Bee Final Lab Manual

D EP T O F EEE EE L A B M A N U A L
L EN D I I N ST I T U T E O F EN G I N EER I N G & T EC H N O L O G Y 1
ELECTRICAL LABORATORY
EQUIPMENTS
Different types of supply systems, instruments and other apparatus required in laboratory are as
follows:-
Supply systems-
(a) A.C. Supply:
(i) Single phase 230 volts 50Hz.
(ii)Three phase 415 volts 50Hz.Three phase terminals and fourth neutral terminal.
(b) D.C. Supply:
(i) 220 volts D.C. from generator or rectifier.
(ii) 6 volts or 12 volts from battery or rectifier.
A.C. as well as D.C. supply is available through switch and fuse unit.
Laboratory apparatus:
Rheostat:
Rheostat is an adjustable resistor used in applications that require the adjustment of current
or the varying of resistance in an electric circuit. The
rheostat can adjust generator characteristics, dim lights,
and start or control the speed of motors. Its resistance
element can be a metal wire or ribbon, carbon, or a
conducting liquid, depending on the application. Usually
rheostat has two fixed terminals and a third terminal
connected to a variable contact arm. It is available in
Single tube shape and Double tube shape.
Electric fuse:
Electric fuse is a safety device used to protect an electric circuit against
an excessive current. A fuse consists essentially of a strip of low-
melting alloy enclosed in a suitable housing. It is connected in series
with the circuit it is to protect. Because of its electrical resistance , the
alloy strip in the fuse is heated by an electric current. If the current
exceeds the safe value for which the fuse was designed, the strip melts,
opening the circuit and stopping the current. The fuse housing is
designed to resist the pressure generated if the over current vaporizes
the alloy strip, provided the voltage across the fuse does not exceed its
rating. Some fuses, called slow-blow fuses, are designed to carry a
small overload for a short time without opening the circuit, while
others are designed to open very rapidly if the rated current is
exceeded. The choice of one type or the other depends on the
ruggedness of the equipment to be protected and whether large pulses
of current often occur in the circuit; a slow-blow fuse is usually used to protect motors, and
a fast-blow fuse to protect electronic equipment. The available fuse ratings in the laboratory
are 5A, 10A, and 15A.
Electrical Switches:
Switches are devices used to allow electric current to flow when closed, and when opened,
they prevent current flow. Common switch types include pushbutton, rocker, toggle, rotary
coded DIP, DIP, rotary, key lock, slide, snap action, and reed
Pole and throw configurations for switches
can be single pole single throw (SPST),
single pole double throw (SPDT), double
pole single throw (DPST), double pole
double throw (DPDT),Triple pole single
throw (TPST) or Triple pole double throw
(TPDT).
SPST is a switch that makes or breaks the
connection of a single conductor in a single
branch circuit. This switch typically has two
terminals. It is commonly referred to as a
"Single-Pole" Switch. SPDT is a switch that
makes or breaks the connection of a single
conductor with either of two other single conductors. This switch typically has 3 terminals,
and is commonly used in pairs and called a "Three-Way" switch.
DPST is a switch that makes or breaks the connection of two circuit conductors in a single
branch circuit. This switch typically has four terminals.
DPDT is a switch that makes or breaks the connection of two conductors to two separate
circuits. This switch typically has six terminals
Variac (Auto transformer):
Autotransformer is a device used to obtain variable ac
voltages. By using this device we can obtain voltages of values
higher than its input voltage. This unit would normally be
mounted behind an instrument or product panel, with only the
knob and dial plate protruding.
Device like this may be used for small motor speed
adjustment, light control or other controller application.
This is available in three phase and single phase.
Electric motors:
An electric motor is a machine used to convert electrical
energy to mechanical energy. Electric motors are extremely
important to modern-day life, being used in many different places,
e.g., vacuum cleaners, dishwashers, computer printers, fax
machines, video cassette recorders, machine tools, printing
presses, automobiles, subway systems, sewage treatment plants
and water pumping stations.
The major physical principles behind the operation of an electric
motor are known as Amperes law and Faraday's law. The first states that an electrical
conductor sitting in a magnetic field will experience a force if any current flowing through
the conductor has a component at right angles to that field. Reversal of either the current or
the magnetic field will produce a force acting in the opposite direction. The second
principle states that if a conductor is moved through a magnetic field, then any component
of motion perpendicular to that field will generate a potential difference between the ends
of the conductor.
An electric motor consists of two essential elements. The first, a static component which
consists of magnetic materials and electrical conductors to generate magnetic fields of a
desired shape, is known as the stator. The second, which also is made from magnetic and
electrical conductors to generate shaped magnetic fields which interact with the fields
generated by the stator, is known as the rotor. The rotor comprises the moving component
of the motor, having a rotating shaft to connect to the machine being driven and some
means of maintaining an electrical contact between the rotor and the motor housing
(typically, carbon brushes pushed against slip rings). In operation, the electrical current
supplied to the motor is used to generate magnetic fields in both the rotor and the stator.
These fields push against each other with the result that the rotor experiences a torque and
consequently rotates.Electrical motors fall into two broad categories, depending on the type
of electrical power applied-direct current (DC) and alternating current (AC) motors.
Measuring Instruments:
For measurement of current, voltage, power, speed and torque
different meters are used in laboratories which are:
Ammeter:
This is an Instrument that measures electric current (flow of
charge per unit time), usually in Amperes, through a conductor. It
should not be confused with a voltmeter, which measures
potential difference between two points in a circuit. The ammeter
is placed in series with the component through which current is
to be measured, and is constructed with a low internal resistance
in order to prevent the reduction of that current as it flows
through the instrument itself.
The common types are the Moving-Coil meter, which measures direct current
(DC),Moving Iron meter, which can measure both A.C. as well as D.C.( Hot-wire, moving-
iron, and dynamometer ammeters can be used for both DC and AC). The nature and
magnitude of current decides the rating and type of ammeter.
Voltmeter:
Voltmeter is an instrument that measures voltages of either
direct or alternating electric current on a scale usually graduated
in volts, mill volts (0.001 volt), or kilovolts (1,000 volts). The
typical commercial or laboratory standard voltmeter in use
today is likely to employ an electromechanical mechanism in
which current flowing through turns of wire is translated into a
reading of voltage. The voltmeter should be connected across
the two points between which the potential difference is to be
measured. They are also classified into many types. The
common types are Moving-Coil meter, which measures DC
voltage, Moving Iron meter, which can measure both A.C. as
well as D.C. voltage. Like ammeters the nature and magnitude
decides the type and range of the voltmeter.
Wattmeter:
For measuring the power directly the instrument used is wattmeter. It has two coils namely
current coil and pressure coil. The current coil carries
the current and is connected in sense like ammeter.
The pressure coil has the circuit voltage across it and
is connected in sense like voltmeter. In D.C. circuits
the power measured is the product of voltage and
current i.e,
And in A.C. circuits power measured is the product of
voltage, current and power factor i.e,
It is necessary that the two coils of wattmeter are
connected properly otherwise it gives the deflection
in opposite direction.
Tachometer:
Tachometer is a measuring device that indicates rotational (angular)
speed in revolutions per minute (rpm). The word tachometer is a
combination of the Greek words tachos, meaning speed, and metria,
meaning measure.
Tachometer is to be inserted in tapered hole in the rotating shaft end
of machine for measurement of speed. As it rotates and displays the
results on a gauge. There are many different types of tachometers,
beyond the familiar dashboard gauge. These vary in appearance,
operation, and application. Other type is digital tachometer.
Digital multi meters:
Gradually in laboratory and also in field digital meters are replacing
analog meters for measurement of voltage, current, resistance etc.
Digital multi meters with great accuracy are generally used for measurement of different
quantities.
Obtaining variable voltage from the supply system:
(a) D.C Circuits: From a D.C. Supply system of a given constant voltage, the variable
voltage can be obtained using potentiometer arrangement. In this arrangement the
constant D.C. input is applied between the two fixed terminals of the rheostat and the
output is taken between the variable terminal and one of the two fixed terminals.
Variable D.C. output voltage can be obtained by varying the variable arm of the
rheostat.
(b) Single phase and three phase A.C. circuits: In A.C. circuits variable voltage is
generally obtained by using single phase or three phase auto transformer or variac.
Electrical loading arrangements:
To load a generator or a supply system electrically, a rheostat is used.
Mechanical loading of the motors:
Brake pulley:-The motor is coupled to a pulley. This pulley is braked by belt tensions at
the two ends of the belt. The belt tensions are adjustable by tightening and there are spring
balances to know the tensions. Thus the net tension is the difference of the two. Thus if T
1
and T
2
are the tension in Newton with T
2
>T
1
, and is the angular speed of the motor in
radians/sec and R is the pulley radius in meters.
The torque is then obtained by the product of the net tension and the pulley radius.
= ( T

T

) R Nm
The power output is obtained by the product of the torque and the pulley speed in
radians/sec., the power output is
= ={( T

T

) R }
General precautions while working in the electrical laboratories.
It is desirable that student should go to the laboratory after understanding the circuit
diagram and the procedure of performing the experiment.
General precautions:
Understand the equipment to be tested and apparatus to be used, before working with
them.
Make all the connections tight.
Do not leave loose wires.
Do not touch live terminals.
Use suitable wire types and sizes.
Connection of three phase circuits: The diagrams of the three phase systems are generally
drawn with color code i.e., red (for R-phase), yellow (for Y-phase) and blue (for B-phase).It
is highly desirable to use the connecting wires with their insulation as per the code. Thus
the red phase will be connected with red wires and the yellow and blue phase with the
yellow and blue wires respectively. The neutral point can be connected with black or white
or any other color.
