Unit VIII - Ecology

Chapters 52-55

Chapter 52
An Introduction to Ecology and the Biosphere
Introduction  Ecology the scientific study of the interactions between organisms and the environment  Ecological hierarchy  Population  Community  Ecosystem a group of individuals of the same species living in an area a group of populations of different species living in an area the community of organisms in an area and the physical factors a mosaic of connected ecosystems

with which those organisms interact  Landscape (or seascape)  Biosphere landscapes  Scopes of ecological research  Organismal ecology  Population ecology changes over time  Community ecology  Ecosystem ecology an ecosystem  Landscape ecology  Global ecology biosphere Concept 52.1  Natural history remains a fundamental part of ecology  Ecologists do experiments by manipulating environmental conditions  Natural selection is driven by how an ecosystem affects members of a population focuses in the factors controlling exchanges of energy, materials and organisms across multiple ecosystems examines how the regional exchange of energy and materials influences the functioning and distribution of organisms across the examines how interactions between species affect emphasizes energy flow and chemical cycling within community structure and organization how an organism s structure, physiology and analyzes factors that affect population size and its behavior (in animals) meet environmental challenges the global ecosystem; all the planet s ecosystems and

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 Ecology and environmentalism are not the same; ecology provides a knowledge base for the environmentalism movement  In Silent Spring (1962), Rachel Carson made environmentalism and ecology more wide known Concept 52.2  Biogeography correct): i. Dispersal the movement of individuals away from their area of origin or from centers of high population density; contributes to the global distribution of organisms   Natural range expansions exist previously Species transplants give evidence on whether or not a species potential range is larger than its actual range ii. Behavior and habitat selection  Habitat selection behavior when individuals seem to avoid habitats, even suitable ones; this may be limiting an organism s distribution iii. Biotic factors environment       May be due to negative interactions such as predation, parasitism or competition May be due to a lack of species that are required for a species to survive Organisms that eat limit the distribution of organisms that are eaten Spatial heterogeneity time Temperature y y y Cells can rupture if their water freezes Above 45C, most proteins denature Few organisms can maintain an active metabolism in extreme temperatures 3|P a ge most abiotic factors differ between regions most abiotic factors in a region fluctuate over all the organisms that are a part of an individual s organisms reach an area where they did not

the study of the past and present distribution of species

 Determining the reason(s) for a species current distribution (continue until

iv. Abiotic factors Temporal heterogeneity

Water y Many species in coastal environments can desiccate when the tide goes out y The ability to obtain and conserve water is vital for terrestrial organisms

Salinity y y Most aquatic organisms must live in either fresh or saltwater Salt flats and other environments with high salinity have little life Too little sunlight limits the distribution of photosynthetic species Ultraviolet radiation can damage DNA and proteins in alpine environments y Light can also make surviving high temperatures more difficult pH affects distribution directly, through extremely acidic or basic conditions, or indirectly through the solubility of nutrients and toxins y The composition and structure of the bottom surface of rivers and streams affects water chemistry (therefore the resident organisms) as well as the organisms that live directly on it

Sunlight y y

Soil and terrain y

Climate

the prevailing weather conditions in a particular area; the major climate patterns on a global, regional or local scale very fine patterns, such as the conditions under a fallen

components are temperature, precipitation, sunlight and wind y y Macroclimate Microclimate log y Global climate patterns j Mainly determined by solar energy inputs and the earth s movement in space j Solar warming affects the temperature variations, cycles of air movement and evaporation of water that in turn determine climate variations depending on latitude j Air circulation and precipitation rising masses of wet air move upward and deposit much precipitation, then descend and move towards the poles, absorbing water and rising again, starting the cycle anew. This causes high levels of precipitation near the 4|P age

equator and temperate regions, and low levels near the tropics of Cancer and Capricorn as well as the poles j Wind patterns faster-moving air near the equator cause easterly winds near the equator and westerly winds near the poles y Regional, local and seasonal effects on climate j Bodies of water  Ocean currents affect costal climates by affecting the temperature and humidity of overlying air masses that may then move inland  Bodies of water moderate the climates of nearby land due to their specific heat; warm and cool air exchanges between land and water j Mountains  South-facing slopes receive more sunlight; therefore they are warmer and drier  Every 1000m increase in altitude lowers the ambient temperature by ~6C; equivalent to a 880km increase in latitude  When warm, moist air approaches a mountain, it rises and deposits its moisture on the windward side of the peak; on the other side, cool air descends and absorbs moisture, producing a rain shadow j Seasonality  Earth s tilted axis and annual revolution around the sun cause large seasonal changes in high latitudes  The changing angle of the sun cause belts of dry and wet air to move latitudinally, producing wet and dry seasons around 20 N and S latitude y Microclimate shadows, elevation changes and objects such as logs or stones can affect the temperature and moisture levels of small areas y Global climate change j The current climate change will profoundly affect the biosphere j Researchers can use past climatic changes to predict how current climate change will affect the biosphere 5|P ag e

 One example is the global warming that started about 16,000 years ago that led to the melting of glaciers covering much of North America and Eurasia Concept 52.3  Biome a major terrestrial or aquatic life zone  Terrestrial biomes are characterized by vegetation type  Aquatic biomes are characterized by physical environment  Aquatic ecosystems  Account for the largest part of the biosphere in terms of area  All types are found around the globe  Freshwater vs. saltwater: saltwater has ~3% salt concentration, freshwater has ~0.1%  Ocean effects    Provides most of the planet s rainfall through evaporation Ocean temperatures have major effects on global climate and wind patterns Marine algae and photosynthetic bacteria produce copious amounts of O2 and reduce CO2 levels  Aquatic zones  Photic zone deep  Aphotic zone  Pelagic zone  Neritic zone  Benthic zone    Benthos Detritus does not have sufficient light for photosynthesis open water away from the coast coastal waters, found between pelagic and intertidal zones bottom surface; made of sand as well as organic and communities of organisms living in the benthic zone dead organic matter that sinks from the photic zone; major part of the oceanic benthic zone that lies between has sufficient light for photosynthesis; approximately 200m

inorganic sediments

food source for benthic organisms Abyssal zone 2,000m-6,000m below the surface  Thermocline a narrow vertical zone with abrupt change in temperature, separating warm photic zones from cold aphotic zones; common in lakes 6|P ag e

