Ambiente Fisico Entrevista

The Physical Environment and Counseling: A Review of Theory and Research
Page K. Pressly and Martin Heesacker

This article provides a review of published, counseling-relevant literature on the physical environment, with a focus on physical elements that may enhance or detract from the counseling process. Specifically, it describes environmental variables that are relevant to counseling, providing examples of their practical importance, and in several cases describes possible application to counseling settings. Finally, this article identifies research implications and proposes a 3-part future research agenda.
lthough the counseling relationship, counselors theoretical orientation, and coun-seling process are important variables in counseling and the subject of many research studies, the environment of counseling is an aspect worthy of consideration because of its potential healing effects. Counselors concerned about the environments in which counseling is conducted may struggle to find answers to such basic environment-related questions as (a) Does the clients mental health improve based on the quality of this environment? (b) What is the diagnostic value of this environment? For example, does the client physically change aspects of the environment (e.g., moving furniture) and, if so, what does this mean and does this occur more or less at different stages of counseling? (c) Is the environment facilitative of counseling-relevant processes, such as self-disclosure, relationship development, self-exploration, and rapport? (d) Are some physical elements more therapeutically relevant than others? (e) What is the message that counselors are sending to clients through the environment? and (f) How can counselings facilitative messages best be communicated through the environment? As architect and psychologist Roberta Feldman has suggested, The creation of the built environment isnt just about form. Its not just there for our visual pleasure, but has an enormous influence on the occupants (Murray, 1999, p. 13). The purpose of this article is to review the literature regarding the counseling environment and ascertain implications for counseling. Our specific focus is on physical elements that may enhance or detract from the counseling process. By physical environment, we refer to several related dimensions identified by Venolia (1988), including the actual physical dimension (such as relative humidity and light characteristics), the mental dimension (such as messages imparted to clients by a physical environment), and the
emotional dimension (such as the way an environment feels to clients and what emotions may be evoked by certain environments). These dimensions reflect the fact that environments affect individuals physically, psychologically, emotionally, and spiritually (Venolia, 1988). Our literature search used the terms artwork, color, furniture, interaction distance, interior design, lighting, smell, sound, temperature, and texture in the PsycINFO database (1887present). The search returned citations that related to both counseling and noncounseling office settings, childrens environments, classroom environments, faculty offices, and hospitals. Research related directly to counseling and counseling offices was limited and tended to focus on specific variables such as interaction distance, rather than on the effects of other interior elements (e.g., artwork, color, lighting, smell, sound, temperature, and texture) on counselors, clients, and counseling. In addition to searching the PsycINFO database, we searched the Journal of Counseling & Development from 1967 to the present for relevant articles but found no reviews of this literature. For articles on the effect of office furnishings on perceptions of counselor status and credibility, we relied on the most recent review of the social influence literature in counseling (Hoyt, 1996). In addition, we conducted a cited reference search from the Social Sciences Citation Index database (1977present). A cited reference search identifies the published research that has cited a particular reference. In this case, the search term that was used was a seminal research article in this area (i.e., Heppner & Pew, 1977). Although mental health professionals have believed for some time that the environment in which healing occurs influences treatment and outcome (Gross, Sasson, Zarhy, & Zohar, 1998), only limited research has been conducted to investigate the healing potential of counseling environmen-
Page K. Pressly is a licensed interior designer and an EdS graduate in the Department of Counselor Education, and Martin Heesacker is a professor in and chair of the Department of Psychology, both at the University of Florida, Gainesville. Correspondence regarding this article should be sent to Martin Heesacker, Department of Psychology, PO Box 112250, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611-2250 (e-mail: heesack@psych.ufl.edu). 2001 by the American Counseling Association. All rights reserved. pp. 148160
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JOURNAL OF COUNSELING & DEVELOPMENT SPRING 2001 VOLUME 79
The Physical Environment and Counseling
tal design. This lack of research on the environment in which counseling is conducted may be due in part to the scientist practitioner model, which counselors use to assess counseling relationships and outcomes. The scientistpractitioner model assumes that counselors observe clients, gather information, construct hypotheses about clients problems, and test hypotheses through the scientific method (Pepinsky & Pepinsky, 1954). During this process, however, counselors may fail to recognize elements of the environment that may affect counseling and thus be vulnerable to committing the fundamental attribution error and availability heuristic (K. A. Morrow & Deidan, 1992). The fundamental attribution error occurs when people focus on person factors to the exclusion of situational and environmental factors in understanding behavior (Batson, OQuin, & Pych, 1982). This error may occur in research that focuses exclusively on client and counselor variables and ignores the influence of the environment on counseling process and outcome. Similarly, the availability heuristic refers to people overrelying on salient information in making causal judgments. This, too, may lead counseling researchers to ignore the environment because client and counselor relationship issues are more salient than features of the surrounding environment (Kahneman & Tversky, 1973). Thus, counselors and counseling researchers may focus on client and counselor variables and fail to consider less obvious, but perhaps important, factors such as the influence of elements of the environment in which counseling occurs. Many of the studies that have examined the impact of the environment on counseling clients have focused on public areas, for example common rooms in psychiatric facilities, rather than private counseling rooms (Corey, Wallace, Harris, & Casey, 1984; Gabb, Speicher, & Lodl, 1992; Higgs, 1970; Iwai, Churchill, & Cummings, 1983; Whitehead, Polsky, Crookshank, & Fik, 1984; see review by Gross et al., 1998). Researchers at the Center for Health Design in Martinez, California, conducted an exhaustive literature review and, out of 38,000 references focusing on the connection between the environment and outcome, found