V E R I F I C A T I O N O F
S U P E R P O S I T I O N A N D
R E C I P R O C I T Y T H E O R E M S
Experiment no: 1
VERIFICATION OF SUPERPOSITION
& RECIPROCITY THEOREMS
AIM : To verify Superposition & Reciprocity theorems for the given network.
APPARATUS :
THE
ORY:
-
I. Superposition Theorem Statement:
In a linear network with several independent sources which include equivalent
sources due to initial conditions and linear dependent sources, the overall response in any part
of the network is equal to the sum of the individual responses due to each independent source,
considered separately, with all other independent sources reduced to zero.
Note: 1. The sources which are considered one at a time making all other sources zero,
are the independent sources including sources due to initial conditions only. The dependent
sources are retained as they are in the network.
2. When one independent source is considered & all other independent sources are
reduced to zero means that all the other independent voltage source are replaced with short
circuit and all the other independent current sources are replaced with open circuit. If the sources
contain internal impedances, that sources are replaced by their internal impedances.
II. Reciprocity Theorem Statement:
The Reciprocity theorem states that the ratio of response to excitation is invariant
to an interchange of the position of the excitation and response in a single source network.
However if the excitation is a voltage source, the response should be a current and vice versa.
S. No Name of Apparatus Type Range Quantity
1 Voltmeter PMMC 0-300V 2
2 Ammeter PMMC 0-2.5A 1
3 Rheostat
WW
WW
WW
WW
50O/5A
110O/2A
300O/1.7A
300O/2A
2
1
1
2
4. Fuse TCC 5A 4
(0-300)V, MC
300/1.7A
300,2A
300,2A
(0-300)V, MC
(0-300)V, MC
300,2A
300,2A
PROCEDURE:-
I. SUPERPOSITION THEOREM:
1. Connect the circuit as per the Circuit diagram.
2. Close Switch S
1
on to the Supply mains & remain Switches S
2
& S
3
open and Switch S
4
closed.
3. Note down the Voltmeter readings V
1
,V
2
& Ammeter reading as I' in the S.No1 of
Table1
4. Now close Switch S
2
1
& S
4
open and Switch
S
3
closed. Adjust the potential divider so that the voltmeter V
2
reads 150V.
1
,V
2
& Ammeter reading as I" in the S.No2
of Table1
6. Now Close Switches S
1
& S
2
3
&
S
4
open.
1
,V
2
& Ammeter reading as I in the S.No3
of Table1
8. Finally disconnect the circuit from the Supply mains by open all the Switches.
II. RECIPROCITY THEOREM:
CASE : I
2. Close Switch S
1
on to the Supply mains
3. Note down the Voltmeter V
1
& Ammeter A
1
readings in S. No. 1 of Table 2
4. Disconnect the circuit from the Supply mains by opening the Switch S
1
.
CASE : II
2. Close Switch S
2
on to the Supply mains.
2
Ammeter A
2
readings in S. No. 2 of Table 2.
2
.
OBSERVATION TABLE:-
TABLE 1 SUPERPOSITION THEOREM:
S.No. Switches Positions Voltmeter Reading Voltmeter Reading Ammeter Reading
1.
S
1
& S
4
ON,
S
2
& S
3
OFF
V
1
= V
2
= I' =
2.
S
1
& S
4
ON,
S
2
& S
3
OFF
V
1
= V
2
= I" =
3.
S
1
& S
4
ON,
S
2
& S
3
OFF
V
1
= V
2
= I =
TABLE 2 RECIPROCITY THEOREM:
S.No. Voltmeter Reading Ammeter Reading
1. V
1
= I
1
=
2. V
2
= I
2
=
PRECAUTIONS:
1. Avoid Loose Connections.
2. Readings must be taken without parallax error.
3. Before switching on the supply for the circuit , ensure that all rheostats are at
maximum position and during the experiment these should not be disturbed.
RESULTS:
1. I' = A
2. I" = A
3. I = A
1. V
1
/ I
1
=
2. V
2
/ I
2
=
CONCLUSIONS:
VIVA QUESTIONS:
1) What are the Statements of the above theorems?
2) What is a linear network?
3) Where the above theorems are used practically?
4) What are the practical applications of the above theorems?
5) What is a bilateral network? Give examples.
6) What are the limitations of above theorems?
M A X I M U M P O W E R
T R A N S F E R T H E O R E M
Experiment no: 2
VERIFICATION OF MAXIMUM POWER
TRANSFER THEOREM
AIM : To verify Maximum Power transfer theorem for the given circuit.
APPARATUS:
1 Voltmeter
MC
MC
0-300V
0-150V
1
1
2 Ammeter MC 0-2A 1
3 Rheostat
WW
WW
WW
100O/5A
50O/5A
200O/2A
2
1
1
4. Fuse TCC 5A 2
THEORY:
Statement: The Maximum Power transfer theorem states that A Resistance load R
L
,
being connected to a DC network, receives maximum power when it is
equal to the internal resistance of the source network as seen from the
load terminals i.e. R
th
CIRCUIT I
V
0-300V,MC
+ -
2
2
0
V
,
D
C
S
u
p
p
l
y
D
P
S
T
F
U
S
E
5
A
V
0
-
2
A
,
M
C
A
1
0
0
,
5
A
50,5A
200,2A
0-150V,MC
F
U
S
E
5
A
+
+
+
-
-
-
1
0
0
,
5
A
M
a
x
i
m
u
m
P
o
w
e
r
T
r
a
n
s
f
e
r
T
h
e
o
r
e
m
M
A
I
N
C
I
R
C
U
I
T
CIRCUIT II
With reference to Fig(B)
L th
th
L
R R
V
I
+
=
While the power delivered to the resistive load is
( )
( )
L
L th
th
L L L
R
R R
V
R I P
+
= =
2
2
2
P
L
can be maximized by varying R and hence, maximum power can be delivered when
(dP
L
/dR
L
) = 0
( ) ( ) ( )
( )
0
4
2 2 2 2
=
+
+ +
L th
L th
L
L th L th
L
L th
R R
R R
dR
d
R V R V
dR
d
R R
( ) ( ) ( )
( )
0
2
4
2 2 2
=
+
+ +
L th
L th L th th L th
R R
R R R V V R R
( ) 0 2 = +
L L th
R R R
th L
R R =
Hence it has been proved that power transfer from a dc source network to a resistive
network is maximum when the load resistance of the network is equal to the internal resistance
of the dc source
Again with R
L
=R
th
, the system being perfectly matched for load and source, power
transfer becomes maximum and this amount of power (P
max
) can be obtained as
( )
th
th
th th
th th
R
V
R R
R V
P
4
2
2
2
max
=
+
=
The total power supplied is thus
th
th
th
th
in
R
V
R
V
P
2 4
2
2 2
= =
During maximum power transfer the efficiency of the circuit becomes,.
% 50 100
max
= =
in
P
P
L EN D I I N ST I T U T E O F EN G I N EER I N G & T EC H N O L O G Y 2 0
PROCEDURE:-
I) TO FIND POWER VARIATIONS WITH R
L
1. Connect the circuit as per the Circuit diagram 1.
2. Apply 220 V DC Supply to the circuit by closing the DPST Switch.
3. Note down the readings of Ammeter & Voltmeter in Table 1 which are connected
across the load after keeping the load rheostat, R
L
at its minimum value.
4. Increase the load resistance in steps and for each step, note down the corresponding
Ammeter and Voltmeter readings in Table 1.
5. Disconnect the circuit from the supply by opening the DPST Switch.
II) TO FIND R
th
3. Note down the readings of Ammeter & Voltmeter in Table 2 .
OBSERVATION TABLE:-
TABLE 1
S No V
L
(Volts) I
L
(Amps) R
L
= V
L
/ I
L
() P
L
= I
L
2
R
L
(Watts)
1.
2.
3.
.
.
.
10.
TABLE 2
S No V
S
(Volts) I
S
(Amps) R
th
= V
S
/I
S
)
1.
MODEL GRAPH:-
PRECAUTIONS:-
1. Avoid loose connections.
2. Avoid Parallax error.
3. Take more number of readings for a better plot.
RESULTS:-
1. P
max
= ---------- Watts
2. R
L
= ---------- Ohms
3. R
th
= ---------- Ohms
4. = ---------- %
CONCLUSIONS:-
VIVA QUESTIONS:-
1) What is the Statement of Maximum Power Transfer theorem?
3) What is a bilateral network?
4) What are the applications of the above theorem?
5) What are the advantages & disadvantages of the above theorem?
V E R I F I C A T I O N O F T H E V E N I N S &
N O R T O N S T H E O R E M S
Experiment no: 3
VERIFICATION OF THEVENINS
& NORTONS THEOREMS
AIM : To verify Thevenins & Nortons theorems for the given circuit.
APPARATUS:
S. No Name of Apparatus Range Type Quantity
1 Voltmeters 0-300V MI 2
2 Ammeter 0-2A MI 2
3 Rheostats
50O , 5A
110 O , 2A
200 O , 2A
WW
WW
WW
2
1
1
4 1-u Variac
230V / (0-270)V,
15A
---- 1
5. SPST 5A ---- 2
6. Fuse 5A TCC 2
THEORY:-
I) Thevenins Theorem Statement:
Any combination of linear bilateral circuit elements and active sources, regardless of
the connection or complexity, connected to a given load R
L,
may be replaced by a simple two
terminal network consisting of a single voltage source of V
th
volts and single resistance R
th
in
series with the voltage source, across the two terminals of the load R
L
. The V
th
is the open
circuit voltage measured at the two terminals of interest, with load resistance R
L
removed. This
voltage is also called Thevenins equivalent voltage. The R
th
is the Thevenins equivalent
resistance of the given network as viewed through the open terminals with R
L
removed and all
the active sources are replaced by their internal resistances . If the internal resistances are not
known then independent voltage sources are to be replaced by the short circuit while the
independent current sources must be replaced by open circuit.