 Turnover

in temperate lakes and oceans, seasonal temperature changes

causes water to change temperature and therefore change density and depth; brings nutrient-rich water to the surface and oxygen-rich water to the bottom  Community distribution  Based on water depth, degree of light penetration, distance from shore and whether it is open water or near the bottom  Most oceanic life is concentrated in the photic zone; the aphotic zone contains microorganisms and some fish and invertebrates  Aquatic biomes:  Lakes   Physical environment Chemical environment y Oligotrophic lakes nutrient-poor and generally oxygen-rich; often have less surface area; may become eutrophic as runoff adds sediments and nutrients to the water y  Eutrophic lakes Littoral zone plants y   Limnetic zone farther from shore than littoral zone, hosts phytoplankton and cyanobacteria Heterotrophs limnetic zone occupied by zooplankton; benthic zone inhabited by invertebrates; fish found in all zones with sufficient O2 Humans can cause nutrient enrichment that deplete O2 levels and kill fish habitats inundated with water at least some of the time and  Wetlands nutrient-rich and generally oxygen-poor Photosynthetic zones y shallow, well-lighted waters close to shore; hosts aquatic size ranges from small ponds to huge lakes; has photic and aphotic zones; temperate lakes may have a thermocline

supports plants adapted to water-saturated soil. Some are flooded at all times, others occasionally.  Geologic features y y Basin wetland develop in shallow basins develop along shallow and periodically flooded Riverine wetlands

banks of rivers and streams

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Fringe wetlands and tides

develop along the coasts of large bodies of water,

where water periodically floods the wetland due to rising lake levels Photosynthetic organisms y y  Favor the growth of plants such as floating lilies and cattails Swamps are dominated by woody plants; bogs are dominated by sphagnum mosses Heterotrophs y y y  A diverse community of invertebrates supports a large variety of birds Herbivores consume algae, detritus and plants Carnivores include dragonflies, otters, alligators and owls colder waters found near headwaters; warm,

 Streams and Rivers Physical environment stratified vertically  Chemical environment headwaters are oxygen-rich, while closer to the mouth of the river is more nutrients and less oxygen; organic matter usually comes from forested streams  Geologic features headwaters are usually narrow with rocky bottoms and alternating shallow and deep regions; downstream sections are often wide and meandering with silty bottoms   Photosynthetic organisms Heterotrophs phytoplankton and rooted aquatic plants can be found in headwater streams that flow through grasslands or deserts many fishes and invertebrates are found in unpolluted streams and rivers  Estuaries transition areas between river and sea; seawater flows inland during rising tides and flows back out during falling tides; higher-density seawater will often sink and occupy only the bottom of the channel without mixing much with the freshwater on top   Chemical environment concentrations Geologic features estuaries often feature many tidal channels, islands, natural levees and mudflats salinity varies throughout; large nutrient turbid water found farther downstream. Both streams and rivers are

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Photosynthetic organisms phytoplankton) Heterotrophs

saltmarsh grasses and algae (including

many worms, oysters, crabs and fish; many marine

invertebrates and fishes use estuaries for breeding grounds or travel through them to reach breeding grounds  Intertidal zones periodically submerged and exposed by the tides; upper zones experience greater changes in temperature and salinity and are exposed to air more often    Chemical environment Geologic features generally have high oxygen and nutrient levels either rocky or sandy substrates; coastline affects the algae often inhabit rocky zones, especially

magnitude of tides and waves Photosynthetic organisms sea grass and algae  Heterotrophs organisms in rocky areas generally anchor themselves to the substrate; organisms in sandier substrates often bury themselves as the tide comes in. Organisms include worms, clams, crustaceans, sponges, sea anemones, echinoderms and small fish.  Oceanic pelagic zone   Physical environment Chemical environment constantly mixed by wind-driven currents; has a high oxygen levels, lower nutrient levels; deeper photic zone than coastal waters because of clearer water turnover in temperate and high-latitude ocean areas causes higher nutrient levels than in the tropics    Geologic features covers ~70% of Earth s area; average depth of nearly phytoplankton drift with the ocean currents 4,000m; deepest point is over 10,000m deep Photosynthetic organisms Heterotrophs and account for nearly half of all photosynthesis on Earth zooplankton are the most abundant, including protists, worms, copepods, krill, jellies and small larvae of invertebrates and fish; also includes large squids, fish, sea turtles and marine mammals  Coral reefs  Physical environment constructed from the CaCO3 skeletons of corals, which live in photic zones near islands and continents with temperatures 9|P ag e near the water; sandy zones in protected bays or lagoons often support

between 18 and 30C. Some deep-water reefs also occur, found between 200m and 1500m below sea level   Chemical environment require high oxygen levels and are limited by unicellular algae live within the corals, high inputs of freshwater and nutrients Photosynthetic organisms also grow on the reef  Heterotrophs besides corals, fish and invertebrates are extremely diverse in reefs  Marine benthic zone  Physical environment the seafloor below the neritic and pelagic zones; receives no sunlight except near the coast; temperature decreases and pressure increases with depth   Chemical environment Geologic features oceanic crust   Autotrophs chemoautotrophic organisms are found near deep-sea beyond the photic zone, most heterotrophs depend on hydrothermal vents Heterotrophs organic matter raining from above. Tube worms, arthropods and echinoderms can be found near the hydrothermal vents Concept 52.4  Climate is the main factor in determining why a terrestrial biome is found in a specific location  Disturbance  Climograph an event that changes a community by removing organisms and altering resource availability a plot of temperature and precipitation in a particular region  Factors affecting biome locations: mean temperature and rainfall, patterns of temperature and precipitation, type of bedrock, etc. oxygen is nearly always present in sufficient quantities for a diverse group of animals mostly covered in soft, sandy sediments; rocky substrate found on reefs, underwater mountains and new regions of providing them with organic molecules; multicellular red and green algae

