulator (shunt, in this context, meaning connected in parallel, and voltage regulator being a class of circuit that produces a stable voltage across any load). In a sense, a portion of the current through the resistor is shunted through the Zener diode, and the rest is through the load. Thus the voltage that the load sees is controlled by causing some fraction of the current from the power source to bypass ithence the name, by analogy with locomotive switching points. These devices are also encountered, typically in series with a baseemitter junction, in transistor stages where selective choice of a device centered around the avalanche/Zener point can be used to introduce compensating temperature co-efficient balancing of the transistor PN junction. An example of this kind of use would be a DC error amplifier used in a stabilized power supply circuit feedback loop system. Note that because it is almost always the reverse breakdown property of the Zener diode which is useful, in circuit schematics the Zener

diodes typically point in the opposite direction of traditional diodes the arrows point in the opposite direction to the current. Zener Diode Breakdown Characteristics Ordinarily the reverse-bias blocking action of a PN junction allows only a small 'leakage' current to flow. However if a sufficiently large reverse-bias is applied other junction phenomena develop which dominate the leakage current, allowing in effect much larger reversebias currents. This is the 'breakdown' part of the diode characteristic; 'breakdown' here refers to the overshadowing of the semiconductor junction behavior by other phenomena rather than to a destructive effect. While all diodes display this reverse-bias breakdown phenomenon Zener diodes are manufactured specifically for operation in the breakdown condition with guaranteed specifications. The breakdown parameters of these Zener (or voltage reference) diodes receive special processing attention during their manufacture. Two distinct phenomena, acting individually or concurrently depending on diode details, are involved in the breakdown phenomena. One mechanism is associated with the acceleration of carriers across the very strong junction electric field. Kinetic energy gained by an accelerated carrier, if sufficiently great, can cause additional impurity atom ionization during a collision with the atom. Each additional carrier is then also accelerated and may cause additional ionization; the ionization grows exponentially. This is

termed the avalanche effect, recalling the initiation of a massive snow slide by a small initial snowball. Circuits Zener Diode The second mechanism is a quantum mechanical effect more difficult to describe by a familiar analogy. Quantum mechanics predicts the possibility of a spontaneous crossing of a semiconductor junction by carriers subject to a strong electric field. This is called the tunnel effect; because the phenomena is not associated with ordinary mechanics it was suggested facetiously that some sort of metaphysical tunnel existed through which carriers somehow traveled out of ordinary sight. While the breakdown characteristics for the two phenomena are not exactly the same they are close enough so that the distinction largely may be ignored in general for purposes of circuit design. Thus although the Zener effect originally referred to the quantum mechanical phenomena the label Zener diode is applied almost universally whatever the details of the breakdown mechanism. An illustrative breakdown characteristic is drawn to the left; the scale is exaggerated for clarity. The nominal Zener reference voltage of the diode is the reverse-bias voltage at which a manufacturerspecified 'test' current IZT flows, and typically represents a rated maximum diode current. In general the Zener voltage is a modest function of temperature; a representative temperature specification is 0.1 % change per C change. The coefficient is negative for a diode with a reference

voltage below about 5 volts, otherwise it is positive. (This is related to the dominance of one or the other of the two phenomena producing similar terminal breakdown characteristics.) The inverse of the slope of the diode characteristic (typically at the test point) is called the 'dynamic resistance' of the diode, and is a parameter noted in the manufacturers' specifications. The slope of the characteristic does not vary greatly for currents in the range (roughly) between 0.1 IZT and IZT, a usual range of operation of a Zener diode. (Note again that the scale in the figure is distorted for illustrative purposes.) The minimum usable current is conditioned by the necessity of operation above the knee, i.e., in the breakdown region, and the general desirability of avoiding the rapid change of slope in the immediate vicinity of the knee. The following figure displays PSpice computations of breakdown characteristics using a nonlinear Circuits Zener Diode model of the 1N5231 Zener diode (Manufacturers specifications at 27oC are: Vz = 5.1 @ 20mA, rz = 175 @ 1mA, rz = 8.2 @ 5mA, rz = 2.2 @ 20mA.). The breakdown characteristics are plotted for a broad temperature range. Note the small breakdown voltage sensitivity to temperature changes for a given diode current. Note also the narrow range of diode voltages at a given temperature corresponding to large diode current changes (above the 'knee' of the characteristic).