II) Nortons Theorem Statement :
L,
can be replaced by a simple two
terminal network, consisting of a single current source of I
N
amperes and a single resistance
R
N
in parallel with it, across the two terminals of the R
L.
The I
N
is the short circuit current
flowing through the short circuited path, replaced instead of R
L
. It is also called Nortons
current. The R
N
is the equivalent resistance of the given network as viewed through the load
terminals, with R
L
removed and all the active sources are replaced by their internal
resistances. If the internal resistances are unknown then the independent voltage sources must
be replaced by short circuit while the independent current sources must be replaced by open
circuit.
CIRCUIT I:
CIRCUIT II:
0-300V, MI
200, 2A
CIRCUIT III:
0-300V, MI
SPST
110, 2A
CIRCUIT IV:
0-300V, MI
200, 2A
110, 2A
PROCEDURE:-
I) FOR CIRCUIT 1:
1. Connect the circuit as per the circuit diagram.
2. Apply 230 V AC Supply to the Variac (with its variable position at C ) by closing the
DPST Switch.
3. Gradually vary the variable position of the Variac until the Voltmeter1 reads 200 V.
4. Note down the corresponding readings of Ammeter & Voltmeter2 in Table 1 with the
Conditions
i) SPST 1 Closed & SPST 2 Open
ii) SPST 1 Open & SPST 2 Open
iii) SPST 1 Closed & SPST 2 Closed
5. Gradually vary the variable position of the Variac until the Voltmeter1 reads 0 volts
6. Disconnect the Variac from the supply by opening the DPST Switch.
II) FOR CIRCUIT 2:
DPST Switch.
3. Gradually vary the variable position of the Variac until the Voltmeter reads 150 V &
note down the corresponding reading of Ammeter in Table 2.
4. Gradually vary the variable position of the Variac until the Voltmeter reads 0 volts
5. Disconnect the Variac from the supply by opening the DPST Switch.
III) FOR CIRCUIT 3:
DPST Switch.
3. Gradually vary the variable position of the Variac until the Voltmeter reads V
th
, as
obtained in Table 1
4. Close the SPST Switch & vary the rheostat until the Ammeter reads current I for
which Vth / I gives R
th
, the value as obtained in Table 2 .
5. Once the Rheostat set to R
th
, open the SPST Switch & note down the reading of the
Ammeter in Table 3
7. Disconnect the Variac from the supply by opening the DPST Switch
IV) FOR CIRCUIT 4:
2. Use the same Rheostat which set to R
th
as in the Circuit 3
DPST Switch.
4. Gradually vary the variable position of the Variac until the Ammeter1 reads current I
N
as obtained in Table 1 & note down the corresponding reading of the Ammeter2 in
Table 4.
6. Disconnect the Variac from the supply by opening the DPST Switch
OBSERVATION TABLE:-
TABLE 1 (For Circuit 1)
S.No Switch conditions Voltmeter V
1
Voltmeter V
2
Ammeter
1. SPST 1 Closed
SPST 2 Open
V
S
= V
L
= I
L
=
2. SPST 1 Open
SPST 2 Open
V
S
= V
th
= I
L
= 0
3. SPST 1 Closed
SPST 2 Closed
V
S
= V
L
= 0 I
N
=
S.No Voltmeter Ammeter
R
th
= V
S
/ I
S
1.
V
S
= I
S
= R
th
=
1.
V
th
= I
L
=
S.No Ammeter I
1
Ammeter I
2
1.
I
N
= I
L
=
PRECAUTIONS:-
3. Before switching on the supply for each circuit ensure that all rheostats are at
4. Variable position of the Variac(auto transformer) should be at minimum position
before switching on the power supply.
RESULTS:-
1. I
L
from the Main circuit =
2. I
L
from the Thevenins Equivalent Circuit =
3. I
L
from the Nortons Equivalent circuit =
CONCLUSIONS:-
VIVA QUESTIONS:-
1) What is the Statement of Thevenins theorem?
4) What are Active & Passive elements?
6) What are the limitations of application of this theorem ?
D E T E R M I N A T I O N O F T W O P O R T
N E T W O R K P A R A M E T E R S
Experiment no: 4
DETERMINATION OF TWO PORT
NETWORK PARAMETERS
AIM : To determine Z & Y parameters of a given two port Network.
APPARATUS:
S.No Specification Range Type Quantity
1 Voltmeter (0-300)V PMMC 2
2 Ammeter (0-5)A PMMC 2
3
Rheostat (50 O , 5A) Wire Wound 3
4 Switches ------ DPDT 2
5 Fuses 5A
Tin Coated
Copper
2
6 Connecting Wires 1 Square mm Insulated copper
As per
Requirement
THEORY:
A network containing two pairs of terminals is called as two port network. Normally
one pair of terminals coming together to supply power or to withdraw power or to measure the
parameters, are called as port. To achieve simplicity, the whole network is shown with a single
block.
A typical two port network is as shown below in fig (a)
OPEN CIRCUIT IMPEDANCE PARAMETERS (Z-parameters):
Z-parameters can be defined by the following equations
V
1
= Z
11
I
1
+ Z
12
I
2
(1)
V
2
= Z
21
I
1
+ Z
22
I
2
(2)
Matrix form :
If port 2-2
1
is open circuited, i.e. I
2
= 0 then
Z
11
= V
1
/I
1
& Z
21
= V
2
/I
1
If port 1-1
1
1
= 0, then
Z
12
= V
1
/I
2
& Z
22
= V
2
/I
2
.
Here,
Z
11
is the driving point impedance at port 1-1
1
with 2-2
1
open circuited. It can also be called as
open circuit input impedance.
Z
21
is the transfer impedance at port 1-1
1
with 2-2
1
open circuited. It can also be called
as open circuit forward transfer impedance.
Z
12
1
with 1-1
1
open circuit reverse transfer impedance and
Z
22
1
with 1-1
1
open circuited. It can also be
called as open circuit output impedance.
Z-parameter representation for a two port network, shown above, will be as shown below
in fig (b)
I
1
I
2
Z
11
V
1
V
2
=
Z
21
Z
22
Z
12
If the network is
a) Reciprocal then V
1
/I
2
(where I
1
= 0) = V
2
/I
1
(where I
2
= 0) i.e. Z
12
= Z
21
b) Symmetrical then V
1
/I
1
(where I
2
= 0) = V
2
/I
2
(where I
1
= 0) i.e. Z
11
= Z
22
SHORT CIRCUIT ADMITTANCE PARAMETERS (Y-parameters):
Y-parameters can be defined by the following equations
I
1
= Y
11
V
1
+ Y
12
V
2
________________ (1)
I
2
= Y
21
V
1
+ Y
22
V
2
________________ (2)
In matrix form
Y
11
=
Y
21
Y
22
Y
12
V
1
V
2
I
1
I
2
1
2
1
I
2
I
1
Z
11
+
_
+
_
Z
22
Z
12
I
2
Z
21
I
1
2
1
1
V
2
V
1
Fig (b) Open circuit impedance parametric representation of a two port net work.
If port 2-2
1
is short circuited, i.e V
2
= 0 then
Y
11
= I
1
/V
1
& Y
21
= I
2
/V
1
If port 1-1
1
1
= 0 then
Y
12
= I
1
/V
2
& Y
22
= I
2
/V
2
Here, Y
11
is the short circuit driving point admittance at port 1-1
1
with 2-2
1
short
circuited. It will also be called as short circuit input admittance.
Y
21
is the Transfer admittance at port 1-1
1
with 2-2
1
short circuited. It will also be
called as short circuit forward transfer admittance.
Y
12
1
with 1-1
1
called as short circuit reverse transfer admittance and
Y
22
is the driving point admittance at port 2-2
1
with 1-1
1
short circuited. It can also
be called as short circuit output admittance.
Y-parameter representation for a two port network, shown above, will be as shown below
If the network is
a) Reciprocal then I
2
/V
1
(where V
2
= 0) = I
1
/V
2
(where V
1
= 0) i.e. Y
21
= Y
12
b) Symmetrical then I
1
/ V
1
(where V
2
= 0) = I
2
/ V
2
(where V
1
= 0) i.e. Y
11
= Y
22
1
2
1
I
2
I
1
Y
11
Y
22
Y
12
V
2
Y
21
V
1
2
1
1
V
2
V
1
Fig(c) Short circuit admittance parameter representation of a two port net work.
PROCEDURE:-
1. Connect the circuit as per circuit diagram.
2. With the Switches S
2
open , S
3
close to 11' and S
4
open , note down the corresponding
readings of voltmeter and ammeter in S.No 1 in Tabular form after closing the Switch S
1
to supply mains
1
open ,S
4
close to 33' and S
3
open , note down the
corresponding readings of voltmeter and ammeter in S.No 2 in Tabular after closing the
Switch S
2
to supply mains
2
open ,S
3
close to 11' and S
4
close to 44' , note down the
Switch S
1
to supply mains
1
open ,S
3
close to 22' and S
4
close to 33 ' , note down the
Switch S
2
to supply mains
OBSERVATION TABLE:-
S.NO Test Condition V
1
(V) I
1
(A) V
2
(V) I
2
(A) Parmeters
1
Port 2 Open
(I
2
= 0) and
Port-1 Active
Z
11
= V
1
/I
1
=
Z
21
= V
2
/I
1
=
2
Port 1 Open
(I
1
=0) and
Port-2 Active
Z
12
= V
1
/I
2
=
Z
22
= V
2
/I
2
=
3
Port 2 Short (4 - 4)
(V
2
=0) and
port-1 active
Y
11
= I
1
/V
1
=
Y
21
= I
2
/V
1
=
4
(V1=0) and
Port-2 active
Y
22
= I
2
/V
2
=
Y
12
= I
1
/V
2
=
PRECAUTIONS:
1. Note down the readings of voltmeter and ammeter without parallax error.
2. The current through a particular element should be maintained below its current rating.
3. The conditions of switches should be thoroughly checked before making the circuit live
RESULTS:
The values of Z parameters are
Z
11
= ________; Z
12
= ________; Z
21
= ________ ; Z
22
= ________
The values of Y parameters are
Y
11
= ________; Y
12
= ________; Y
21 =
________; Y
22
= ________
CONCLUSIONS :
VIVA QUESTIONS:
1) What is the significance of the two port parameters?