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 Biomes are characterized by major physical or climatic features and predominant vegetation, as well as microorganisms, fungi and animals adapted to that particular environment  Ecotone the area of intergradation between biomes; can vary in area can be as obvious as the canopy of a rainforest as opposed  Vertical layering roots in a grassland  Provides many different habitats for organisms  There is still species variation within different regions within a biome  Biomes are dynamic, and stability is not the norm, with disturbances causing patchiness  Terrestrial biomes:  Tropical forest   Geographic location: equatorial and subequatorial regions Precipitation and temperature y y Tropical rain forests: relatively constant at 200-400cm per year Tropical dry forests: highly seasonal, 150-200cm per year, 6-7 month dry season y  Temperature averages 25-29C fairly constantly throughout the year Vertical layering causes fierce competition for light Layers: emergent trees above the canopy, canopy trees, subcanopy trees, shrub and herb layers; fewer are found in dry forests y  Broadleaf evergreens are common in rain forests, while broadleafs in dry forests drop their leaves during the dry season Animals y 5-30 million undescribed species of insects, spiders and other arthropods are estimated to live in tropical forests y Animals, including amphibians, birds and reptiles, mammals and arthropods, are adapted to their layer and are often inconspicuous  Desert   Geographic location: often occur around 30 N or S latitude and in the interior of continents Precipitation: generally less than 30cm of precipitation per year 11 | P a g e Plants y y

to the understory, or with as little distinction as the layer of grasses and their

 

Temperature: varies seasonally and daily, highs may pass 50C, lows can be below -30C Plants: low, widely scattered vegetation with a large proportion of bare ground. Most plants are succulents such as cacti, or deeply rooted shrubs. Defenses such as spines and toxins are common.

Animals: snakes and lizards, scorpions, ants, beetles, birds and rodents; many are nocturnal

 Savanna     Geographic location: equatorial and subequatorial regions Precipitation: 30-50cm per year, with an 8-9 month dry season Temperature: averages 24-29C annually, with more seasonal variation than tropical forests Plants: the scattered trees are thorny and have small leaves. Groundcover is grasses and forbs (flowering plants that aren t grasses). All plants are fairly fire-resistant.  Animals: large grazers, such as wildebeests and bison, are common, as well as predators such as lions and hyenas. The dominant herbivores are actually insects, especially termites.  Chaparral     Geographic location: midlatitude coastal regions Precipitation: highly seasonal with dry summers and rainy winters, 3050cm per year Temperature: Fall, winter and spring average around 10-12C, while average summer temperatures reach 30C and daily highs reach 40C Plants: dominated by shrubs and small trees as well as grasses and herbs. Plants are often found in very specific areas. Plants are adapted to drought and fire.  Animals: Browsers that feed on twigs and buds, such as deer and goats, as well as small mammals, amphibians, birds and reptiles and insects  Temperate grassland   Geographic location: North Americans plains and prairies, steppes, the pampas of South America and the veldts of South Africa Precipitation: Seasonal, with dry winters and wet summers. 30-100cm annually is usual, with periodic droughts. 12 | P a g e

 

Temperature: Cold winters, averaging below -10C. Hot summers, approaching 30C. Plants: Grasses and forbs dominate, varying in height from a few cm to 2m. Many plants are adapted to survive periodic droughts and fires. Grazing stops the establishment of woody shrubs and trees.

Animals: Large grazers, such as bison and wild horses, as well as burrowing animals such as prairie dogs.

 Northern coniferous forest or taiga    Geographic location: northern North America and Eurasia; largest terrestrial biome on Earth Precipitation: 30-70cm per year, with periodic droughts. Some coniferous forests in the Pacific Northwest may receive up to 300cm per year. Temperature: Long, cold winters and possibly hot summers. Temperatures in certain locations can range from -50C in the winter to 20C in the summer.   Plants: Conifers such as pine, spruce, fir and hemlock are dominant. There is also less diversity in the shrub and herb layers. Animals: Mammals are diverse and include moose, brown bears and Siberian tigers. Periodic insect plagues can kill vast tracts of trees. Migratory birds often nest there in winter.  Temperate broadleaf forest     Geographic location: Midlatitudes in the Northern Hemisphere, as well as small areas of New Zealand and Australia Precipitation: 70-200cm annually, with significant amounts in all seasons Temperature: Winter temperatures average around 0C. Summers reach 35C and are hot and humid. Plants y Distinct vertical layers: closed canopy, understory, shrub layer and an herbaceous stratum y  Dominant plants in the Northern Hemisphere are deciduous trees, while in Australia evergreen eucalyptus dominate Animals: Mammals, birds and insects can be found in all layers of the forest. In the Northern Hemisphere during the winter, many mammals hibernate, while many birds migrate south. 13 | P a g e

 Tundra      Geographic location: Expansive areas of the Arctic, and some mountaintops (alpine tundra) Precipitation: 20-60cm annually in arctic tundra, may exceed 100cm in alpine tundra Temperature: Long, cold winters that can average below -30C. Short summers usually averaging less than 10C. Plants: A mixture of mosses, grasses and forbs, with occasional small shrubs, trees and lichens. Animals: Grazing musk oxen reside year-round, while caribou and reindeer are migratory. Predators include bears, wolves and foxes. Birds migrate during the summer for nesting.