Since a forward-biased diode already provides large current changes for small changes in bias voltage why a special interest in breakdown operation? The simple answer is that the breakdown voltage can be manufactured to precise specifications over a very large range of voltages. For example, in a nominal 5 volt range the specified breakdown voltages for several diodes are: 1N5230@4.7v, 1N5231@5.1v, 1N5232@5.6v, and 1N5230@6.0v. Zener diodes operated in the breakdown region are widely used as reliable and inexpensive voltage references. Diode-Zener Comparison An idealized-diode equivalent circuit for a Zener diode, allowing both for forward- and reverse-bias, is drawn to the right. (Verification of the characteristic shown is left as an exercise.) For reverse-bias voltages less than the Zener voltage the diode behaves (roughly) as a voltage source in series with a small resistor; for larger voltages it behaves (roughly) as an idealized diode. A test circuit as shown to the left is analyzed numerically using the PSpice computer analysis program. A detailed idealized-diode analysis is left as an exercise. However it should be clear that for the positive half-cycle of the sinusoidal input voltage the diode is reverse-biased and Vo will 'stick' at the breakdown voltage. For the negative halfcycle the diode is forward-biased and Vo will be small. The plot shows the output voltage 'clipped' by the forward-bias characteristic of the diode. Note that Vo

is slightly negative (diode threshold) for forward-bias operation. For reverse-bias operation (Vo > 0) the voltage again is clipped, this time at the Zener voltage. Circuits Zener Diode Zener Diode Shunt Regulator A 'shunt voltage regulator' provides an informative and relatively uncomplicated circuit application of a Zener diode; the circuit diagram is drawn to the left. VS and RS represent the Thevenin equivalent circuit as seen looking back into the terminals of a power supply, and RB and the Zener diode serve as a control devices to regulate the voltage across the load RL. Note the standard icon used to represent the Zener diode. Absent the regulating elements (RB -> 0 and Zener diode removed) an increase in load current, for example by reducing RL, produces an 'internal' power supply voltage drop across RS, and consequently a lower power supply terminal voltage. This variability of the power supply terminal voltage is described by the 'regulation' of the power supply, defined formally as the change in terminal voltage between 'no load' and 'full load' conditions, divided by the 'no load' voltage. It is essentially a measure of the effect of the internal resistance of the supply on the terminal voltage, as the load current changes from one to the other extreme of its specified operating range. To obtain an improved regulation the power supply will be made to provide a (essentially) constant current, large enough to provide at least the maximum load current needed. When a smaller current is to

be provided to the load the excess part of the constant power supply current will be diverted through the Zener diode. Both these actions are obtained by adding the Zener diode and ballast resistor RB to modify the load as seen by the supply. Thus with the Zener diode operating in brealdown the supply current will be approximately (VS VZ)/(RS + RB). This current then divides, with an amount VL/RL flowing through RL and the remainder flowing through the Zener diode. (Note: Because the Zener resistance rZ is not exactly zero the Zener voltage increases slightly as the diode current increases and this causes the supply current to decrease slightly.) The essential idea, as noted before, is to shunt 'excess' current through the Zener diode when RL is a maximum, and then decrease the amount of this shunted current as load current demand increases. Since the power supply itself tends to 'see' a fixed current, its terminal voltage changes little. The Zener diode provides an approximation to a constant voltage source over a large current range, and RB provides a corrective voltage drop between the supply voltage (generally larger than the Zener voltage) and the Zener regulated load voltage. Because the diode is a nonlinear circuit element an analytical examination would be an involved one. Hence, as a simplifying measure more than adequate to provide an appreciation of the regulating action and a good estimate of performance, the Zener breakdown characteristics are approximated as shown to the right of the circuit diagram above. The piecewise linear representation of the Zener characteristic, which is applicable over the range of

normal operation of the Zener diode (i.e., in reverse-bias breakdown), is used for approximate calculations. Do not confuse the idealized diode used in the model with the Zener diode whose characteristic is being modeled; the Zener diode characteristic is being approximated over a limited range of operation by a combination of idealized circuit element models. (Verify the model does have the indicated characteristic.) The regulating action is observable in the curves obtained by an analysis of the circuit using the piecewise-linear Zener diode approximation; these are drawn below. Circuits Zener Diode The unity slope reference (dashed) line is the voltage transfer characteristic of the power supply alone, i.e., when the regulating elements are removed VL=VS. This provides a reference against which to display the effect of regulation. The other (solid line) curve describes the circuit with the regulating elements inserted. When the power supply voltage is low (so that VL < VZ) the Zener diode is in reverse-bias, but not yet in breakdown; the diode state is more or less open-circuit and has negligible effect on circuit operation. RB and RL form a resistive voltage divider, making VL somewhat smaller than VS, and so the regulation curve is a line segment of slope somewhat less than 1. As VS is increased the breakdown voltage VZ of idealized diode model is reached; because of the voltage-divider action VS will be somewhat larger than VZ when this occurs (see figure). This causes