2) How you know the admittance parameters from impedance parameters?
3) What are the application of Z& Y parameters?
4) What is the condition for reciprocal network?
5) What is the condition for symmetrical network?
6) What is a Lattice network?
7) What is a Ladder network?
.
OC & SC TESTS ON A
TRANSFORMER
Experiment no: 5
OPEN CIRCUIT & SHORT CIRCUIT TESTS
ON A SINGLE PHASE TRANSFORMER
AIM : To predetermine the efficiency, percentage regulation and equivalent
circuit parameters of a given single phase transformer by conducting
Open circuit and Short circuit tests on it.
NAME PLATE DETAILS:
S.No Type Transformer
01 Rating 2 KVA, 1u
02 L V winding 230 V
03 H V winding 440 V
APPARATUS:
S.No Apparatus Required Rating Type Qty.
01 Voltmeter (0-230) V M.I 1
03 Ammeter (0-1) A M.I. 1
04 Ammeter (0-5) A M.I. 1
05 Wattmeter 300 V ,10A LPF 1
06 Wattmeter 150 V ,10A UPF 1
07 Variac
230V / 0-270V
15A
Contact 1
08 Fuse 10A T.C.C. 2
THEORY:
The performance of a transformer can be calculated on the basis of the equivalent circuit
which contains four main parameters, the equivalent resistance R
01
as referred to primary
(or secondary R
02
)
,
the equivalent leakage reactance X
01
referred to primary (or secondary
X
02
), the core loss conductance G
0
or resistance R
0
and magnetizing reactance X
0
. These
parameters can be easily determined by performing Open circuit test & Short circuit tests.
The losses obtained are used in calculating the efficiency & regulation of the transformer.
These tests are very economical and convenient because they furnish the required
information with out actually loading the transformer.
OPEN CIRCUIT TEST:
The purpose of this test is to determine no load loss or core loss and no load current I
0
which is helpful in finding R

0
and X
0
.
In this test , the transformer secondary winding (usually HV side) is left open and the
primary winding (LV side) is connected to supply of normal voltage and frequency.
With normal voltage applied to the primary a small current I
0
flows in the primary
which produces magnetic flux in the core. The transformer draws reactive power from the
supply to establish the magnetic flux, active power is also absorbed by the transformer to
overcome the core loss due to hysteresis and eddy current.
The reactive power at no load is much higher than the active power so the power factor is
small. The primary no load current I
0
is small (usually 2 to 10% of the rated load
current),therefore copper loss is negligibly small in primary and nil in secondary (it being
open).
These core loss under no load condition is same for all loads as the net flux passing
through the core is approximately the same as at no load.
SHORT CIRCUIT TEST:
This is an economical method to determine equivalent impedance (Z
01
or Z
02
), leakage
reactance(X
01
or X
02
), total resistance (R
01
or R
02
) of the transformer and copper loss at
full load (or at any desired load).
In this test the secondary side (usually low voltage winding) is solidly short-circuited.
Now the primary is connected to a power source of reduced potential (usually 5 to10%
of normal voltage) that is enough to cause the rated current to flow in both primary and
secondary windings.
Since in this test the applied voltage is a small percentage of normal voltage, the mutual
flux produced is so small percentage of normal value. Hence the core losses are very
small and the losses now taking place will be full load copper loss.
PROCEDURE:
OC TEST:
2. The HV side of the transformer is kept open & the normal voltage of 230V is applied to LV
side by adjusting the autotransformer ( variac)
3. Note down the readings of ammeter, voltmeter and wattmeter on LV side.
SC TEST:
2. The LV side of the transformer is short circuited & using the autotransformer adjust the HV
side voltage such that the ammeter reads the full load current of HV winding
3. Note down the readings of ammeter, voltmeter and wattmeter on HV side.
OBSERVATION TABLE:
OC TEST:
S. No. V
0
(volts) I
0
(amps) W
0
(watts)
1.
SC TEST:
S. No. V
sc
(volts) I
sc
(Amps) W
sc
(watts)
1 .
CALCULATION TABLE:
Efficiency characteristics:
S.No
Load current
Core
losses
(W)
Copper
losses
(W)
Total
losses
(W)
Input
(W)
Output
(W)
Efficiency
1
2
.
.
10
Voltage Regulation characteristics:
S.No Cos Sin
Lagging p.f Leading p.f
full load half load full load half load
MODEL CALCULATIONS :
O.C. TEST:
W
O
= V
O
I
O
Cos 4
0
; Cos 4
0
= ( W
O
) / ( V
O
I
O
) =
I
= I
O
Sin 4
0
; I
e
= I
O
Cos 4
0
R
O =
V
O /
I
e
; X
O =
V
O /
I
S.C TEST :
W
SC
= I
SC
2
R
e2
; R
e2
= W
SC
/ I
SC
2
Ze
2
= V
sc
/ I
sc
; X
e2
= \ ( Ze
2
2
- R
e2
2
)
% Efficiency ( ) = [ ( x KVA Cos4) / ( x KVA Cos4 + W
i
+ x
2
W
cu
)] x 100
%Voltage Regulation = x 100
PRECAUTIONS:
1. Avoid loose connections
2. Initially position of the variable on Variac must be in minimum position.
3. Note down the readings from the meters without any parallax error
4. Apply the reduced voltage (only 5 to 10% of rated voltage) slowly to HV side during SC
test
MODEL GRAPHS:
RESULTS:
2 2 2 2
2
I Re Cos I Xe Sin
V

The parameters of transformer are:
R
0
= ____ ; X
0
= ____ ; R
e2
= ____ ; X
e2
=____
From the graphs plotted, it has been determined that
(i) Maximum efficiency of ____ % occurs at a load current of ____A
(ii) Maximum regulation occurs at ____ Pf.
(iii) Zero regulation occurs at _____ pf.
CONCLUSIONS:
VIVA VOCE QUESTIONS:
1. What is the principle of operation of transformer?
2. What are the different types of 1u transformers available?
3. Why Copper losses in Open circuit test & Core losses in Short circuit
4. are considered negligible?
5. What is the advantage of deriving the Equivalent circuit?
6. What is the condition for maximum efficiency?
7. What are the conditions of power factors for maximum & minimum regulation?
BRAKE TEST ON A
D.C. SHUNT MOTOR
Experiment no: 6
BRAKE TEST ON A D.C. SHUNT MOTOR
AIM : To obtain the Performance characteristics curves of a D.C. shunt motor by
conducting brake test on it.
NAME PLATE DETAILS:
S.No Type DC Shunt Motor
01 Rating 3.0 HP
02 Volts. 220 V DC
03 Current 12 A
04 Exc. Volts. 220 V DC
05 Exc. Current 0.6A
06
Duty S1
07
Ins. Class B
08
Speed 1500 rpm
APPARATUS:
01 Voltmeter (0-300) V M.C 1
02 Ammeter (0-1) A M.C. 1
03 Ammeter (0-20) A M.C. 1
04 Rheostat 300O, 2 A Wire Wound 1
05 Tachometer 0-10,000 RPM Analog 1
THEORY:
It is a simple method of testing low rating DC machines and consists of applying a brake
to a water-cooled drum mounted on the motor shaft.
The four important characteristics curves of a D.C. Shunt Motor, namely, Torque, Speed,
Armature Current & efficiency, each plotted against the useful Power, as shown in the
model graph are known as Performance characteristics
A belt is wound round the brake drum and its two ends are attached to two spring
balances S
1
& S
2
. The tension of the belt can be adjusted with the help of swivels.
The force acting tangentially on the drum is equal to the difference between the readings
of the two spring balances.
The net force, F applied on the brake drum is 9.81(S
1
S
2
) Newtons
where , S
1
& S
2
are the readings of Spring balances 1& 2 in Kg.f.
Shaft torque, T developed by the motor is 9.81 (S
1
S
2
) R Nm
where, R is the radius of the pulley in meters & N is the speed in rpm
Useful Output Power = (2 a N T) / 60 Watts
Input Power = V I
L
Watts, where I
L
= (I
a
+ I
sh
)
% Efficiency ,q = (Output power / Input power) x 100.
Speed Regulation = [ (No Load speed ) ( Full load speed )] / Full Load.
The size of the motor that can be tested by this method is limited from the consideration
of the heat that can be dissipated at the brake drum
Where the output power exceeds about 2 H.P., or where the test is of long duration, its
necessary to use a water cooled brake drum.
PROCEDURE:
2. Initially the starter must be in off position.
3. Switch on the D.C. Motor to 220V D.C. Supply by closing the DPST Switch.
4. Start the D.C. motor using the three point starter and thereby adjust the speed to its
rated speed using field rheostat.