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Chapter 53
Population Ecology
Introduction  Population ecology the study of populations in relation to their environment

 Explores how biotic and abiotic factors influence the density, distribution, size and age structure of populations Concept 53.1  Population general area  Populations experience the same conditions and evolve as natural selection changes the frequencies of various traits over time  Fundamental characteristics of a population: density, dispersion and demographics  Density and dispersion   Depends on the boundary of the population, which is hard to determine if not geographic Density y the number of individuals per unit of area or volume Calculating population j Extrapolating density from one area (works nicely with trees) j Mark-recapture method (doesn t work with trees) y Population dynamics j Births and immigration increase population size j Deaths and emigration decreases population size  Dispersion boundary y Dispersion patterns j Clumped j Uniform individuals are aggregated in patches; most common evenly spaced; often occurs from direct interactions pattern in nature; often caused by clumping of natural resources between individuals the pattern of spacing among individuals in a population s uses tagging, visual marking, etc.

a group of individuals of a single species living in the same

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 Territoriality j Random  Demographics   Demography

the defense of a bounded physical space

against encroachment by other individuals position of one individual is independent of other individuals; can be caused by seeds dispersed by wind the study of the vital statistics of populations and how

they change over time Death rates y Life tables age-specific summaries of the survival pattern of a population; based on following cohorts (group of individuals of the same age) from birth until death y Survivorship curves still alive at each age j Type I curve the end  Exhibited by large mammals who produce few offspring, then raise them caringly j Type II curve exponential decay  Exhibited by many rodents, invertebrates, and some lizards and annual plants j Type III curve drops sharply in the first third, then is fairly linear  Exhibited by organisms that produce many offspring but don t care for them j These curves rarely ever fit a population perfectly y Birth rates j Demographers often focus on females in a population because they produce offspring; view populations in terms of females producing females j Reproductive table an age-specific summary of the reproductive rates in a population; constructed from measuring a cohort Concept 53.2  Life history survival 16 | P a g e fairly linear in the first two-thirds, drops sharply at a plot of the proportion or numbers in a cohort

the traits that affects an organism s schedule of reproduction and

 Three variables: when reproduction begins (age of maturity), how often the organism reproduces and how many offspring are produced during each reproductive episode  All organisms except humans don t choose when to reproduce or how many offspring to have  Semelparity (big-bang reproduction) death  Iteroparity   repeated reproduction low rate favors semelparity; high rate low rate favors  Two factors in the evolution of semelparity versus iteroparity: The survival rate of the offspring favors iteroparity The likelihood of the adult surviving to reproduce again semelparity; high rate favors iteroparity  Some organisms are between semelparity and iteroparity, e.g. oak trees and sea urchins  Time, energy and nutrients limit the reproductive capabilities of all organisms  Reproduction often makes that individual less likely to survive in the near future  Trade-off between quantity and size of offspring:   When faced with high mortality rates of offspring, organisms often go for quantity Other organisms will instead increase the chance of each offspring surviving, like large, nutritious seeds or parental care Concept 53.3  Zero population growth one-shot reproduction right before

occurs when birth and death rates are equal

 Exponential population growth  Occurs under ideal conditions

 Growth rate:  Population size:

Concept 53.4  Carrying capacity

, where  is population size

the maximum population size that a particular

environment can sustain

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 Logistic population growth

the per capita rate of increase approaches zero

as the carrying capacity is approached  Produces a sigmoid (S-shaped) curve  Occurs in an ideal environment except for limited resources

 Growth rate:

, where  is the carrying capacity

 Works nicely with some small animals and some microorganisms  Doesn t work well with others because of a lag time before adapting to new conditions  Populations can overshoot their carrying capacity, then return to it individuals may have a more difficult time surviving in a small  Allee effect population  Causes   At high densities, there are limited resources available to each individual At low densities, there are abundant resources, causing near exponential growth  Natural selection    High densities favor adaptations that allow survival and reproduction with few resources Low densities favor adaptations promoting rapid reproduction K-selection density-dependent selection; selection for life history traits that are sensitive to population density y  Operates when a population is near its carrying capacity density-independent selection; selection for life history r-selection

traits that maximize reproductive success y  Operates when population densities are far below carrying capacity; such as in disturbed habitats Both K- and r-selection are two extremes in the range of actual life histories Concept 53.5  A birth or death rate that does not change with population density is density independent  A birth rate that falls with rising density or a death rate that rises with rising density is density dependent, and is a form of negative feedback 18 | P a g e

 Density dependent population regulation:  Competition for resources  Territoriality  Disease  Predation too dense  Toxic wastes the accumulation of toxic wastes may limit a specie s density some rodents have physiological changes that arise from focuses on the complex interactions between biotic and  Intrinsic factors nesting sites (as with birds) many diseases spread more rapidly in dense populations predators may focus on one species when that species becomes lower nutrient levels limits the birth rates can limit the number of hunting grounds (as in cheetahs) or

high population densities, such as the delay of sexual maturation  Population dynamics abiotic factors that cause variation in the size of populations  Population sizes are rarely ever stable  Weather can cause rapid changes in population size: harsh winters can kill off a huge number of animals, and then mild temperatures in the spring and summer cause the population to skyrocket all over again  Some species have population size cycles:     Some small herbivorous mammals (voles and lemmings): 3-4 years Some birds (ruffed goose and ptarmigans): 9-11 years Often, predators and prey have the same cycle period linking of multiple populations into one large one Individuals may often move between populations, but stay within the metapopulation as a whole Concept 53.6  The human population is currently growing at ~75 million people per year  The current growth rate is 1.15%, expected to decrease to 0.4% by 2050  Demographic transition the move towards lower birth and death rates  Occurring in all countries, industrialized or not, first- or third-world  Associated with an increase in quality of health care and sanitation as well as improved access to education for women  China s one-child policy has helped, too  In many industrialized countries, birth rates are lower than death rates

 Metapopulation

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 Unique characteristic of humans is our ability to control population growth through family planning and voluntary contraception  Age structure thinner base  Infant mortality the number of infant deaths per 1,000 live births the predicted average length of life at birth  Life expectancy at birth  Global carrying capacity  Estimated to be 10-15 billion  Estimated from logistic curves, limiting resources such as food, or existing maximum population densities  Ecological footprint summarizes the aggregate land and water area required by each person, city or nation to produce all necessary resources and absorb all the wastes   Estimated to be 1.7-2 hectares of ecologically productive land per person The seven photosynthetic products: plant foods, wood, paper, fiber, meat, milk and eggs y The final three are based on estimates of plant material needed for their production y The US uses 400 times as much photosynthetic products as it produces locally y Vegetarianism allows us to be more efficient in our use of plants for food  Humans could also run out of nonrenewable resources like fossil fuels and metals  We could be limited by the supply of water or the ability of the environment to absorb our abundant wastes  The global carrying capacity will depend on our future quality of life and the distribution of wealth between people and nations  We can decide whether zero population growth will be through social changes or increased mortality the relative number of individuals of each age in a population  Rapid growth shows a bottom-heavy pyramid , while no growth shows a