only 48 reasonably valid studies, all of which had at least one research design flaw (Schwartz, 1996). Some of these studies did, however, provide promising results. For example, some psychoenvironmental designs were associated with decreases in pathological behavior as well as increases in positive behavior and attitude changes in the staff and patients. Thus, the environment has the potential to enhance the clients physiological and psychological health (Gross et al., 1998). Despite the focus on public areas, a careful review of the literature allows one to abstract much that is of value to counseling. Not only does the present article provide a review of research pertaining to counseling-relevant aspects of the surrounding environment, but it also offers implications for counseling practice and a research agenda to guide future investigation on the environment in which counseling is conducted. First, the description of each element provides general information, as well as references for counselors who wish in-depth information. After a description of the element, counseling-relevant examples are provided to facili-
tate readers consideration of how elements of the environment may affect the counseling process. Next, the article reviews research related to the environment. In addition, this article discusses implications of the research related to the counseling environment for counseling practice. Although the list of counseling implications will have to be tentative, given the nature of the existing research, we can make several practical recommendations for enhancing counseling through changes in the environment in which counseling is conducted. These recommendations are based on both the research and the theory in this area. (Many of the accepted architectural design principles considered in this article tend to be theoretically, rather than empirically, based.) Finally, we propose a three-part research agenda that would further clarify and expand the implications of features of the counseling environment for counseling practice. Because both counselors and clients are present in the environment in which counseling is conducted, this article discusses the effects of the environment on both counselors and clients. It is possible that the counseling environment has a stronger effect on counselors because they are present in the space more than clients. Furthermore, it is possible that the greatest environmental effect on clients is an indirect one, through counselors.
ELEMENTS OF THE COUNSELING ENVIRONMENT

This section is organized according to eight elements that constitute the environment in which counseling is conducted. These elements are common architectural characteristics of space and include (a) accessories, (b) color, (c) furniture and room design, (d) lighting, (e) smell, (f) sound, (g) texture, and (h) thermal conditions (Ching, 1996; Venolia, 1988). Each element is discussed separately, with a description of the element, a review of related research, and counseling implications. Accessories: Artwork, Objects, and Plants Description. Accessories, such as artwork, personally meaningful objects, and plants, may provide items of visual interest, tactile opportunities for the hands, or mental stimulation. Typically, accessories symbolize a person having ownership of or control over a space. Personally meaningful objects may be incorporated into the environment and allude to the occupants personality (Ching, 1987). The integration of the outdoor and indoor environments may be achieved through indoor plants, which symbolize growth, renewal, and life and may be soothing or visually stimulating (Carpman & Grant, 1993). Plants may also influence indoor ambience, temperature, humidity, and air quality (Venolia, 1988). However, plants may not always be suitable because of maintenance concerns; they can collect dust and provide moist growing environments for other organisms (Carpman & Grant, 1993). Artwork preferences. Artwork reinforces the design aesthetic of the environment and may be interpreted differently by various individuals. Several studies (J. H. Baron &
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Greene, 1984; Carpman & Grant, 1984) have examined inpatient preferences for hospital room artwork. These studies found that, despite the range of images (subjects, settings, and artistic styles) and inpatient variables (illnesses, lengths of stay, and ages), patients consistently preferred texturally complex pictures of natural settings (animals, water, valleys, mountains, farmland) over poster images. They viewed pictures of people, urban scenes, and especially abstract compositions less favorably. Many patients stated that they did not want to look at art that they had difficulty understanding. Researchers concluded that hospital inpatients prefer to look at images that are removed from their current environment and that allow them to escape to a more natural, soothing environment. Psychological responses to artwork. J. H. Baron and Greene (1984) researched the psychological effects of hospital room artwork on hospital inpatients. They reported that, although patients typically have control over most views (e.g., close the shades or turn off the television) and experience variety in their views (e.g., weather changes, time changes, television channels can be changed), they are unable to choose or remove fixed artwork and may thus experience additional stress. In addition, research on adolescents satisfaction with drug/alcohol treatment facilities has indicated that patients prefer rooms with familiar posters or artwork, plants, photographs, and other personally meaningful objects (Potthoff, 1991, 1995). Counseling implications. Theory suggests that accessories, such as artwork and other objects, can make the counseling environment more appealing to counselors, can allude to counselors personality and character, and can increase feelings of ownership. Making an environment appealing to and comfortable for counselors is important because counselors who are unhappy in their environments may inadvertently exhibit less positive attitudes and behaviors toward clients, and their judgments may be tainted by their dissatisfaction. Therefore, counselors should consider surrounding themselves with accessories that are visually pleasing to them (e.g., family pictures, artwork and objects that are meaningful and attractive to them), while also being sensitive to counselors who share their office space. Accessories imply or suggest ownership of the space and higher status of the counselor whose accessories decorate that space. In addition, counselors should consider the potential effects of particular artwork on clients because research indicates that clients may differ in their interpretations of artwork. For example, some paintings or sculptures that may be perceived as sexually suggestive by some clients, though appealing to their owners, might offend the sensibilities of some clients and may undermine the professional nature of the counselorclient relationship. Research supports the use of texturally complex pictures of natural, soothing environments rather than poster images. Research also suggests that plants may be particularly beneficial when working with certain client populations, such as terminally ill clients and aging clients, because they represent life, growth, and renewal.