5. Note down the readings of Voltmeter & Ammeters in Table under No Load condition.
6. Apply the Load on the drum gradually in steps by tightening the belt around it.
At each step, note down the readings of the Ammeters, Voltmeter, two Spring
balances and the Tachometer.
7. Pour water in the pulley and cool it often when the motor is loaded.
8. When the full load is reached, slowly reduce the load and switch off the
Motor from 220V D.C. Supply by opening the DPST Switch
OBSERVATION TABLE:
S.No. Input
Voltage
(V)
Armature
Current
(I
a
)
Field
current
(I
sh
)
Spring Balances
Speed (N)
S
1
S
2
1
2
3
.
.
.
.
1 0
CALCULATION TABLE:
Radius of the Brake Drum, R = ______ mts.
S.No.
Input
Voltage
(V)
Input
Current
(I
L
)
Torque,Nm
(T)
Output
Power
Input
Power
%
1
2
3
.
.
.
.
1 0
PRECAUTIONS:
1. The field rheostat of the motor must be kept in minimum before switching ON the motor.
2. Ensure that the starter arm is at extreme left position.
5. Tachometer should be kept horizontal to the shaft while measuring the speed.
6. Before switch OFF the motor make sure that there is nos load connected to motor.
MODEL GRAPHS:
RESULTS:
At full load:
i) Torque = __________ Nm.
ii) Speed = __________ rpm
iii) Armature Current = __________ A
iv) Efficiency = __________ %.
v) Speed Regulation = __________%
CONCLUSIONS:
1) What is Speed regulation?
2) What are the different types of motor?
3) What are the characteristics of D.C shunt motor?
4) What is the condition for maximum efficiency?
5) What are the different methods to reduce the iron losses?
6) What are the application of D.C Shunt Motor?
SWINBURNES TEST ON D.C.
SHUNT MACHINE
Experiment no: 7
SWINBURNES TEST ON A DC SHUNT MACHINE
AIM : To Pre-determine the efficiency and performance characteristics of a
DC Shunt machine. (both as a generator & motor)
NAME PLATE DETAILS:
S.No Type DC Shunt Motor
01 Ratings 3.0 HP
02 Volts. 220 V DC
03 Current 12 A
04 Exc. Volts. 220 V DC
05 Exc. Current 0.6A
06
Duty S1
07
Ins. Class B
08
Speed 1500 rpm
APPARATUS:
04 Rheostat 300O, 2 A
WIRE
WOUND
1
05 Tachometer 0-10,000 RPM ANALOG 1
06 Fuse 6A T.C.C. 2
THEORY:
SWINBURNES TEST:-
It is a simple method in which losses are measured separately and from their knowledge,
efficiency at any load can be pre-determined in advance. The only running test needed is
a no load test.
Swinburnes test is applicable to those machines in which flux is practically constant i.e.
Shunt wound and Compound wound machines.
The machine is running as a motor on no-load at its rated voltage and its speed be
adjusted to its rated value using Shunt regulator.
The no-load armature current I
ao
is measured using an ammeter, where as shunt field
current I
sh
is given by another ammeter. The no-load input current is given by I
o
= I
ao
+
I
sh
Let the supply voltage be V volts
No-load input = V I
o
watts
Power input to armature = V I
ao
watts
Power input to shunt = V I
sh
watts
No-load input supplies Copper losses (Armature & Field), Iron losses (Hysteresis
& Eddy current) & Mechanical losses ( Friction losses & Windage).
Constant losses = No load input power Armature copper losses
W
c
= V I
o
I
ao
Ra watts .
Predetermination of efficiency of a motor at any load
Input = V I watts.
Armature Cu losses = (I - I
sh
) Ra
Constant losses = W
c
Total losses = W
c
+ ( I - I
sh
) Ra
q = (Input Total losses) / (Input)
Predetermination of efficiency of a generator at any load
Output = V I watts.
Armature Cu losses = (I + I
sh
) Ra
Constant losses = W
c
Total losses = W
c
+ ( I + I
sh
) Ra
q = (Output) / (Output + Total losses)
Maximum Efficiency : Variable losses (I
a
Ra) = Constant losses ( W
c
)
PROCEDURE:
2. Initially the starter must be in off position.
4. Start the D.C. motor using the three point starter and thereby adjust the speed to its rated
speed using field rheostat.
5. Note down the readings of Voltmeter & Ammeters in Table
6. Switch off the D.C. Motor to 220V D.C. Supply by opening the DPST Switch.
OBSERVATION TABLE:
At Constant speed of 1500r.p.m.
S.No. Input Voltage V Armature Current Field current
1
W
c
= V I
o
I
ao
Ra Watts = ________ Watts
CALCULATION TABLE:
I) For Motor
S.No
.
Input
Voltage
(V)
Input
Current(I)
Field
current(I
sh
)
Armature
Copper
Losses
Total
Losses
Input
Power
q
1
2
.
.
.
1 0
II) For Generator
S.No
.
Output
Voltage
(V)
Output
Current
(I)
Field
current
(I
sh
)
Armature
Copper
Losses
Total
Losses
Output
Power
q
1
2
.
.
.
1 0
MODEL GRAPHS:
PRECAUTIONS:-
1. The field rheostat of the motor must be kept in minimum before switching on the 220V
D.C. supply.
RESULTS:
Constant losses = _________ Watts
Current at which Max. q occurs for motor = _________ %
Current at which Max. q occurs for generator = _________ %
Maximum Efficiency for motor = __________ %.
Maximum Efficiency for generator = __________ %.
CONCLUSIONS:
1) What is the significance of Swinburnes test?
2) What are the advantages & disadvantages of this test?
3) Why this test is not suitable for D.C series motor?
4) What is the purpose of 3 point starter?
5) What happens if field is open in D.C motor?
6) Why we have to keep the field rheostat in minimum position?
MAGNETIZATION
CHARACTERISTICS OF A
D.C. SHUNT GENERATOR
Experiment no: 8
MAGNETIZATION CHARACTERISTICS OF A D.C. SHUNT
GENERATOR
AIM : To obtain the Magnetization Characteristics of a D.C. Shunt
Generator and to determine its Critical field resistance
& Critical speed.
NAME PLATE DETAILS:
Type DC Shunt Motor DC Shunt Generator
Ratings 3.0 HP 2 KW
Volts. 220 V DC 220 V DC
Current 12 A 12A
Exc. Volts. 220 V DC 220 V DC
Exc. Current 0.6A 0.7A
Duty S1 S1
Ins. Class B B
Speed 1500 rpm 1500 rpm
APPARATUS:
WIRE
WOUND
1
WIRE
WOUND
2
05 Tachometer 0-10,000 RPM ANALOG 1
THEORY:
I) Magnetization Characteristics
The magnetization characteristics shows the relation between the no load generated emf
in armature, E
0
and the field (or) exciting current, I
f
at a given fixed speed as shown in
model graph.
These characteristics are also known as the No load saturation characteristics or Open
circuit characteristics. The shape of these characteristics is practically same for all
generators whether separately excited or self excited
Due to the residual magnetism in the poles, some emf is generated even when I
f
= 0
represented by OD**. Hence, the curve starts a little way up.
The slight curvature, DE** at the lower end is due to magnetic inertia. It is seen that the
first part of the curve, EC** is practically straight. This is due to the fact that at low flux
densities, reluctance of iron path being negligible (due to high permeability), total
reluctance is given by the air gap reluctance, which is constant. Hence, the flux and
consequentially the generated emf are directly proportional to the exciting current.
How ever at high flux densities, where is small, iron path reluctance becomes
appreciable and straight relation, CF** between E
o
and I
f
no longer holds good, i.e.,
saturation of poles start.
(** refers to the model graph)
II) Critical resistance
It is that maximum value of the field resistance, above which the machine fails to excite
i.e. there will be no build up of the voltage.
This resistance corresponds to the straight-line position of the magnetization
characteristic because the magnetic circuit does not offer any appreciable reluctance to
the magnetic flux.
III) Critical speed
It is that speed for which the given shunt field resistance will represent critical field
resistance
(OR)
It is that minimum value of the speed of the machine below which the machine
fails to excite .
PROCEDURE:
8. Initially the starter must be in OFF & SPST Switch in open positions.
10. Start the D.C. motor using the three point starter and thereby adjust the speed of it to the
rated speed of the D.C.generator using field method of speed control.
11. Note down the voltage of the voltmeter which represents the residual voltage of the
generator when SPST switch is in open condition.
12. Close the SPST switch and Excite the field winding D.C.generator in steps by decreasing
its external resistance gradually and note down various corresponding readings of
ammeter and voltmeter till 1.1 to 1.25 times the rated voltage of the generator is reached,
maintaining constant speed .
13. Gradually reduce the field current of generator and make it to zero finally by opening
SPST switch. and disconnect the D.C. Motor from the 220V D.C. Supply
.
OBSERVATION TABLE:
At constant speed of 1500r.p.m.
S.No. Field current( I
f
) A Armature Voltage ( E
o
) V
1
2
.
.
.
1 0
MODEL GRAPHS:
CALCULATIONS:
TO FIND CRITICAL FIELD RESISTANCE:
1. Plot the magnetization curve.
2. Draw the tangent such that it touches most of the linear part of the curve.
This line is the Critical field resistance line.
3. The slope of the above line gives the Critical field resistance.
TO FIND CRITICAL SPEED:
1. Draw the constant field resistance line R
f
.
2. From point A draw a line on to the Critical field resistance line.
Now the Critical speed, N
c
= (AB /AC) N, where N is the rated speed of
D.C. generator i.e., 1500 r.p.m.
PRECAUTIONS:-
5. The field rheostat of the motor must be kept in minimum & for the generator in
maximum positions before switching on the D.C. supply.