 Both vary widely between countries

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Chapter 54
Community Ecology
Introduction  Community interact  The borders of a community are generally determined for specific research; it s not readily obvious or constant throughout time Concept 54.1  Interspecific interactions species in a community  Interspecific competition    different species compete for a resource that limits their growth and survival Negative effects on the species involved Competitive exclusion interspecific competition Ecological niche into an ecosystem y y Fundamental niche Realized niche the niche potentially occupied by that species the portion of a species fundamental niche actually the sum of a species use of the biotic and abiotic profession , or how it fits resources in its environment; akin to a species elimination of the inferior competitor in a group of populations of different species living close enough to

interactions between organisms of different

occupied in a particular environment; can be different from its fundamental niche due to competition   Resource partitioning the differentiation of niches that enables similar the tendency for characteristics to diverge species to coexist in a community Character displacement more in sympatric (geographically overlapping) populations of two species than in allopatric (geographically separate) populations of the same two species  Predation   Positive/negative effects on the species involved The adaptations of both predators and prey have evolved through natural selection 21 | P a g e

Adaptations of predators: y y Acute senses subdue prey y Pursuant predators generally are fast and agile, while ambushing predators are generally well disguised and stealthy y Mimicry: snapping turtles mimic a wriggling worm to lure in prey Behavioral defenses: hiding, fleeing and forming into herds or schools as well as alarm calls j Active self-defense is less common, though some large grazing animals actively protect their young y Morphological and physiological defenses: j Cryptic coloration etc.  Animals and plants can synthesize toxins, animals can also accumulate them j Aposematic coloration j Batesian mimicry j Mllerian mimicry other warning coloration for animals with effective chemical defenses, such as the poison dart frog a palatable or harmless species mimics an two or more unpalatable species mimic each unpalatable or harmful species camouflage found in porcupines, skunks, j Mechanical and chemical defenses Adaptations of prey: y enable them to locate prey enable them to catch and Claws, teeth, fangs, stingers or poison

 Herbivory  

an organism eats part of a plant or alga

Positive/negative effects on the species involved Herbivore adaptations: y Many herbivorous insects have chemical sensors on their feet to determine whether a plant is toxic or nontoxic, as well as more or less nutritious y Some mammalian herbivores use smell to determine a plant s toxicity and nutritional value y Many herbivores also have specialized teeth or digestive systems for eating plants 22 | P a g e

Plant defenses: y Plants may have chemical toxins or defensive structure like spines and thorns y Chemical compounds found in plants can cause death, hallucinations and mental deficiencies, as well as abnormal development, in insects that consume them

 Symbiosis 

the relationship between individuals of two or more species that when one organism, the parasite, derives its nourishment

live in direct and intimate contact with one another Parasitism from another organism, its host, which is harmed in the process y y Positive/negative effects on the species involved Types of parasites: j Endoparasites tapeworms j Ectoparasites lice and ticks y y An estimated one-third of all species on Earth are parasites Some parasites influence the activities of their hosts in order to be transferred to another host, like intentionally causing their host to get eaten y  Parasites can negatively affect the survival, reproduction and density of their hosts Mutualism y y an interspecific relation that benefits both species Positive effects on the species involved Examples: j Nitrogen fixation by bacteria in the roots of legumes j Cellulose-digesting bacteria in termites and ruminants j Mycorrhizae j Photosynthesis by algae in corals y Types of mutualism: j Obligate mutualism one or more species has lost the ability to both species can survive alone survive without its partner j Facultative mutualism live on the external surface of their hosts; include live within their hosts; examples include

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y 

Mutualism can involve the evolution of related adaptations in both species an interaction between species that benefits one of the

Commensalism

species but neither harms nor helps the other y y Positive/neutral effects on the species involved Very rare in nature, since nearly every action by one species has an effect on the other y Possible commensalism involves food that is unearthed or left behind by one species being eaten by another species Concept 54.2  Community structure  Species diversity a community  Components: y y  Species richness the number of different species in the community used to calculate species diversity in a community , where  is the relative abundance of  in decimal Relative abundance of different species, expressed as percentages the variety of different kinds of organisms that make up

Shannon diversity y

form and is the number of different species in a community y A more equal spread of the relative abundance of different species causes a higher number than one species having very high relative abundance  Determining the relative abundance of a species, especially a rare one, can be extremely difficult; for example, microorganisms, nematodes, etc. are very hard to accurately census  Trophic structure the feeding Primary consumers Secondary, tertiary and quaternary consumers
Herbivores

Primary producers

Plants and other autotrophic organisms

relationships between organisms  Food chain the transfer of food

energy from its source in autotrophic organisms through herbivores to

Carnivores, who either eat herbivores or other carnivores

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carnivores and eventually to decomposers  Food webs an extension on a food chain in which multiple species are

involved in each trophic level, and species may be members of multiple trophic levels  Food chains rarely consist of more than five links y Possible reasons: j Energetic hypothesis food chains are limited by the inefficiency

of energy transfer along the chain, which is only about 10% from one level to the next; this means that 100kg of producer biomass can only support 10kg of primary consumer biomass, and so on j Dynamic stability hypothesis proposes that long food chains

are far less stable than short food chains; population fluctuations lower in the chain has strong consequences on the species higher up in the chain j Most evidence supports the energetic hypothesis  Species with a large impact on a community  Impact by a species is due to either its role in the trophic structure or its effects on the physical environment of a community; this impact can be experimentally determined by removing that species from the environment and observing the consequences  Dominant species the species in a community that are the most

abundant or have the highest biomass y Exert a powerful control over the occurrence and distribution of other species y Possible reasons for a species to become dominant in a community: j Dominant species are superior in exploiting limited resources in an environment j Dominant species are the most successful at avoiding predation or disease

