ANALOGUE ELECTRONICS PART III

14. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13 15.

TRANSISTOR CIRCUITS FOR THE CONSTRUCTOR MORSE CODE PRACTICE OSCILLATOR LIGHT-OPERATED RELAY USING SCMITT TRIGGER LOW-POWER RADIO TRANSMITTER AUDIO AMPLIFIER & AMPLITUDE MODULATOR TUNED RADIO FREQUENCY (A.M.) RECEIVERS BLOCK DIAGRAM OF A SUPERHETRODYNE RADIO FREQUENCY (A.M.) RECEIVER CRYSTAL-CONTROLLED TUNNEL DIODE TRANSMITTER FUNCTION GENERATOR DIRECT CURRENT POWER SUPPLY UNITS IC VOLTAGE REGULATOR LM386 IC (LOW VOLTAGE) AUDIO AMPLIFIER THE 555 TIMER AS TONE GENERATOR 10-MINUTE TIMER USING A 555 TIMER RESOURCES FOR CONSTRUCTION ELECTRONNIC CIRCUIT

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Technological advancement is not so much the result of theoretical formulations but the outcome of practical research and development.

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14.

TRANSISTOR CIRCUITS FOR THE CONSTRUCTOR

Some transistor circuits have already been considered, such as the audio amplifiers and the audio signal generator. In chapter 14 we shall consider the construction of a Morse code practice oscillator, light detector, low-power A.M. radio transmitters, tuned radio frequency (TRF) A.M. receivers, IC audio amplifier, d.c. power supply units and IC voltage regulator. The student is strongly advised to construct some of these simple circuits with a view to understanding and appreciating the functions of the discrete components. The circuits can be operated from readily available d.c. sources (6 V, 9 V or 12 V) or a specially constructed power supply unit or an IC voltage regulator. In chapter 15 a list of equipment, components, materials and tools required for the constructions is given. There is a lot of room here for improvisation and resourcefulness. 14.1 MORSE CODE PRACTICE OSCILLATOR The multivibrator, as its name implies, is very rich in harmonics of the fundamental frequency of oscillation. The square wave output, if in the audio range, is very pleasant to the human ear. As such, the multivibrator is used, in electronic circuits, as tone generator (500 Hz 5 kHz). In Fig. 14.1, a high impedance headphone (600 2 k) replaces the collector resistor of one of the transistors, TR2. Alternatively, another 2.2 k resistor may be used with the output taken through a high impedance crystal earphone. If a high impedance loudspeaker (80 ) is to be used, it can be connected to the emitter of TR3, a common collector amplifier (current amplifier, buffer or matching stage) using a higher currentcapacity transistor, such as BC142 or BFY51, as shown in Fig. 14.2.

R3 2.2 k 39 k C 22 nF TR1 BC109

R2

R1

High impedance (1-3 k) headphone 39 k C 22 nF Output Morse key +6 V or +9 V BC109 Cs 10 F 0V

TR2

Fig. 14.1 Morse code practice oscillator/multivibrator

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The 6 V or 9V supply voltage is provided through a switch for on and off keying to make the Morse code signals. The capacitor Cs is inserted to suppress high frequency radiation, which may otherwise cause some interference. Every student should build and operate this simple circuit, as it never fails to work. The student may even learn the Morse code or invent another code for himself. Surely the student can think of some other uses for this circuit.

39 k 2.2k R3 33 nF R2 R1

39 k R4 2.2 k 33 nF BC142 TR2

MORSE KEY BC109 TR1 BC109 TR2 . 64 Speaker +6 or +9 V 10 F 0V ASTABLE MULTIVIBRATOR CURRENT AMPLIFIER

Fig. 14.2 Tone generator and Morse Code practice oscillator

14.2 LIGHT-OPERATED RELAY USING A SCHMITT TRIGGER The Schmitt trigger is a bistable multivibrator in which positive feedback is via a resistor that is common to the emitter circuits of both transistors, rather than from the collector of one to the base of the other. In Fig. 14.3, if the positive voltage applied to the base of TR1 exceeds a certain critical value V1 (adjusted by RV), it is switched on and TR2 switched off. Switching off TR2 makes the emitter of TR1 more negative, thereby driving it (TR1) further into conduction. If the base voltage of TR1 drops below V1, it is switched off and TR2 switched on. Switching on TR2 makes the emitter of TR1 more positive, thereby driving it (TR1) further into cutoff. So, due to the positive feedback, the switching-on of TR1 is helped by the switching-off of TR2 and vice versa. The Schmitt trigger will be employed later in the generation of square waves.
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+9 V

R1 VR 100 k

R2 2.7 k R4 BC109 TR1

1N4001 Protection diode 2.7 k

Relay

BFY51 TR2

Output

Input V1 ORP12 LDR R3 470 R5 2.7 k 0V Fig. 14.3 Fast action light switch using LDR and Schmitt trigger