the constant Zener voltage (with some variation because of the finite Zener resistance) to appear across the load. Note that quality of the regulation is measured by the extent to which RL||rZ << RS+RB. An important implicit requirement not always recognized explicitly is that the regulating action depends on the assumed operation of the Zener diode in its breakdown region. This is not something that happens automatically; it must be designed to be so by proper choice of element values. It means, for example, enough current must be drawn by the Zener diode to maintain proper operation even in the 'worst case' situation when the maximum load current has been siphoned off from the supply current, i.e., for the minimum diode current. Hence at full-load current one should design the circuit to provide at least a minimum Zener 'keep-alive' current of roughly 0.1 IZT. On the other hand when the load draws the minimum current the increased current through the Zener (the source current will not change much) should not exceed the rated IZT. Between these operating requirements, and of course knowing the (nominal) Zener diode voltage, an appropriate value of RB can be determined. This calculation is particularly noteworthy here because it is rather different from the more familiar case of solving for specific element values common in introductory courses. Two extreme ('worst-case') conditions are involved in the form of inequalities, not equalities. The result of the calculation is not the

value of the resistance to use but rather inequalities that specify a range of acceptable resistances, greater than some value but less than another value. The details of the circuit behavior will depend to some extent on the choice made. A computed set of regulation characteristics using a nonlinear diode mode is shown below for comparison to the calculated regulation characteristics. Regulation computations are shown for several Circuits Zener Diode choices of load resistance (and so load current). Detailed comparison between the computed and analytical curves is left as an exercise, e.g., calculate the theoretical value of the source voltage at which regulation begins and compare to the computed value. Thus using VZ= 5.1v, RL = 250 , RS = 220 , and RB = 47 , the voltage across the Zener diode reaches the nominal breakdown voltage of 5.1v when the source voltage is approximately 10.6v. As a matter of some interest note that there is no regulating action for 0 VS 20 when RL = 25 , because not enough current is available from the supply over and above the required load current to enable Zener diode breakdown to occur. The regulated regulation curve also was computed, and is drawn below. Note that absent the regulation provided by the Zener diode the load voltage VL @ IL =30 milliampere would be 7 volts. The data are shown using two scales, one to provide detail on the computed load voltage values and the other to

provide some perspective on the overall effect of the regulation. The cost of the regulation in this illustration is associated with the 10 volt (approx.) drop across RS+ RL.

Special features of a diode


It depends upon the factors,*On the area of the portion joint by the wire fitted in it*On the pressure applied for connecting the wire*an the construction of the semiconductor crystal. But mostly in these types of diodes there is more leakage current, more spreading Junction Resistance and weak reverse break down. Practically point, contact diode are made by keeping 0.005 inch wide wire on the N-type germanium layer and than large current is flew through it for a moment. As a result high temperature produces. Due to the temperature some electrons goes into the N-type germanium from the cat whisker wire and related area converts into holes. In this way, where cat whisker wire comes in contact with the N-type germanium, That area becames P-type germanium this p-type germanium area is very small, due to which there is very little capacitance in such diodes. This is the reason due to which these types of diodes are used is the microwave field for signal detection,

Construction
The diode made by connecting a very thin wire (its end is very sharp) on a semiconductor material is known as point contact diode. The wire is

either slicked mechanically or electricaly. The area of point contact diode is very small.