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 May explain why invasive species are so successful outside of their native range, since they are separated from their natural predators and diseases  Keystone species species that exert strong control on community

structure by their pivotal ecological roles (or niches) instead of by sheer numerical might  Foundation species species who act as ecosystem engineers by

causing physical changes in their environment; such as beavers y Some act as facilitators organisms who have positive effects on the

survival and reproduction of other species in a community  Relationship between trophic levels  Bottom-up model (V H) higher trophic levels y Summarized as N V H P, as in nutrient level controls plant numbers, which controls herbivore numbers, which controls predator numbers y  Changes to community structure is through changes to lower levels a unidirectional influence from higher to lower a unidirectional influence from lower to

Top-down model (V H) trophic levels y

Summarized as N V H P, also known as the trophic cascade model Changes to community structure is through changes to higher levels, which causes an alternating positive or negative effect on the lower levels Used for biomanipulation controlling the characteristics of lower

trophic levels through the manipulation of higher levels Concept 54.3  Stability of a community  Stability a community s tendency to reach and maintain a relatively constant composition of species

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 Disturbance

an event that changes a community by removing organisms

from it or altering resource availability; examples include storms, fires, floods, droughts and human activities  Nonequilibrium model  describes most communities as constantly changing after disturbances Relatively stable communities can quickly become nonequilibrium communities  Disturbances  Types of disturbances:    Storms disturb nearly all communities, including through waves Fire is common in most terrestrial communities, and may even be required to maintain stability Freezing, as well as spring flooding and seasonal drying, are disturbances of fresh- and saltwater habitats  High levels of disturbance generally result from high intensity and frequency of disturbances  Intermediate disturbance hypothesis ideal for fostering high species diversity  Reasons: y y High disturbance causes undue stress on organisms Low disturbance causes competitive species to exclude less competitive species y   Medium disturbance opens up habitats for occupation by less competitive species Has been supported by multiple studies, in both terrestrial and aquatic environments However y Small-scale disturbances can create patches of different habitats in a community, which leads to diversity y Large-scale disturbances, such as fires, are also necessary in certain ecosystems and can lead to new species thriving in the new environment  Ecological succession following a disturbance 27 | P a g e transition in the species composition of an ecosystem moderate levels of disturbance is

 Primary succession   and protists

occurs in a lifeless area without soil

Often occurs with autotrophic prokaryotes, and heterotrophic prokaryotes Lichens and mosses are first to colonize after the original colonists, and soil develops from erosion and decomposition, leading to plants and eventually a full ecosystem

 Secondary succession  

occurs when an existing community has been

removed, but the soil remains intact Early arrivals may facilitate or inhibit the appearance of later species, or later species may tolerate the conditions created by the early arrivals Pioneer species alter soil properties, permitting new species to grow, which in turn changes the environment, perpetuating the cycle of succession  Human disturbance  Humans have the greatest impact of all animals on communities across the world  Agriculture has disturbed grassland communities  Logging and clearing have reduced the size of forests and separated them from each other  Ocean trawling has effects akin to clear-cutting or plowing, and occurs in massive numbers  Through these effects and many others, humans have reduced species diversity in many communities Concept 54.4  Biogeographic factors affecting communities:  Latitudinal gradients   Plant and animal life is generally more abundant and diverse in the tropics Causes: y Evolutionary history: tropical ecosystems are generally older, while longer daylight causes biological time to run up to 5 times as fast as in polar regions; also, glacial disturbances do not affect tropic regions, unlike temperate and polar regions y Climatic factors 28 | P a g e

j Two factors are solar energy input and water availability j These can be combined in evapotranspiration the evaporation of water from the soil plus the transpiration of water from plants  Depends on solar radiation, temperature and water availability  Potential evapotranspiration  Area effects   Species-area curve ignoring all other factors, a larger geographic area allows for a greater number of species in a community Island equilibrium model y Island refers to any isolated environment that supports species that can t survive outside of the boundaries of the island y The two factors affecting the number of species on the island are immigration of new species and extinction of existing species j Immigration decreases as the number of species on the island increases j Extinction increases as the number of species on the island increases y The physical factors affecting both immigration and extinction rates are island area and distance from shore j Smaller islands reduces immigration since there is less chance of immigration by chance, and fewer natural resources and habitats leads to more extinction j Islands farther from shore have lower immigration rates, which leads to higher extinction rates Concept 54.5  Pathogens a measure of potential water loss assuming water is readily available

disease-causing microorganisms, viruses, viroids (infectious RNA

molecules) and prions (infectious proteins)  Pathogens can cause massive change to community structure  White-band disease has killed off coral in the Caribbean and allowed for algae to move in, changing the composition of fish and eventually destroying the reef

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Sudden oak death (SOD), caused by the protist Phytophthora ramorum, has caused the deaths of multiple species (not just oaks) in the forests and savannas of California; it has led to a decrease in abundance of at least five bird species

 Pathogens are often spread by human activities, just like invasive species; SOD may have arisen in European horticulture, while West Nile Virus likely arrived to NA by plane  Zoonotic pathogens humans   Can be through direct contact or by use of an intermediate species (a vector), which include ticks, lice and mosquitoes Knowledge of parasite life cycles has helped stop the spread of zoonotic diseases, such as river blindness, which is caused by a nematode and spread by blackflies  Avian flu, especially H5N1, has been monitored through its spread through both wild and domesticated species pathogens that are transferred from animals to