The Schmitt trigger has a fast-action response whereby the relay (or lamp) switches on smartly at one value of the input signal and switches off at a slightly lower value. In Fig. 14.3, illuminating the light dependent resistor (LDR), lowers its resistance, resulting in the lowering of base voltage of TR1. Consequently TR1 is cut off and TR2 brought into conduction, thereby energizing the relay. If LDR is interchanged with VR, the circuit becomes a dark switch and switches the relay when the LDR is covered or when night falls. Note the reverse-biased silicon diode connected across the relay. Its purpose is to protect the transistor from possible damage due to the high back e.m.f. generated by the relay coil when it de-energizes. The diode harmlessly shortcircuits this back e.m.f., an action called free wheeling. Another use of the Schmitt trigger is conversion of a sine wave into a square wave. A sine wave at the input results into square wave at the output. 14.3 LOW-POWER RADIO (7.5 MHz, 40-m CB) TRANSMITTERS 14.3.1 Block diagram of AM transmitter A bock diagram of amplitude modulated (AM) transmitter is shown in Fig. 14.4. The r.f. oscillator, usually crystal controlled, is modulated by an a.f. signal. The modulated carrier is amplified and then fed into a transmitting antenna. The antenna is a dipole, a folded dipole or an array.

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Antenna R.f. oscillator Microphone A.f. amplifier Fig. 14.4 Block diagram of amplitude modulated radio transmitter Modulator R.f. carrier Modulated carrier R.f. power amplifier

14.3.2 The 40-meter Peanut Whistle The circuit of what Radio Amateurs call Peanut Whistle is shown in Fig. 14.5. The oscillator, with transistor TR, is described in Fig. 9.3(b). R1 is chosen to

R1 Output 20 mA BC 109 TR 33 k 330 pF X R2 R3 270 +9 V 470 pF 1 F 0V Morse key

To folded dipole antenna (300 )

Fig. 14.5 40-meter 50 mW Peanut Whistle feeding a folded dipole antenna

properly bias the circuit. Signal at the output is connected to a folded half-wave (20 m) dipole aerial/antenna which completes the collector d.c. circuit. This antenna can be constructed from a 300 transmission line used for television reception. A Morse key in series with the battery completes the circuit. The 50 mW output at 7.5 MHz (40-m Citizens Band, CB) can be used to transmit to stations several kilometers away. This is a simple but interesting circuit, which every student should build. It can be used to test the directivity of an antenna array. Note, however, that the use of a transmitter on the Citizens Band (CB) may require a license from the Ministry of Communications.

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14.3.3 The 40-meter Novice Transmitter I The input circuit (of the Master Oscillator Power Amplifier, MOPA) is a common-base Pierce oscillator (Fig. 7.6b) with transistor TR1 and a collector tank circuit wound on a toroidal core (T1), tuned by capacitor C6. See Fig. 14.6. Here R1
R8 9V C8 10 F C6 TR2 2N3705 R1 TR1 BC109 C1 47 pF 4.5 V 3.3 k Co X 0V Morse key SW2 Audio Modulation Carrier +12 V SW1 R2 R3 470 R5 100 pF C4 R6 C5 Voltmeter R4 Audio 0.05F D OA91 + 100 k T1 TR3 2N3705 4.7 R7 12 V C3 22 pF T2 C2 0.1 F C7 75 37.5 330 C9 100 F Aerial

Fig. 14.6 40-meter 2-W Novice Transmitter 1 with amplitude modulation.

is chosen to bias TR1 properly. The crystal operates at series resonance (fs = 7.5 MHz). The output is a class B push-pull amplifier with transistors TR2 and TR3 and a tuned tank circuit made of another toroidal transformer tuned by C7. Tuning the output transformer (T2) ensures that the output is a pure sine wave. The property of a (high Q) tank circuit to eliminate harmonics (in spite of waveform distortion) is called flywheel action. This important action is brought about because the tank circuit selects only the frequency to which it is tuned, in this case the fundamental

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frequency. The transformers can be tuned to higher (odd) harmonics of the crystal oscillation to obtain output frequencies at 3fs and 5fs. The audio modulation is injected, across capacitor C4, at the emitter of the output transistors so that it is effectively in series with the supply voltage. The performance of the modulator may be enhanced, at the peaks of the voltages, by injecting some of the audio signal at the bases of TR2 and TR3 through resistors R4 and R5. R7, in series with the emitters, helps in improving the circuit stability. The antenna, a 75 half-wave dipole or a 37.5 quarter-wave dipole (Marconi aerial), is fed by a step-down matching transformer (about 10:1) through an appropriate transmission line. The transformer turns ratios are to be adjusted for proper matching to give maximum output. Matching, whereby the output impedance of a transmitter is made equal to the characteristic impedance of the transmission line and equal to the radiation resistance of the transmitting antenna, is very important in telecommunications. The output is sampled by capacitor C3 and the radio frequency energy rectified by diode D, a point-contact germanium diode. The d.c. voltage across C5 measures by a voltmeter provides an indication of the antenna output power. The transmitter may be keyed with a Morse key inserted in series with the positive battery terminal. The arrangement in Fig. 14.6 with a switch SW1 across the Morse key and a single-pole two-way switch SW2, selects four modes of modulation, viz.: (i) (i) (ii) (iv) unmodulated continuous wave transmission, keyed unmodulated carrier transmission, modulated carrier transmission, and keyed modulated carrier transmission,