8. Note down the readings form the meters without any parallax error
RESULT:
Critical field resistance = ________ ohms.
Critical speed = ________ r.p.m.
CONCLUSIONS:
1. What are Magnetization Characteristics?
2. What do you mean by Critical field resistance?
3. What do you mean by Critical speed?
4. How do you obtain the O.C.C at any other speed other than rated speed?
5. What are the different types of Generators?
6. What are the applications of D.C Shunt Generators?
BRAKE TEST ON A
SQUIRREL CAGE
INDUCTION MOTOR
Experiment no: 9
BRAKE TEST ON A THREE PHASE
SQUIRREL CAGE INDUCTION MOTOR
AIM : To obtain the Performance characteristics curves of a 3u Squirrel cage
Induction motor by conducting brake test on it.
NAME PLATE DETAILS:
S.No Type
Squirrel cage
Induction Motor
01 Rating 3.0 HP / 2.2KW
02 Volts. 3u ,415 A.C.
03 Current 4.7 A
04 Connection Delta
07
Ins. Class B
08
Speed 1400 rpm
APPARATUS:
02 Ammeter (0-10) A M.C. 1
03 Wattmeter 600 V ,10A UPF 2
THEORY:
It is a simple method of testing 3u Squirrel Cage Induction motor and consists of
applying a brake to a water-cooled drum mounted on the motor shaft.
The five important characteristics curves of a 3 u Squirrel cage Induction motor Motor,
namely, Speed, Slip, Armature Current, Efficiency & Power factor, each plotted against
the useful Power, as shown in the model graph are known as Performance characteristics.
Squirrel cage Induction Motor of low rating can be started by Direct-on-line Starting
method or Auto Transformer Method of Starting
A belt is wound round the brake drum and its two ends are attached to two spring
balances S
1
& S
2
. The tension of the belt can be adjusted with the help of swivels.
Shaft torque, T developed by the motor is 9.81 (S
1
S
2
) R Nm
where, R is the radius of the pulley in meters & N is the speed in rpm
Useful Output Power = (2 a N T) / 60 Watts
Input Power = W
1
+W
2
Watts
% Efficiency ,q = (Output power / Input power) x 100.
% Slip = [N
s
-N/N
s
] 100 ,
where, Synchronous Speed of Rotating flux is N
s
=120 f / P & N is Rotor Speed
Power Factor, Cos u = W
1
+W
2
\3VI
The size of the motor that can be tested by this method is limited from the consideration
of the heat that can be dissipated at the brake drum
PROCEDURE:
2. Close the TPST switch to 3u AC Supply and apply the voltage gradually to the Stator of the
Induction Motor by means of the Variac.
3. At no load, note down the readings of all Meters( Ammeter, Voltmeter, Wattmeters &
Tachometer) & Spring balances.
4. Gradually apply the load & for various values of current up to rated current, note down all
Meter readings & Spring balance readings.
5. Now release the load gradually and reduce the applied Voltage to zero using Variac.
6. Disconnect the Variac by opening the TPST Switch
OBSERVATION TABLE:
S.No. Input
Voltage
(V)
Armature
Current
(A)
Wattmeters Spring Balances
Speed (N)
(RPM)
W
1
W
2
S
1
S
2
1
2
3
.
.
.
.
10
CALCULATION TABLE:
Radius of the Brake Drum, R = ______ mts.
S.No
.
Armature
Current
(I
L
)
Torque
(T)
Output
Power
Input
Power
%
% Slip Cos
1
2
3
.
.
.
.
10
PRECAUTIONS:
2. Initially position of the variable on Variac must be in minimum position.
4. Tachometer should be kept horizontal to the shaft while measuring the speed.
5. Before switch OFF the motor make sure that there is no load connected to motor.
MODEL GRAPHS:
RESULTS:
At full load:
i) Speed = __________ rpm
ii) Slip = __________ %.
iii) Armature Current = __________ A
iv) Efficiency = __________ %.
v) Power factor = __________
CONCLUSIONS:
1. What are the different types of 3u I.M?
2. Explain the Performance Characteristics of 3u I.M.
3. Explain the Slip-Torque Characteristics of 3u I.M
4. Explain different methods of starting 3u Squirrel cage I.M?
REGULATION OF
3 ALTERNATOR
Experiment no: 10
REGULATION OF 3 ALTERNATOR
AIM : To predict the regulation of 3u alternator using
Synchronous impedance method
NAME PLATE DETAILS:
Type DC Shunt Motor Alternator
Ratings 3.0 HP 3 KVA
Volts. 220 V DC 3u ,415V AC
Current 12 A 4.2 A
Exc. Volts. 220 V DC 220 V DC
Exc. Current 0.6A 1.4A
Duty S1 S1
Ins. Class B B
Speed 1500 rpm 1500 rpm
APPARATUS:
02 Ammeter (0-10) A M.I. 1
03 Rheostat 300O, 2 A Wire Wound 1
05 Switch -- Triple pole 1
THEORY:
Voltage regulation is defined as the rise in terminal voltage, when the full load at a
particular power factor is removed keeping the field excitation and speed constant divided by the
rated terminal voltage.
% regulation = (E
O
-V) / V X100
For small rating machines regulation can be found by direct load where as in the case of
large machines the cost of finding regulation by direct loading becomes expensive. Hence an
indirect method is used for obtaining the regulation of an alternator is Synchronous impedance or
EMF method
In order to calculate the regulation by this method, it requires
a) Armature or stator resistance R
a
.
b) Open circuit or No-load characteristics.
c) Short circuit characteristics.
OD = E
o
E
o
= (OB
2
+ BD
2
)
1/2
OB = OA + AB
= V Cos 4 + IR
a
BD = BC + CD
= V Sin 4 + IX
s
For lag pf, E
o
= [ (V Cos 4 + IR
a
)
2
+ (V Sin 4 + IX
s
)
2
]
1/2
For lead pf, E
o
= [ (V Cos 4 + IR
a
)
2
+ (V Sin 4 I
a
X
s
)
2
]
1/2
For UPF, E
o
= [ (V + I
a
R
a
)
2
+ (I
a
X
s
)
2
]
1/2
where V= Rated voltage, Cos 4 - power factor
% Regulation = (E
o
- V) / V X 100
PROCEDURE:
OC test:
1) Connect the circuit as per the circuit diagram.
2) Initially the starter must be in OFF & SPST Switch in open positions.
3) Switch on the D.C. Motor to 220V D.C. Supply by closing the DPST Switch.
4) Start the D.C. motor using the three point starter and thereby adjust the speed of it to
the rated speed of the Alternator using field method of speed control.
5) With the TPST Switch open , Switch ON the Excitation unit of Alternator & by varying
the field current tabulate the corresponding open circuit voltage readings.
SC test:
6) Conduct the Short circuit test by closing the TPST switch and adjust the alternator
field current for which the armature current corresponds to its rated value & tabulate it.
7) Gradually reduce the field current of alternator and disconnect the D.C. Motor from the
220V D.C. Supply.
OBSERVATION TABLE:-
OPEN CIRCUIT TEST SHORT CIRCUIT TEST
Armature resistance per phase R
a =
___
S. No. V
OC
(volts)
I
f
(Amps)
S.No
I
sc
(amps) I
f
(amps)
MODEL GRAPHS:
1. O.C.C. And S.C.C.:
2. Power factor Vs Regulation
CALCULATIONS:
Z = [Open cicuit Voltage per Phase] / [Short circuit current],
at constant field current
where Short circuit current can be taken as rated armature current, I
a
Z = E
o
per phase / I
a
, at constant I
f
Xs = \ (Z
2
R
a
2
)
CALCULATION TABLE:
Voltage Regulation characteristics
S.No Cos Sin
Lagging p.f Leading p.f
full load half load full load half load
PRECAUTIONS:-
1. The field rheostat of the motor must be kept in minimum position before switching on
the D.C. supply.
4. Note down the readings form the meters without any parallax error
5. Speed must be maintained constant through out the experiment.
6. Make ensure that the terminal voltage is reduced to zero before doing short circuit
test .
RESULTS:
Voltage regulation at full load 0.8 pf. lag is _____& 0.8 pf. lead is ______
Maximum positive voltage regulation occurs at pf of _______
Zero voltage regulation occurs at pf of _______
CONCLUSIONS:
1. What is the principle of operation of an alternator?
2. What are the different types of alternators available?
3. What are the different factors affecting the Voltage regulation?
4. Explain the variations of terminal voltage under different power
5. factor conditions.
6. Why the synchronous impedance method is termed as Pessimistic method
APPENDIX
S U P E R P O S I T I O N A N D
R E C I P R O C I T Y T H E O R E M S
I N A C S Y S T E M
Experiment no: 1
VERIFICATION OF SUPERPOSITION
& RECIPROCITY THEOREMS
AIM : To verify Superposition & Reciprocity theorems for the given network.
APPARATUS :
THEORY:-
I. Superposition Theorem Statement:
In a linear network with several independent sources which include equivalent
sources due to initial conditions and linear dependent sources, the overall response in any part
of the network is equal to the sum of the individual responses due to each independent source,
considered separately, with all other independent sources reduced to zero.
Note: 1. The sources which are considered one at a time making all other sources zero,
are the independent sources including sources due to initial conditions only. The dependent
sources are retained as they are in the network.
2. When one independent source is considered & all other independent sources are
reduced to zero means that all the other independent voltage source are replaced with short
circuit and all the other independent current sources are replaced with open circuit. If the sources
contain internal impedances, that sources are replaced by their internal impedances.