Working
Zener diode conducts just like a ordinary diode on forward bias. On reverse bias leakage current flows in it. This leakage current increases with the reverse voltage. This leakage current will increase suddenly after a definite reverse voltage. This voltage is known as break down voltage of zener diode or zener voltage and this sudden increase in current is known as zener current. For example, if a 6 volt capacity zener diode is connected in series with the 6 volt battery than the effect of forward and reverse bias will be as follows : There will be current flow in the zener diode in the position shown in the fig. 29A but there will be no flow of current in the zener diode in the position shown in the fig,29B. If now the battery voltage in the position of fig B is raised than there will be leakage current in the zener in the beginning. If reverse voltage are raised in steps than on a definite reverse voltage there will be suddenrise in the current in the zener, In the fig. 29C, the upper position of the graph shows the variations in forward current on forward voltage and lower position shows the effect onreverse current due to reverse voltage.300 ~| | |

Uses
Zener diode, due to breaks down in reverse bias is used in voltage regulation. For this zener diode is connected in parallel with the power

supply. In order to find out the regulating voltage of an unknown zener diode its known voltage is increased limits reverse biasing position which in read in voltmeter VI. This reverse voltage is increased in steps. These volts are raised until voltmeter V2 start showing volts. When voltmeter VI shows some volts than this voltage is subtracted from the voltage shown by the voltmeter VI. In this way this resultant voltage is the regulating vortage capacity of that zener diode. For example let the reading of voltmeter VI 7V and reading of voltmeter, V2=1V. then", regulating voltage capacity of zener diode -V1-V2 = 7-1 - 6V. 3- Signal diode or Cat whisker diode or Point contact diode

Use of colour code system for small signal diodes:


On some small signal diodes there value in not written. To show their value colour code system is used. This colour code system is of two types. 1. JEDEC System:

For finding the value of IN type small signal diodes : In this system four digits are represented by the four colour along with the IN code. Colour codes are counted from the cathode side. In the colour code system, numbers represented by the colours are in the following way:

1.

Pro-electrons system :

In this system there are two wide strips on the cathode side. First and second wide strip shows the code of the diodes third and fourth colour strips shows the diode number.

Definition

The (Jiode which keeps the features of negative resistance and which is used for the switching at the level of microwave frequency is known as tunnel diode. What is tunneling? Ans,: In any semiconductor material when any particle pass from it, whose energy is not sufficient to cross the junction resistance of the semiconductor material, than this process is known as tunnling. Means if waves made up to these particles is given at input than its maximum portion will be blocked by the junction resistance but a part of it reaches at the output. This process is known as tunneling process, The use of negative resistance property of semiconductor equipments for switching at very high frequency (IGHZ TO 10 GHZ) level is known as tunneling. What is the property of negative resistance? When especially structured semiconductor equipment is forward biased than in the beginning current in the output increase with voltage. But after a definite highest point output current reduces on increasing the forward voltage. If forward voltage is continusly increased from this point than current will reduce to a definite value and than it will again start increasing.thus the condition in which output current reduces with the increase in the forward bias voltage, is known as the negative resistance property. This property of semiconductor equipment in known as negative resistance effect. Structure The diode made up of P and N point semiconductor material in which doping of P and N type lager is 1001) times more than the normal doping, as a result of this heavy doping the width of the junction reduces (about 6.01uM) and so some particles which do not have sufficient energy to cross the junction resistance also passes this thin junction.

Uses
Due to its capability of high switching and property of negative resistance tunnel diode is used in different calculating process in amplifier, oscillator or computers. 5. Hot carrier diode or schottky diode :

graphical symbol

construction:Just like the other diodes schottky diodes also have two layers but materials used in there layers are slightly different. These diodes have one layer of N-type semiconductor material and other of a good conductor material (gold, silver, platinum). Since here a good conductor is used along with the N-type semiconductor hence here only electrons will be the current carriers. Working:When schottky barrier diode is forward biased than, negative terminal of the battery is connected at the N-type semiconductor end of the diode and positive terminal of the battery is connected at the conductor end of the diode. Due to the repulsion by the negative terminal of the battery. N-type electrons quickly crosses the junction and enters into the electron orbit of the nearer conductor atom. At the same time, positive terminal of the battery attract the electrons which comes from the N-type semiconductor. In this way, current flows through the schottky diode of hot carrier diode.But as soon as the forward biasing is stopped, flow of current in the output also stops. It reason is that such diodes do not have any minority carrier therefore there is no chance remains for leakage current.

The special feature of these diodes is getting output during forward biasing. Because of this property these diodes are used for modulation and detection of V.H.F., U.H.F. and microwave level. High level

switching is also done with the help of these diodes. Example : IN5825 is a hot carrier diode (schottky diode) which gives 5A of current in the output on forward bias of just 0.38V. But as soon as this forward biasing is removed current also stops flowing through it

BIBLIOGRAPHY WIKKIPEDIA AND YAHOO ANSWER

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