14.3.4 The 20/10-meter Novice Transmitter II The circuit is shown in Fig. 14.7. It is similar to the Novice Transmitter I (Fig. 14.6) but the secondary of the tank circuit of TR1 is centre-tapped and TR2 and TR3 act as a Darlington pair. The diodes D1 and D2 provide a full-wave rectified signal at the base of TR2 to double the output frequency. Thus with a crystal of fs = 15 MHz giving a signal at the input, the output frequency will be 30 MHz. Higher (even) harmonics can be obtained by tuning the output to 4fs and 6fs. 14.4 AUDIO AMPLIFIER AND AMPLITUDE MODULATOR Amplitude modulation is usually achieved in the final or power-amplifier stage of a transmitter (Fig. 14.7). Fig 14.8 shows the circuit of a microphone preamplifier and amplitude modulator. The preamplifier, biased by adjusting R2, has been described (Fig. 4.8). The output consists of a common-emitter, transformer-coupled, driver stage of transistor TR3.
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9V C2 10 F D1 C6

R5

330 2N3705 TR2

C7

C8 100 F Aerial 75

T1 R1 12 V TR1 BC109 D2 C1 47 pF 4.5 V 3.3 k Co X R2 R3 470 100 pF C3 22 pF T2

37.5

TR3 D 2N3705 OA91 Audio 0.05F + 100 k C4 R4 C5 Meter 0V Morse key SW2 Audio Modulation SW1 Carrier +12 V

Fig. 14.7 20/10-meter 2 W Novice transmitter II with amplitude modulation.

The transistor TR3 (Fig. 14.8) provides considerable power gain feeding a push-pull power amplifier of two transistors TR4 and TR5. It is biased in class A with considerable current. The output is a transformer-coupled class AB push-pull amplifier of transistors TR4 and TR5 with a little forward bias (and quiescent collector current of 20 mA) provided by means of biasing resistors R5, R6 and R7. R5 is adjusted to give minimum cross-over distortion. The negative feedback provided also through R6 and R7 helps to minimize cross-over distortion. Some patience and re-adjustments may be required for this circuit to work properly, but it will be well worth the effort and the student is encouraged to construct it. The output is through a transformer with multi-tapped secondary to provide for connection of a 4/8- speaker and the modulation input at 2 k . Thus the circuit can be used as an audio amplifier as well as a modulator. This is another circuit worthy of construction by the student.
330 129

+9 V 1000 F C3

1.8 mA 2.7 k R3 R2

8.3 mA 3.3 k R7 T1 BFY 51 2N3053 TR4 BC109 TR3

R8

+12 V 20 mA AUDIO to R.F. mod. 2k T2

C2 BC109 TR1

5.1 V

INPUT C1 10 F R1 Logarithmic Volume Control C4 R4 100 F 470 TR2 BC109 4.5 V

2N3053 BFY51 TR5 SP R6 3.3 k 100 F R5 C5 4.7 R9

8 4

0V Fig. 14.8 2-W Audio amplifier and amplitude modulator.

14.5 TUNED RADIO FREQUENCY RECEIVERS 14.5.1 Block diagram of tuned radio frequency (TRF) receiver The various elements of tuned radio frequency (TRF) or straight receiver are shown in the block diagram of Fig. 14.9. It is called straight receiver because only the frequency of the received signal is involved. The r.f. signal is selected and amplified by the r.f. amplifier. The a.f. is separated from the r.f. carrier by the detector or demodulator. The a.f. signal is amplified by the a.f. amplifier and then by the a.f. power amplifier which drives the loudspeaker. See Figs. 14.9 & 14.10.
Antenna R.f. carrier Loudspeaker R.f. amplifier Detector or Demodulator A.f. Amplifier A.f. power amplifier

Fig. 14.9 Block diagram of tuned radio (straight) receiver

14.5.2 Single-tuned radio frequency receiver

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In Fig. 14.10 the input r.f. signal is selected by a ferrite rod aerial tuned with 500 pF variable capacitor C1. The r.f. amplifier is a Darlington pair made of transistors TR1 and TR2 with a resistor as the collector load. Resistors R1 and R4 are chosen to properly bias the transistor amplifiers for class A operation.
Antenna C2 22 pF R1 4.5 V C3 0.1 F L 500 pF C1 Ferrite rod aerial R3 BC109 TR2 C5 0.1 F 10 k 0V Fig. 14.10 Single-tuned radio frequency receiver employing a diode detector 2 k R6 BC109 TR1 0.1 F D OA91 C6 10 F R4 BC109 TR3 4.5 V AUDIO OUTPUT C7 10 F R5 3.9 k R2 C4 5.1 V 3.9 k TR4 BC109 +9 V