II. Reciprocity Theorem Statement:
The Reciprocity theorem states that the ratio of response to excitation is invariant
to an interchange of the position of the excitation and response in a single source network.
However if the excitation is a voltage source, the response should be a current and vice versa.
1 Voltmeter MI 0-300V 2
2 Ammeter MI 0-2.5A 1
3 Rheostat
WW
WW
WW
50O/5A
110O/2A
300O/2A
2
1
2
4 1-u Variac
230V / (0-270)V,
15A
---- 1
5. Fuse TCC 5A 4
300,2A
300,2A
(0-300)V, MI
(0-300)V, MI
300,2A
300,2A
(0-300)V, MI
300,2A
300,2A
(0-300)V, MI
PROCEDURE:-
2. Close Switch S
1
2
& S
3
open and Switch S
4
closed.
1
,V
2
& Ammeter reading as I' in the S.No1
of Table1
4. Now close Switch S
2
1
& S
4
open and Switch
S
3
closed.
And increase the variac position so that the voltmeter V
2
shows 150V.
1
,V
2
& Ammeter reading as I" in the S.No2
of Table1 and decrease the variac position to initial condition.
6. Now Close Switches S
1
& S
2
3
&
S
4
open. And again increase the variac position so that the voltmeter V
2
shows 150V.
1
,V
2
& Ammeter reading as I in the S.No3
of Table1.
8. Finally disconnect the circuit from the Supply mains by open all the Switches.
CASE : I
6. Close Switch S
1
1
& Ammeter A
1
1
.
CASE : II
6. Close Switch S
2
2
Ammeter A
2
2
.
OBSERVATION TABLE:-
TABLE 1 SUPERPOSITION THEOREM:
S.No. Switches Positions Voltmeter Reading Voltmeter Reading Ammeter Reading
1.
S
1
& S
4
ON,
S
2
& S
3
OFF
V
1
= V
2
= I' =
2.
S
1
& S
4
ON,
S
2
& S
3
OFF
V
1
= V
2
= I" =
3.
S
1
& S
4
ON,
S
2
& S
3
OFF
V
1
= V
2
= I =
TABLE 2 II. RECIPROCITY THEOREM:
S.No. Voltmeter Reading Ammeter Reading
1. V
1
= I
1
=
2. V
2
= I
2
=
PRECAUTIONS:
1. Avoid Loose Connections .
2. Readings must be taken without parallax error.
3. Before switching on the supply for the circuit , ensure that all rheostats are at
RESULTS:
1. I' = A
2. I" = A
3. I = A
1. V
1
/ I
1
=
2. V
2
/ I
2
=
CONCLUSIONS:
VIVA QUESTIONS:
7) What are the Statements of the above theorems?
9) Where the above theorems are used practically?
10) What are the practical applications of the above theorems?
11) What is a bilateral network? Give examples.
12) What are the limitations of above theorems?
M A X I M U M P O W E R
T R A N S F E R T H E O R E M
I N A C S Y S T E M
Experiment no: 2
VERIFICATION OF MAXIMUM POWER
TRANSFER THEOREM
AIM : To verify Maximum Power transfer theorem for the given circuit.
APPARATUS :
1 Voltmeter
MI
MI
0-300V
0-150V
1
1
2 Ammeter MI 0-2A 1
3 Rheostat
WW
WW
WW
100O/5A
50O/5A
200O/2A
2
1
1
4. Fuse TCC 5A 2
THEORY:
Statement: The Maximum Power transfer theorem states that An Impedance load Z
L
,
being connected to an AC network, receives maximum power when it is
equal to the internal impedance of the source network as seen from the
load terminals i.e. Z
th
With reference to Fig(B)
L th
th
L
R R
V
I
+
=
While the power delivered to the resistive load is
( )
( )
L
L th
th
L L L
R
R R
V
R I P
+
= =
2
2
2
P
L
can be maximized by varying R and hence, maximum power can be delivered when (dP
L
/dR
L
)
= 0
( ) ( ) ( )
( )
0
4
2 2 2 2
=
+
+ +
L th
L th
L
L th L th
L
L th
R R
R R
dR
d
R V R V
dR
d
R R
( ) ( ) ( )
( )
0
2
4
2 2 2
=
+
+ +
L th
L th L th th L th
R R
R R R V V R R
( ) 0 2 = +
L L th
R R R
th L
R R =
Hence it has been proved that power transfer from a dc source network to a resistive network is
maximum when the load resistance of the network is equal to the internal resistance of the dc
source.
Again with R
L
=R
th
, the system being perfectly matched for load and source, power
transfer becomes maximum and this amount of power (P
max
) can be obtained as
( )
th
th
th th
th th
R
V
R R
R V
P
4
2
2
2
max
=
+
=
The total power supplied is thus
th
th
th
th
in
R
V
R
V
P
2 4
2
2 2
= =
During maximum power transfer the efficiency of the circuit becomes,.
% 50 100
max
= =
in
P
P
CIRCUIT I
V
0-300V,MI
+ -
2
3
0
V
,
5
0
H
z
S
i
n
g
l
e
p
h
a
s
e
A
C
S
u
p
p
l
y
D
P
S
T
F
U
S
E
5
A
V
0
-
2
A
,
M
I
A
1
0
0
,
5
A
50,5A
200,2A
0-150V,MI
F
U
S
E
5
A
+
+
+
-
-
-
1
0
0
,
5
A
M
a
x
i
m
u
m
P
o
w
e
r
T
r
a
n
s
f
e
r
T
h
e
o
r
e
m
M
A
I
N
C
I
R
C
U
I
T
CIRCUIT II
0-300V,MI
50,5A
PROCEDURE:-
I) TO FIND POWER VARIATIONS WITH R
L
2. Apply 230 V AC Supply to the circuit by closing the DPST Switch.
3. Note down the readings of Ammeter & Voltmeter in Table 1 which are connected
across the load after keeping the load rheostat, R
L
at its minimum value.
4. Increase the load resistance in steps and for each step, note down the corresponding
Ammeter and Voltmeter readings in Table 1.
II) TO FIND R
th
2. Apply 230 V AC Supply to the circuit by closing the DPST Switch.
3. Note down the readings of Ammeter & Voltmeter in Table 2 .
OBSERVATION TABLE:-
TABLE 1
S No V
L
(volts) I
L
(amps) R
L
= V
L
/ I
L
() P
L
= I
L
2
R
L
1.
2.
3.
.
.
.
10.
TABLE 2
S No V
S
(volts) I
S
(amps) R
th
= V
S
/I
S
1.
MODEL GRAPH:-
PRECAUTIONS:-
3. Take more number of readings for a better plot
RESULTS:-
1. P
max
= ----------
2. R
L
= ---------
3. R
th
= ---------
4. = ---------
CONCLUSIONS:-
VIVA QUESTIONS:-
1) What is the Statement of Maximum Power Transfer theorem?
5) What are the advantages & disadvantages of the above theorem?
V E R I F I C A T I O N O F T H E V E N I N S
N O R T O N S & M A X I M U M P O W E R
T R A N S F E R T H E O R E M S
I N D C S Y S T E M
Experiment no:3
VERIFICATION OF THEVENINS
& NORTONS THEOREMS
AIM : To verify Thevenins & Nortons theorems for the given circuit.
APPARATUS:
S. No Name of Apparatus Range Type Quantity
1 Voltmeters 0-300V PMMC 2
2 Ammeter 0-2A PMMC 2
3 Rheostats
50O , 5A
110 O , 2A
200 O , 2A
WW
WW
WW
2
1
2
5. SPST 5A ---- 2
6. Fuse 5A TCC 2
THEORY:-
I) Thevenins Theorem Statement:
L,
may be replaced by a simple two
terminal network consisting of a single voltage source of V
th
volts and single resistance R
th
in
series with the voltage source, across the two terminals of the load R
L
. The V
th
is the open
circuit voltage measured at the two terminals of interest, with load resistance R
L
removed. This
voltage is also called Thevenins equivalent voltage. The R
th
is the Thevenins equivalent
resistance of the given network as viewed through the open terminals with R
L
removed and all
the active sources are replaced by their internal resistances. If the internal resistances are not
known then independent voltage sources are to be replaced by the short circuit while the
independent current sources must be replaced by open circuit.
II) Nortons Theorem Statement :
L,
can be replaced by a simple two
terminal network, consisting of a single current source of I
N
amperes and a single resistance
R
N
in parallel with it, across the two terminals of the R
L.
The I
N
is the short circuit current
flowing through the short circuited path, replaced instead of R
L
. It is also called Nortons
current. The R
N
is the equivalent resistance of the given network as viewed through the load
terminals, with R
L
removed and all the active sources are replaced by their internal
resistances. If the internal resistances are unknown then the independent voltage sources must
be replaced by short circuit while the independent current sources must be replaced by open
circuit.
CIRCUIT 1:
0-300V, MC
200, 2A
110, 2A
SPST2
CIRCUIT II:
CIRCUIT III:
CIRCUIT IV:
PROCEDURE:-
I) FOR CIRCUIT 1:
2. Apply 220 V DC Supply to the ciruit by closing the DPST Switch.
3. Note down the corresponding readings of Ammeter & Voltmeter2 in Table 1 with the
conditions
i) SPST 1 Closed & SPST 2 Open
ii) SPST 1 Open & SPST 2 Open
iii) SPST 1 Closed & SPST 2 Closed
5 Disconnect the supply by opening the DPST Switch.
II) FOR CIRCUIT 2:
3. Note down the readings of ammeter and voltmeter.
4. Disconnect the supply by opening the DPST Switch.
III) FOR CIRCUIT 3:
2. Apply 220 V C Supply to the circuit by closing the DPST Switch.
3. Close the SPST Switch & vary both the rheostats until the ratio of Ammeter reading I to the
Voltmeter reading gives R
th
, the value as obtained in Table 2
4. Once the Rheostat set to R
th
, open the SPST Switch .