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Chapter 55
Ecosystems
Introduction  Ecosystem around them  Ecosystems can range in size from a forest to the area under a fallen log  Ecosystem dynamics:   Energy flow sunlight to autotrophs to heterotrophs to heat chemical elements are cycled between biotic and Chemical cycling all the organisms in a given area as well as the abiotic factors with

which they interact; one or more communities and the physical environment

abiotic components y Autotrophs assimilate these elements and they are eventually broken down through the activities of plants, animals and decomposers  An ecosystem involves the transformation of energy and matter; energy merely flows through, while matter is constantly recycled Concept 55.1  Physical laws governing ecosystems:  Conservation of energy   1st Law of Thermodynamics: energy cannot be created nor destroyed, only transferred or transformed 2nd Law of Thermodynamics: transformations of energy are never 100% efficient; solar radiation reaching Earth is eventually released back into space as heat  Law of conservation of mass   mass cannot be created or destroyed Chemical elements are constantly cycled through ecosystems Elements move between ecosystems in the form of inputs and outputs y These amounts are small compared to the amount cycled within an ecosystem y Balance of inputs versus outputs determines whether an ecosystem is a source or sink for a given element  Trophic levels

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Primary producers Primary consumers Tertiary consumers consumers y Detritus

autotrophs; include plants, algae and herbivores carnivores (of herbivores) consume detritus; many are eaten by carnivores of secondary consumers

photosynthetic bacteria, as well as chemosynthetic bacteria Secondary consumers

Detritivores or decomposers

nonliving organic matter, such as dead organisms, feces,

fallen leaves and wood y y Detritivores are composed mainly of prokaryotes and fungi Detritivores connect consumers back to producers through breaking down organic matter and returning nutrients back to the soil Concept 55.2  Primary production ecosystem  Only a fraction of the solar radiation hitting Earth reaches Earth s surface, only a fraction of that hits autotrophs, and only a fraction of that is used in photosynthesis  Earth s primary producers still produce about 1.5x1014 kg of organic matter each year  Gross primary production (GPP)  Net primary production (NPP) about of GPP   Expressed as energy per unit area per unit time (J/m2*yr) or as biomass added to an ecosystem per unit area per unit time (g/m2*yr) NPP is the determining factor of an ecosystem s energy budget the total biomass of all photosynthetic autotrophs in an  Standing crop ecosystem  Tropical rain forests, as well as coral reefs and estuaries, have some of the highest rates of primary production 32 | P a g e the amount of light energy that is converted to chemical energy by photosynthesis per unit time gross primary production minus the

the amount of light energy converted to chemical energy

by autotrophs during a given time period; sets the total energy budget of an

energy used by primary producers for respiration; NPP=GPP-R; averages

 Oceans are not very productive, but still account for half of all primary production due to size  Limiting factors of primary production in aquatic ecosystems  Light y y y  About half of solar radiation is absorbed in first 15m of water Only 5-10% of solar radiation reaches a depth of 75m in clear water Still not the main limiting factor Limiting nutrient one that must be added for production to increase

Nutrients y

j Usually either nitrogen or phosphorus, which have low concentrations in the photic zone from take-up by phytoplankton and sinking detritus j Iron is also a limiting nutrient in several large areas of ocean; enters the ocean from windblown dust from land y Areas with upwelling have very high primary production; many are prime fishing locations y Eutrophication - a process by which nutrients, particularly phosphorus and nitrogen, become highly concentrated in a body of water, leading to increased growth of organisms such as algae or cyanobacteria; reduces the oxygen concentration and clarity of the water  Limiting factors of primary production in terrestrial ecosystems   Temperature and moisture Actual evapotranspiration with primary production   Mineral nutrients can limit local ecosystems; nitrogen and phosphorus are usually the limiting nutrients Fertilizers work by increasing the levels of limiting nutrients to maximize yields Concept 55.3 the annual amount of water transpired by plants and evaporated from a landscape; has a fairly linear relationship

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 Secondary production as growth  Efficiency  Ex: a caterpillar y

the amount of chemical energy in consumer s food

that is converted to their own biomass during a given period of time; also known

About 17% of energy consumed is converted into biomass, while 33% is used for respiration and 50% is passed on through feces The majority of the energy of the feces, meanwhile, is lost as heat from detritivores feeding on the feces Therefore, about 80% of the energy consumed is lost as heat

y  

Only the chemical energy stored by herbivores as biomass (growth or offspring) is available as food to secondary consumers Production ef ciency= Assimilation of primary production 100%, where assimilated energy does not include material lost as undigested material in feces y Birds and mammals have a production efficiency of ~1-3% because of their high metabolisms y Fishes average ~10%, while insects and microorganisms can average above 40% the percentage of production transferred from one
Net secondary production

Trophic efficiency

trophic level to the next y Takes into account the energy lost through respiration, contained in feces, and the energy produced in a lower level not consumed in the next level y Averages ~10%, range from 5% to 20% from one ecosystem to another y y Limits the number of top-level carnivores an ecosystem can support Pyramid of net production Biomass pyramid trophic level j In some aquatic ecosystems, the second tier (zooplankton) is larger than the first tier (phytoplankton), since phytoplankton reproduce trophic levels are arranged in tiers, with the width of each tier representing the net production of that level y each tier represents the standing crop of that

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so rapidly and are consumed so rapidly that they never gain much biomass j Zooplankton have a low turnover time  Green world hypothesis
Standing ( Productioncrop (g/m ) ) (g/m *day)
2 2

terrestrial herbivores are held in check by a

variety of factors, such as plant defenses; low nutrient concentrations in plant tissue; abiotic pressures; intraspecific competition, such as territoriality; and interspecific competition  Tries to explain why only 1/6 of global NPP by plants is consumed by herbivores Concept 55.4  Biogeochemical cycles - any of the various chemical cycles, which involve both biotic and abiotic components of ecosystems  Two general categories: global and local        Global cycles involve gaseous elements in the atmosphere, such as C, O, S and N Local cycles involve nongaseous elements, like P, K and Ca Reservoir A: the nutrients in living organisms and detritus Reservoir B: fossilized organic materials, cannot be assimilated directly Reservoir C: inorganic materials dissolved in water or present in soil or air; available for immediate use Reservoir D: inorganic minerals in rocks; not available for use Processes that move nutrients from one reservoir to another y y y y y  A A B C D B C C D C fossilization respiration, decomposition, excretion burning of fossil fuels formation of sedimentary rock weathering, erosion  Nutrient reservoirs