The coil L is 12 to 20 turns of 28 s.w.g. enameled copper wire on a 15-cm ferrite rod. The strength of the input signal can be improved by connecting a long vertical antenna/aerial, through a small capacitor, to the coil. The audio detector or demodulator is a germanium point-contact diode D. Capacitor C5 ensures that only the audio frequency signal appears across R3. Transistor TR3, biased for class A operation, amplifies the audio signal and passes it to TR4. The audio output is taken from the emitter of TR4 a common-collector amplifier for feeding into the input of an audio power amplifier or high impedance headphone (500 2 k). 14.5.3 Double-tuned radio frequency receiver I In Fig. 14.11 the input signal is selected by a tuned ferrite rod aerial. The r.f. amplifier is a Darlington pair of transistors TR1 and TR2, with input and output tuned to the same frequency by a twin-ganged variable capacitor. Small trimmer capacitors in parallel with each of the variable (tuning) capacitors may be necessary for final adjustments.

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Antenna +9 V C3 22 pF R1 C2 500 pF C4 0.1 BC109 TR1 T 4.5 V OA90 D 10 F 4.5 V C7 TR3 BC109 2 k R6 C1 L 500 pF TR2 BC109 R3 10 k Ferrite Rod aerial 0.1 F C6 C8 10 F OUTPUT 0V C5 R2 0.1 F 4.5 V 3.9 k R4 5.1 V R5 3.9 k BC109 TR4

Fig. 14.11 Double-tuned radio frequency receiver I employing a diode detector

The detector or demodulator is a germanium point-contact diode D. The audio output of the detector is fed into a class A, RC coupled, common-emitter amplifier of transistor TR3. The audio output is taken from the emitter of TR4 a common-collector amplifier, which provides a low impedance output. 14.5.4 Double-tuned radio frequency receiver II Fig. 14.12 is the circuit diagram of a double tuned RF receiver in the medium wave band (500 KHz 1.5 MHz). It consists of a tuned ferrite rod aerial directly feeding a Darlington pair (DP) amplifier of TR1 and TR2. Direct coupling of the aerial is acceptable because of the high input impedance of the amplifier. The r.f. output is tuned to the same frequency as the aerial by means a twin-ganged (500 pF) variable capacitor. The radio frequency output is taken from the tuned common collector of the Darlington pair and fed into a common-emitter transistor amplifier/detector TR3, operating in Class AB, and thence into a common-emitter amplifier TR4. Transistor TR3 is given a small forward bias by the voltage across R3 of value about 270 . The large capacitor C9 ensures that no a.f. signal is passed back to C9. The audio output is taken from the collector of TR4 into a high impedance crystal earphone or the pre-amplifier of an audio power amplifier. The 2 k collector resistor of TR4 may be replaced by a high-impedance headphone.
+9 V 132

Aerial C3 22 pF R1

C5 R2 0.1 F 4.5 V C2 500 pF BC 109 TR1 T

0.1 F R4 C6 3.9 k 10 k R5 9V BC 109 C7 BC109 TR3 TR4 10 F R5 2 k 5V

10 F C8

C1 L 500 pF C4 0.1

BC 109 TR2 0.6 V OUTPUT

C9 100 F

R3 270

Fig. 14.12 Double-tuned radio frequency receiver II employing a transistor amplifier/detector

14.5.5 Radio frequency signal detector for remote control In this circuit (Fig.14.13) the r.f. signal is selected and amplified by transistors TR1 and TR2 as a Darlington pair. TR3 is a detector/amplifier, operating in class AB, which provides a d.c. output. With no r.f. signal, TR3 is just cut off and so also is TR4. A rectified r.f. signal produces a positive d.c. voltage at the collector of TR3, which is used to switch on TR4. With TR4 switched on, or at saturation, the voltage across capacitor C6 is maintained at 10 V by Zener diode Z. The output voltage is about 9.4 V at a maximum of 300 mA, sufficient to drive devices like lamp, relay, radio, etc. An r.f. signal arriving from a remote station can be used to switch on a current of up to 300 mA at 9.4 V to operate a lamp, oscillator, relay etc. The radio frequency signal detector may be powered from a 12 V car battery or a d.c. mains power supply. This versatile circuit can be modified as a switch responding to output from a microphone (sound), from a thermistor (heat) or from an LDR or phototransistor (light). Note the use of a fast action fuse to protect the power transistor, which needs to be mounted on a heat sink. The circuit can operate with a thyristor, instead of TR4, to give a higher current.