5. Gradually vary the variable position of the potential divider {300/2A} until the Voltmeter
reads V
th
, as obtained in Table 1.Note down the reading of the Ammeter in Table 3
6. Gradually vary the variable position of the potential divider until the Voltmeter reads 0 volts.
IV) FOR CIRCUIT 4:
2. Use the same Rheostat which set to R
th
as in the Circuit 3
4. After closing the SPST switch gradually vary the variable position of the potential divider
until the Ammeter1 reads current I
N
as obtained in Table 1 & note down the corresponding
reading of the Ammeter2 in Table 4.
OBSERVATION TABLE:-
S.No Switch conditions Voltmeter V
1
Voltmeter V
2
Ammeter
1. SPST 1 Closed
SPST 2 Open
V
S
= V
L
= I
L
=
2. SPST 1 Open
SPST 2 Open
V
S
= V
th
= I
L
= 0
3. SPST 1 Closed
SPST 2 Closed
V
S
= V
L
= 0 I
N
=
R
th
= V
S
/ I
S
1.
V
S
= I
S
= R
th
=
1.
V
th
= I
L
=
S.No Ammeter I
1
Ammeter I
2
1.
I
N
= I
L
=
PRECAUTIONS:-
3. Before switching on the supply for each circuit ensure that all rheostats are at maximum
position and during the experiment these should not be disturbed.
4. Variable position of the Variac (auto transformer) should be at minimum position
before switching on the power supply.
RESULTS:-
1. I
L
from the Main circuit =
2. I
L
from the Thevenins Equivalent Circuit =
3. I
L
from the Nortons Equivalent circuit =
CONCLUSIONS:-
VIVA QUESTIONS:-
1) What is the Statement of Thevenins theorem?
4) What are Active & Passive elements?
6) What are the limitations of application of this theorem ?
D E T E R M I N A T I O N O F T W O P O R T
N E T W O R K P A R A M E T E R S
I N A C S Y S T E M
Experiment no: 4
DETERMINATION OF TWO PORT
NETWORK PARAMETERS
AIM: To determine Z, Y, ABCD and H parameters of a given two port Network.
APPARATUS:
S.No Specification Range Type Quantity
1 Voltmeter (0-300)V MI 2
2 Ammeter (0-5)A MI 2
3
Rheostat (50 O , 5A) Wire Wound
3
4 Variac
230/(0-270)V
15A
------- 1
5 Switches ------ DPDT 2
6 Fuses 5A
Tin Coated
Copper
2
7 Connecting Wires 1 Square mm Insulated copper
As per
Requirement
THEORY:
A network containing two pairs of terminals is called as two port network. Normally
one pair of terminals coming together to supply power or to withdraw power or to measure the
parameters, are called as port. To achieve simplicity, the whole network is shown with a single
block.
A typical two port network is as shown below in fig (a)
OPEN CIRCUIT IMPEDANCE PARAMETERS (Z-parameters):
Z-parameters can be defined by the following equations
V
1
= Z
11
I
1
+ Z
12
I
2
(1)
V
2
= Z
21
I
1
+ Z
22
I
2
(2)
Matrix form :
( ) 3 . .......... .......... ..........
2
1
22 21
12 11
2
1
I
I
Z Z
Z Z
V
V
If port 2-2
1
2
= 0 then
Z
11
= V
1
/I
1
& Z
21
= V
2
/I
1
If port 1-1
1
1
= 0, then
Z
12
= V
1
/I
2
& Z
22
= V
2
/I
2
.
Here,
Z
11
1
with 2-2
1
open circuit input impedance.
Z
21
1
with 2-2
1
open circuited. It can also be called
as open circuit forward transfer impedance.
Z
12
1
with 1-1
1
open circuit reverse transfer impedance and
Z
22
1
with 1-1
1
open circuited. It can also be
called as open circuit output impedance.
Z-parameter representation for a two port network, shown above, will be as shown below
in fig (b)
If the network is
a) Reciprocal then V
1
/I
2
(where I
1
= 0) = V
2
/I
1
(where I
2
= 0) i.e. Z
12
= Z
21
b) Symmetrical then V
1
/I
1
(where I
2
= 0) = V
2
/I
2
(where I
1
= 0) i.e. Z
11
= Z
22
SHORT CIRCUIT ADMITTANCE PARAMETERS (Y-parameters):
Y-parameters can be defined by the following equations
I
1
= Y
11
V
1
+ Y
12
V
2
. (1)
I
2
= Y
21
V
1
+ Y
22
V
2
. (2)
In matrix form
1
2
1
I
2
I
1
Z
11
+
_
Z
22
Z
12
I
2
Z
21
I
1
2
1
1
V
2
V
1
Fig (b) Open circuit impedance parametric representation of a two port net work.
+
_
( ) 3 . .......... .......... ..........
2
1
22 21
12 11
2
1
V
V
Y Y
Y Y
I
I
If port 2-2
1
2
= 0 then
Y
11
= I
1
/V
1
& Y
21
= I
2
/V
1
If port 1-1
1
1
= 0 then
Y
12
= I
1
/V
2
& Y
22
= I
2
/V
2
Here, Y
11
is the short circuit driving point admittance at port 1-1
1
with 2-2
1
short
circuited. It will also be called as short circuit input admittance.
Y
21
1
with 2-2
1
called as short circuit forward transfer admittance.
Y
12
1
with 1-1
1
called as short circuit reverse transfer admittance and
Y
22
is the driving point admittance at port 2-2
1
with 1-1
1
short circuited. It can also
be called as short circuit output admittance.
Y-parameter representation for a two port network, shown above, will be as shown below
If the network is
1
2
1
I
2
I
1
Y
11
Y
22
Y
12
V
2
Y
21
V
1
2
1
1
V
2
V
1
Fig(c) Short circuit admittance parameter representation of a two port net work.
a) Reciprocal then I
2
/V
1
(where V
2
= 0) = I
1
/V
2
(where V
1
= 0) i.e. Y
21
= Y
12
b) Symmetrical then I
1
/ V
1
(where V
2
= 0) = I
2
/ V
2
(where V
1
= 0) i.e. Y
11
= Y
22
Hybrid Parameters (h-Parameters):
h-parameters can be defined by the following equations
) 2 .....( .......... .......... ..........
) 1 ......( .......... .......... ..........
2 22 1 21 2
2 12 1 11 1
V h I h I
V h I h V
+ =
+ =
In matrix form
) 3 ( .......... .......... ..........
2
1
22 21
12 11
2
1
V
I
h h
h h
I
V
If port 2-2
1
2
= 0 then
h
11
= V
1
/I
1
& h
21
= I
2
/I
1
h
11
is called input impedence and h
21
is called forward current gain.
If port 1-1
1
is open circuited, i.e., I
1
=0 then
2
2
22
2
1
12
&
v
I
h
v
v
h = =
h
22
is called output admittance and h
12
is called reverse voltage gain.
ABCD Parameters:
ABCD parameters can be defined by the following equations
) 2 ..( .......... .......... )......... (
) 1 .( .......... .......... )......... (
2 2 1
2 2 1
I D CV I
I B AV V
+ =
+ =
In matrix form
) 3 .........( .......... ..........
2
2
1
1
I
V
D C
B A
I
V
If port 2-2
1
is open circuited i.e., I
2
=0 then
2
1
2
1
&
V
I
C
V
V
A = =
A is called reverse voltage ratio and C is known as transfer admittance.
If port 2-2
1
is short circuited i.e., V
2
=0 then
2
1
2
1
&
I
I
D
I
V
B
=
B is called transfer impedence and D is called reverse current ratio.
h
22
1
I
1
h
11
+
-
h
12
V
2
1
1
V
1
Fig (d) Hybrid parametric representation of a two port net work.
2
1
I
2
h
21
I
1
2
V
2
PROCEDURE:-
1. Connect the circuit as per circuit diagram.
2
open , S
3
close to 11' and S
4
open , note down the corresponding
readings of voltmeter and ammeter in S.No 1 in Tabular form after closing the Switch S
1
to supply mains
1
open ,S
4
close to 33' and S
3
open , note down the
Switch S
2
to supply mains
2
open ,S
3
close to 11' and S
4
close to 44' , note down the
Switch S
1
to supply mains
1
open ,S
3
close to 22' and S
4
close to 33 ' , note down the
Switch S
2
to supply mains
OBSERVATION TABLE:-
S.NO Test Condition V
1
(V) I
1
(A) V
2
(V) I
2
(A)
1
Port 2 Open
(I
2
= 0) and
Port-1 Active
2
Port 1 Open
(I
1
=0) and
Port-2 Active
3
(V
2
=0) and
port-1 active
4
(V1=0) and
Port-2 active
PRECAUTIONS:
1. Note down the readings of voltmeter and ammeter without parallax error.
2. The current through a particular element should be maintained below its current rating.
3. The conditions of switches should be thoroughly checked before making the circuit live
RESULTS:
The values of Z parameters are
Z
11
= ________; Z
12
= ________; Z
21
= ________ ; Z
22
= ________
The values of Y parameters are
Y
11
= ________; Y
12
= ________; Y
21 =
________; Y
22
= ________
CONCLUSIONS :
VIVA QUESTIONS:
1) What is the significance of the two port parameters?
2) How you know the admittance parameters from impedance parameters?
3) What are the application of Z& Y parameters?
4) What is the condition for reciprocal network?
5) What is the condition for symmetrical network?
6) What is a Lattice network?
7) What is a Ladder network?

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