 Nutrient cycles Water cycle y Importance: necessary for all organisms; availability affects rates of ecosystem processes y Available forms: liquid water is the form used by nearly all organisms 35 | P a g e

y 

Reservoirs: oceans contain 97%, glaciers and ice caps contain 2%, and 1% is found in lakes, rivers and groundwater

Carbon cycle y Importance: required for all organic molecules essential to all organisms y Available forms: photosynthetic organisms utilize CO2 during photosynthesis, then convert the carbon to organic forms used by consumers y Reservoirs: fossil fuels, soils, sediments of aquatic ecosystems, oceans, plant and animal biomass and the atmosphere. The largest reservoir is sedimentary rocks. Terrestrial nitrogen cycle y Importance: part of amino acids, proteins and nucleic acids; limiting plant nutrient y Available forms: ammonium and nitrate, as well as some organic forms. Certain bacteria can also use nitrite. y Reservoirs: the atmosphere is 80% N2. Other reservoirs are soils and sediments, surface water and groundwater, as well as biomass

Phosphorus cycle y Importance: major constituent of nucleic acids, phospholipids, ATP and other energy-storing molecules, and a constituent of bones and teeth y Available forms: phosphate (PO43-), used by plants in the synthesis of organic compounds and all organisms as a component of ATP y Reservoirs: marine sedimentary rocks, as well as soils, the oceans and organisms

 Rates of decomposition and nutrient cycling    Can vary greatly between ecosystems Decomposition is affected by temperature, moisture and nutrient availability Slower decomposition rates allow more organic material and nutrients to build up in the soil  Case study: nutrient cycling in the Hubbard Brook Experimental Forest  Location: a series of valleys with an impermeable bedrock layer and a creek channeling water from the valley 36 | P a g e

 

Has shown that internal cycling within ecosystems conserves most of the nutrients One experiment clear-cut a section of forest; runoff increased by 30-40% and net losses of minerals were massive: the concentration of K+ in the creek increased by a factor of 15, while the concentration of nitrate was 60 times as high, which is unsafe for drinking water Has shown that acid rain and snow have dissolved most of the Ca2+, most likely causing a stop in the increase of biomass at Hubbard Brook by the 90s y To test this, they increased the Ca2+ concentrations in one watershed, causing an increase in the health of the sugar maples in the watershed

Concept 55.5  Human interference of nutrient cycles  Most chemical cycles are now dominated by human activities, not natural processes  Humans move nutrients from one place to another, disrupting the nutrient cycles in both  Humans have also added new materials, some toxic, to ecosystems  Nutrient enrichment  Agricultural practices y The nutrients found in the soil of a field are eventually exported through crops y Nitrogen is lost through agriculture; when a field is tilled, decomposition is accelerated, releasing nitrogen that eventually leaves with the crops y Nitrogen fertilizers are used to make up for this; this, along with fossil fuel combustion and increased cultivation of legumes, has caused the amount of fixed nitrogen available to primary producers to double  Aquatic ecosystem contamination y Critical load the amount of an added nutrient, such as N or P, that can be absorbed by plants without damaging ecosystem integrity

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j Excessive amounts of nutrients will eventually leach into groundwater or run off into freshwater or marine environments, which causes contamination and the death of fish  These nutrients can lead to dead zones , where phytoplankton blooms absorb all of the oxygen and then die  Can also lead to the eutrophication of lakes, where algae and cyanobacteria deplete the oxygen levels in the water  Acid precipitation        precipitation with a pH lower than 5.2 Burning fossil fuels and wood releases oxides of sulfur and nitrogen, which combine with atmospheric water to form sulfuric acid and nitric acid Affects soil chemistry and nutrient availability Pollution can drift hundreds of kilometers from its origin before falling as acid precipitation The change in soil pH causes calcium and other nutrients to leach from the soil, affecting plant health and growth Freshwater ecosystems with low levels of bicarbonate, a buffer, are very vulnerable to acid precipitation It has been shown that the effects of acid precipitation are reversible Sulfur dioxide emissions have decreased, but nitrogen oxide emissions are increasing  Toxins in the environment  Biological magnification a process in which retained substances become more concentrated at each higher trophic level in a food chain y   Top-level carnivores are the most susceptible to toxins in the environment Many problems have arisen from chlorinated hydrocarbons, such as PCBs (polychlorinated biphenyls) and pesticides, including DDT Many toxins are not easily degraded, while in other cases relatively harmless chemicals released into the environment are converted to more toxic products when they react with light or microorganism metabolisms, such as mercury converting to methylmercury  Greenhouse gases and global warming  Increase in atmospheric CO2

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Has gone from 274 ppm in 1850 to 316 ppm in 1958, up to 380 ppm today Causes the increased productivity of plants, especially C3 plants; this could eventually lead to the replacement of corn by wheat and soybeans A Duke University study has shown that plants will produce more biomass, but the increase is less than expected, since other nutrients limit growth

Greenhouse effect and global warming y CO2, water vapor and other greenhouse gases reflect infrared radiation back at Earth, known as the greenhouse effect y Without the greenhouse effect, Earth s temperature would average 18C (-2.4F) and most life as we know it wouldn t exist y Higher temperatures (up to 3.5C higher by 2100) melts sea ice, depriving polar bears, seals and seabirds of their habitats; increases the likelihood of fires; affects the geographic distribution of precipitation; and will force species to rapidly migrate to new regions, which may be difficult for plants that cannot disperse rapidly over large distances y Solving this will require more efficient uses of energy as well as more renewable sources of energy, such as wind, solar and nuclear

 Ozone depletion   Ozone is located in the atmosphere 17-25km above Earth s surface and protects life on Earth from UV radiation Chlorine from chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) released into the atmosphere binds with ozone to form Cl2O2, which then breaks down into Cl2 and O2, allowing the reaction to take place again   Ozone depletion is most prevalent over Antarctica in the spring Increased UV radiation may lead to an increase in skin cancer and cataracts in humans, and unpredictable effects on crops and phytoplankton, which would be devastating to marine ecosystems  Studies have shown that UV radiation has caused DNA damage in plants and a reduction in phytoplankton growth

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