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C3 R1

0.1 F 6V

C1 4.7 k R2

C1 10 F R3 390 0/9.4 V BC479 TR3 T

+12 V Fuse 300 mA TR4 BFY51 Lamp Bell Buzzer Horn Oscillator Relay Motor Siren Alarm Door lock Radio

11.4 V C2 500 pF

Tuned coil C1 L 500 pF

BC 109 TR1

11.4 V 0V 100 R5

1k R6

BC109 TR2 1 F C5 0.1 F C4

0V R4 4.7 k Z 10 V C6 100 F 0V

Fig. 14.13 Radio frequency signal detector

14.6 SUPERHETRODYNE RADIO FREQUENCY RECEIVERS 14.6.1 Block diagram of superhetrodyne (superhet) radio receiver A block diagram of a superhetrodyne amplitude modulated (AM) radio receiver is given in Fig. 14.14. This type of receiver is superior to the tuned radio frequency (TRF) receiver and is the one commonly used in commercial AM radio. The modulated r.f. carrier is received by the antenna and passed to the r.f. tuner, which may not be an active circuit but simply an LC circuit that selects the required frequency. The in-coming signal of frequency fc (which may be amplified by an r.f. amplifier) is mixed with a signal, of frequency fo, from the local oscillator (LO). In some radio sets the LO may be missing and there is a self-oscillating mixer. The output of the mixer contains a signal of frequency (fo fc), called the intermediate frequency (IF), which carries the original modulation. The tuning of both the r.f. tuner and LO is done by two ganged variable capacitors such that their resonant
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Antenna Modulated r.f. carrier R.f. tuner Mixer fc fo Frequency tracking Local Oscillator 1st & 2nd I.f. fo- fc amplifiers a.g.c Detector A.f. pre- & power . amplifiers Loudspeaker

Fig. 14.14 Block diagram of superhtrodyne AM radio (superhet) receiver

frequencies track so that the IF is fixed at about 470 kHz for all values of f o and fc within the frequency bands. The frequency changing to (fo fc) or (fo + fc) is called heterodyning. The IF is supersonic (hence the name superhetrodyne) so as not to interfere with the (sonic) sound on the a.f. modulation. The IF is low enough for appreciable amplification to be gained without the problem of oscillation. Amplification by the IF amplifiers is followed by detection or demodulation. The detector separates the audio signal and feeds into the audio pre-amplifier. Further amplification of the audio signal is achieved in the power amplifier before feeding in the 16-, 8- or 4- loudspeaker. Automatic gain control (AGC) is provided to avoid a situation whereby signal from a powerful nearby transmitter may be so strong as to overload the 2nd IF amplifier and cause severe distortion. For low signal levels the AGC is not activated. In AGC a portion of the d.c. voltage from the detector is used to control the biasing of the 1st IF amplifier. If the signal is strong the emitter current of 1st stage is reduced, through a negative d.c. feedback, and thereby reducing the gain to maintain a balance of biasing and output voltage. 14.7 CRYSTAL-CONROLLED TUNNEL DIODE TRANSMITTER In Fig. 14.15 resistor R (about 500 ) and 1.5-V battery (UM3) bias the tunnel diode D into its negative resistance region of its characteristic and feedback is supplied through the crystal X for oscillation to take place. If the resonant frequency of the crystal (7.5 MHz) is the same as the resonant frequency of the tank circuit, provided by inductor L1 tuned by capacitor C2 and trimmer C3, sinusoidal oscillation will be sustained. The crystal operates at the series resonant mode and it can be made to oscillate at the third harmonic (22.5 MHz) of the fundamental frequency.

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Although the power output of this transmitter is in microwatts, rather than milliwatts, with a suitable antenna, it is capable of communication by Morse code, through a few kilometers.
Aerial MORSE KEY D R ~ 500 X C2 L1 L2 1.5 V C3 100 pF Fig. 14.15 7.5 MHz (40 m) Crystal-controlled tunnel diode oscillator and transmitter 150 pF C1 100 Pf

14.8 FUNCTION GENERATOR The function generator in Fig. 14.16 produces a sinusoidal wave, a square wave and a sawtooth (triangular) wave. The heart of the generator is a variable frequency sinusoidal wave oscillator using a non-inverting operational amplifier and a Wien bridge network. It is possible to build this oscillator with variable frequency from 15 Hz to 150 kHz. Part of the sinusoidal output is fed into the input of a Schmitt trigger to produce a square wave. Part of the square wave output is fed into an integrating (inverting) operational amplifier to produce a triangular wave or sawtooth. The final output (sine wave, square wave or triangular wave) is selected by a 1-pole 3-way switch and fed into a potentiometer volume control. Higher frequencies may be obtained as harmonics of the 150 kHz square wave or triangular wave. This is a very interesting circuit recommended for construction as a project. It will provide useful equipment for laboratory experiments in electronics and telecommunications. 14.9 DIRECT CURRENT (D.C.) POWER SUPPLIES Students should endeavour to construct their own direct current (d.c.) supply units. The circuits described here are for low-voltage units which may be used to
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power transistorized equipment in the home, laboratory or workshop. Note the connection of the transformer primary to the mains supply, with Live L, Neutral N and proper earthing E.
+6 V 4.7 k R1 R2 4.7 k R4 R5 4.7 k Rf 4.7 k +6 V BC109 R6 R7 1 k BC 109 R8 4.7 k Ri 2.2 k R C R3 4.7 k 10 F 2N72741 + -6 V 150 nF C R 10 k

47 k -6 V SCHMITT TRIGGER SNAP-ACTION SWITCH SQUARE WAVE GENERATOR SAME FREQUENCY AS INPUT R 10 nF 4.7 k C -6 V 2N72741 + +6 V 3 Sawtooth Square 2 wave 10 F

150 nF 10 k 0V NON-INVERTING OP. AMP. GAIN: A = 1 + Rf/Ri > 3 SINE WAVE GENERATOR FREQUENCY: f = 1/2RC

Sine wave 1 SW 270 OUTPUT 1 k pot. (linear) 10 F

2.2 k INVERTING OP. AMP. OUTPUT = AVin = -Vi n 1/jCR = -1/CRVi n INTEGRATING CIRRCUIT

0V OUTPUT: 1 - SINE WAVE 2 - SQUARE WAVE 3 TRIANGULAR WAVE

Fig. 14.16 Circuit diagram of function generator

14.9.1 6/9 V power supply unit

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Currents up to 2 A at 6 V or 9 V can be drawn from this unit (Fig. 14.17). It has good regulation (about 5%) and is therefore suitable for class B amplifiers.
L 240 V 50 Hz a.c. PL N 1,000 25 V E 12 V transformer PL Pilot lamp Bridge rectifier 2 A maximum Fig. 14.17 100 Z1 Z1 470 Z1 - 6.2/6.8 V, 1 W, 5% Zener diode Z2 - 9.1/10 V, 1 W, 5% Zener diode P U T0V SW 12 V, 2 A B. RECT + 2 A fuse + d.c + O U T 100 , 1 W Power transitor 2N3055

Circuit of 6/9 V d.c. power supply

Stabilization is by a series regulator containing a power transistor (2N3055). The current from a bridge rectifier is fed, across a smoothing capacitor, into the collector of a silicon transistor that functions in the emitter-follower (commoncollector mode) mode providing low output resistance. The base voltage is held at a fixed value by a Zener diode, Z1 : 6.2/6.8 V or Z2 : 9.1/10 V. The required voltage, 5.6/6.2 V or 8.5/9.4 V is selected by a 2-pole 2-way switch which connects the base of the transistor to Z1 or Z2. Note that the output voltage VO is equal to the Zener voltage VZ minus the base-emitter voltage VBE of the transistor. As long as there is current flowing in the Zener diode the output voltage remains very close to VO = VZ VBE, where VBE is about 0.6 V for a silicon transistor. For good regulation, the base resistor should be chosen such that the Zener diode is far from cut-off at full load. The power transistor needs to be mounted on a heat sink. The Zener diode may also need some cooling. A 2 A quick-action fuse is inserted to protect the transistor and the diodes of the bridge rectifier and the transformer, in the event of an accidental short-circuit. 14.9.2 Variable voltage power supply unit This unit shown in Fig. 14.18, gives a supply variable from 0 15 V, off load, for experiments and projects on transistor circuits. A useful addition to this circuit would a voltmeter to monitor the output.
L SW

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12 V, 2 A 240 V 50 Hz a.c. PL N 2,000 25 V E 12 V transformer PL Pilot lamp Bridge rectifier 2 A maximum BRIDGE REC. +

100

BC109 TR1

TR2 Power transitor 2N3055

d.c. + RV 2 A fuse O U 100 10 T P U 470 T 470 0V Potentiometer Darlington pair with RV = 2 k, W high current gain R 1k

VB

Fig. 14.18 Circuit of variable voltage power supply

The circuit contains two transistors TR1 and TR2 directly coupled as a Darlington pair which gives a high d.c. gain. The output is taken from the emitter of power transistor TR2 to give low output resistance. A source of low output resistance will provide increase in output current with little drop in output voltage. The output voltage is equal to the base voltage VB of TR1 minus the sum of the base-emitter voltages of TR1 and TR2. The base voltage of TR2, and thence the output voltage, is continuously variable by a potentiometer in the base circuit of TR2. The base voltages are decoupled by electrolytic capacitors to reduce the ripple voltage. D.c. positive feedback is provided through R, a 1 k bootstrapped resistor. A drop in the output voltage due to loading, will cause more current to flow out of the emitters of TR1 and TR2 thereby restoring the output. The power transistor needs to be mounted on a heat sink. A 2-A fuse provides protection against accidental short circuit. 14.9.3 Circuit of +12 V and -12 V power supply unit The circuit is shown in Fig. 14.19. It can deliver up to 1 A and be used to power a circuit which needs a double supply, +12 V and -12 V or single supply of 12 V or 24 V. It can also serve as a battery charger (of one 12 V battery or two batteries in series). The bridge rectifier needs to be cooled by mounting on a heat sink. If the circuit is to be used solely as battery charger, the reservoir capacitors are not required. However, the fuses are advisable.

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SW 12 V 1A 12 V 1A 5W 3.3 5W

+12 V 1 A fuse

240 V 50 Hz a.c. PL N

BRIDGE RECT. 1A

1,000 50 V -12 V 1 A fuse 2,000 35 V Fused output 0V

3.3 E 12 V transformer PL Pilot lamp 2,000 35 V 2,000 35 V 2,000 35 V Reservoir capacitors

Bridge rectifier 1 A maximum

Smoothing circuit

Fig. 14.19 Circuit of 12-V dual-voltage power supply

14.10 IC VOLTAGE REGULATORS Nowadays circuit designers use integrated circuits (ICs) that contain in a single package the Zener diode, associated resistors and current amplifying transistors. A range of IC stabilizers, known as voltage regulators, capable of handling currents up to 1 A, are available. They are capable of providing constant output voltages with regulation of less than 1% and affording internal overheating and external overload (short circuit) protections. However, an IC may need to be provided with cooling fins or mounted on a heat sink. The regulator is inserted after rectification and smoothing of the supply voltage. The 78 series provide fixed positive voltages of +5 V, +6 V, +12 V, +15 V and +24 V and 79 series provide corresponding fixed negative voltages. Many are built for one voltage, 5 V for TTL circuits and 15 V for operational amplifiers. Figs. 14.20 and 14.21 give the circuits of voltage regulator using ICs.
Unregulated d.c input +7 V to +25 V 7805 IN OUT COMMON 470 n 470 n +5 V Regulated d.c. otput 4.7 k

0V Fig. 14.20 Voltage regulator using 7805 IC and giving 5 V at currents up to 1 A. SW 140

L +12 V 12 V A.C. 240 V A.C. N 7912 E TRANSFORMER 12-V, 1-A SECONDARY 2,000 F 35 V 1-A BRIDGE RECTIFIER 2,000 F 35 V 10 F 0V IC VOLTAGE REGULATOR 10 F 12 V A.C. 7812 BRIDGE RECT. 1A -12 V

Fig. 14.21 12-volt, 1-amp. dual voltage regulator power supply

14.11.

LM386 IC (LOW VOLTAGE) AUDIO AMPLIFIER

The LM386 is an 8-pin DIL IC, similar to an op. amp., but the pin connections (1, 4, 5, 6, 7 and 8) are different. It is a low voltage (5 12 V) audio power amplifier with low quiescent current (4 mA), suitable for battery operation and capable of delivering up to 500 mW into an 8- speaker. Fig. 14.22 shows the equivalent schematic and connection diagrams of LM386. It has applications as audio amplifier in intercoms, radio receivers or signal tracer.

FIG. 14.22 EQUIVALENT SCHEMATIC AND CONNECTION DIAGRAMS OF LM386 Source:-

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Fig. 14.23 gives a practical circuit of audio amplifier using LM386 with input resistance of 50 k and voltage gain of 200. The voltage can be set at any value from 20 to 200 with a series RC combination between pins 1 and 8. Note the bypass capacitors between pins 1 and 8 and pins 7 and 4 (ground). The 10- and 0.05-F combination at the output is Zobel network put to neutralize the reactive effect of inductance of the loudspeaker and thereby improve its bass response.
+6 to +12 V 10 INPUT SIGNAL 10 k 6 2 LM386 + 3 4 0.1 10 0.05 8- SPK 7 1 8 5 470 10

Fig. 14.23 500 mW amplifier using LM386 IC

14.12 THE 555 TIMER AS TONE GENERATOR

The circuit in Fig. 14.24, like Fig. 14.2, can be used to practice the Morse Code at a fixed pitch as heard at frequency f given by: f = 1.44/C1(R1 + 2R2) = 480 Hz. 14.13 10-MINUTE TIMER USING A 555 TIMER The circuit is shown in Fig. 14.25. This 555 timer circuit is a monostable which generates a single pulse of a fixed duration each time it receives an input trigger pulse. The 555 timer circuit gives a time-out warning at a cycle of time (5 minutes to 25 minutes) set by the 1 M potentiometer. T = 1.1C1(R1 + RV) To begin the cycle, the reset switch is pressed, which causes the GREEN LED to light up. After the set time, the BUZZER will sound to give a time-out alarm.
SW 142 +6V

10 k R1 8 7 R2 10 k 6 2 0.1 C1 5 555 4

DECOUPLING C3 100 3 C2 100 n 1 MORSE KEY 100 64- LOUDSPEAKER

0
Fig. 14.24 Morse code practice generator operating at about 480 Hz

+6 V 1M RV DECOUPLING 8 R1 270 k 7 6 2 1000 C1 4 3 555 5 1 GREEN 0 Fig. 14.25 5- to 25-minute timer with buzzer alarm C3 C2 10 n R3 RESET SWITCH 100 470 10 k R2 BUZZER 300

15.

RESOURCES FOR ELECTRONIC CIRCUIT CONSTRUCTION

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Practical electronics can be carried out with very few tools and limited resources. An ordinary table suitably placed with a.c. (240 V) mains connecting sockets and a low voltage d.c. (6 and 12 V) power supply unit is all that is required to start construction. It is expected that the student is familiar with electrical installations and the safety precautions thereon. 15.1 Electronic test equipment The following equipment are needed for the electronic circuit constructions described in these lectures and packaging of the finished product: (i) (ii) (iii) (iv)
(v) (vi) (vii)

multimeter (analogue or digital) cathode ray oscilloscope (0 to 3 MHz or better) a.f. signal generator (1 Hz to 100 kHz, sine, square and triangular wave outputs) r.f. signal generator (100 kHz to 30 MHz, or higher, with amplitude and frequency modulations) frequency counter (50 Hz to 30 MHz) bench d.c. power supply unit (variable from 3 V to 30 V) pentium IV PC (40 GB HD) with appropriate electronic simulation software (Electronic Workbench, GESECA for Windows, MicroSim Design Centre Evaluation, etc.)

15.2 Components, materials and tools for electronic construction An electronic assembly is as good as the components, materials and tools used to construct it. The constructor must be familiar with the components used: (a) Resistors (i) carbon resistors, assorted, W, 10%, unless otherwise stated (ii) potentiometers, 2 k, 5 k, 10 k, 50 k, 100 k, 1 M (iii) preset resistors, 1 100 , 100 - 10 k, 10 k -1 M Special Resistors (i) light dependent resistor Capacitors (i) capacitors, assorted (mica, ceramic and polyester), 500 V, 5% (ii) capacitors, assorted (tantalum and aluminium electrolytic), 50 V, 25% (iii) variable capacitor, 5 pF to 500 pF (iv) ganged variable capacitor, 5/5 pF - 500/500 pF
144

(b) (c)

(v) (d)

trimmers, 2 pF to 50 pF

Inductors and transformers (i) audio transistor driver transformer with centre-tapped secondary (ii) audio class B transformer with centre-tapped primary and multi-tapped secondary for low impedance and high impedance connections (iii) mains step-down transformers with centre-tapped secondary (12 V, 1 A) (iv) mains step-down transformers with 12-V, 2-A secondary Diodes (i) germanium point-contact diodes, OA91 (ii) general purpose silicon diodes, 1N4001 (iii) bridge rectifiers, 1-A and 2-A (iv) zener diodes (6.2/6.8 V, 9.1/10V, 1 W, 5%) (v) tunnel diode JBT Transistors (i) n-p-n transistors, low power (BC107/108/109) (ii) p-n-p transistor, low power (2N3702, BC479 - complement of BC109) (iii) n-p-n transistors, medium power (BC142, BFY51, 2N3053, 2N3705) (iv) p-n-p transistor, medium power (BC143 - complement of BC142) (v) n-p-n transistors, high power (2N3055) Other transistors (i) Thyristor, 1A Integrated circuits (i) audio amplifier (LM380, LM 381, LM384) (ii) 555 timer (iii) operational amplifier (2N72741) Microphones and loudspeakers (i) moving-coil (dynamic) microphone, 600- (ii) condenser (electret) microphone, 1 2 k (iii) crystal microphone (very high impedance) (iv) loudspeakers (4-, 8-, 16-, 80-)
145

(e)

(f)

(g)

(h)

(i)

(v) (j)

headphones (high impedance and low impedance)

Materials (i) connecting wires (ii) 28 gauge enameled-insulated wire (iii) veroboard (stripboard). matrix board (pegboard) with pins and pegs, breadboard (iv) microphone jacks (2.5/3.5 mm.) (v) batteries (1.5 V, 6 V, 9 V and 12 V) with connecters (vi) switches (SPST, SPDT, DPDT) (vii) fuses (300 mA, 1 A, 2 A) (viii) crystals (7.5 MHz, 15 MHz) (ix) coaxial sockets (x) ferrite rods (15 cm) (xi) ferrite rings (3 cm diam.) Tools (i) long-nosed plier (ii) combination plier (iii) side cutter (snip) (iv) neon tester (v) screw drivers, various sizes (flat and star) (vi) wire stripper (vii) strip cutter or small drill (for veroboard) (viii) soldering iron (15 W) with bits and stand Miscellaneous items (i) 300- television line (ii) 75- coaxial cable (iii) buzzer (iv) light bulbs (6 V, 12 V) (v) relays (6 V, 12 V)

(k)

(m)

15.3 Packaging An electronic construction must be assembled in a presentable package, with all the control switches and knobs firmly fixed and labeled, as far as possible, at the front panel. Packaging enhances the workability, maintainability, beauty and commercial value of a product. Bad packaging or lack of it may spoil the functionality and aesthetics of an otherwise useful construction.

146

+Vcc 100 k R1 8 7 R2 100 k 6 2 10 C1 5 1 LED SW D 10 C1 2 555 4 3 C2 100 n O/P 470 R3 6 DECOUPLING C3 100 100 k R2 15 k 7 555 5 1 R1 8

+Vcc DECOUPLING 100 4 C3 O/P 3 470 C2 100 n R3 LED D

0
A B FIG. 14.2 THE 555 TIMER AS A. AN ASTABLE AND B. A MONOSTABLE

147