Color Description. Color, one of the most powerful aspects of the environment, has been reported to promote human adaptation to the environment and enhance spatial form (Ching, 1996). Color consists of three interrelated dimensions: hue, value, and intensity. Hue is the variable by which individuals distinguish different colors (e.g., red, green, blue), value indicates the degree of lightness or darkness of a color (e.g., baby blue, navy blue), and intensity is the degree of saturation of a color (e.g., fire engine red, maroon). One should be aware that changes in color perception may be influenced by artificial or natural light sources, as well as by the integration of surrounding or background colors (Ching, 1996). Color may change the perceived size and warmth of a room, elicit associations, enhance introversion or extroversion, incite anger or relaxation, and influence physiological responses (Korzh & Safuanova, 1993; Venolia, 1988). For example, whereas warm hues and high intensities provide visual activation and stimulation, cool hues and low intensities communicate subtlety and relaxation. Deep, cool colors seem to contract the space, whereas light, warm colors seem to expand and increase the size of a space (Ching, 1987). Furthermore, light-colored floors increase the luminance within the space, whereas darkcolored floors absorb most of the light hitting their surface (Ching, 1987). Psychological responses. Several studies (Birren & Sharp, as cited in Boyatzis & Varghese, 1994; Hemphill, 1996) have been conducted to study the psychological impact of color. These studies have varied in scope and sample size and have yielded findings regarding color preferences and associations. For example, in a study on childrens coloremotion associations, Boyatzis and Varghese found that children often related positive emotions with light colors and negative emotions with dark colors. When Hemphill replicated aspects of the Boyatzis and Vargheses study, he discovered both similarities and differences in adult color preferences according to their sex. Silver and Ferrante (1995) also found differences in color preferences between undergraduate college students and older adults (ages 60 to 83 years). Hemphill and Silver and Ferrante reported blue to be the favorite color of both sexes and both age groups. Young adults of both sexes ranked green second and red third. Young adult men also liked black, brown, and green, whereas young adult women favored orange, yellow, and purple (Hemphill, 1996). Older women, however, tended to prefer black and purple more often than did older men (Silver & Ferrante, 1995). Furthermore, young adults of both sexes responded similarly to specific colors: positive responses were associated with bright colors, whereas negative responses were associated with dark colors. Task productivity and mood. Kwallek and Lewis (1990) investigated the effects of color (red, green, and white) on task productivity and mood. They found that workers in red offices made the fewest errors, whereas workers in white offices made the most errors. In addition, workers in red offices reported less confusion than did workers in green
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offices. However, workers in red offices reported red to be more distracting than workers in white offices. Additional studies related to workers mood have indicated that womens depression, confusion, and anger were associated with working in low-saturated colored offices (white, gray, and beige), whereas mens depression, confusion, and anger were associated with working in high-saturated colored offices (green, blue, purple, red, yellow, and orange; Kwallek, Lewis, Lin-Hsiao, & Woodson, 1996). In general, red walls have been associated with more dysphoria than blue-green walls (Kwallek, Woodson, Lewis, & Sales, 1997). Despite these psychological responses, both sexes prefer to work in white offices (Kwallek, 1996; Saito, 1996) and low-saturated colored offices (Kwallek et al., 1996). This effect was particularly pronounced among anxious people (Ireland, Warren, & Herringer, 1992). Physiological responses. The color spectrum has also been analyzed based on physiological reactions to specific colors. Coren, Birren, and Wagner (Ward, 1995) reported that some colors, such as blue and violet, decrease blood pressure, pulse, and respiration, whereas others, such as red and orange, tend to cause an increase in these biological functions. Specifically, researchers have found green-yellow, blue-green, and green to be the most arousing colors, and purple-blue and yellow-red to be the least arousing (Valdez & Mehrabian, 1994). In addition, Levy (1984) reported that blue-violet contributed to feelings of sadness and fatigue, whereas cool green contributed to feelings of anger and confusion. Behavioral responses. Read, Sugawara, and Brandt (1999) investigated the influence of color and room size on preschool childrens behavior. Variation in wall color and ceiling height resulted in increased cooperative behavior among preschool children. Hamid and Newport (1989) studied the effect of color on physical strength and mood in preschool children. Results indicated that children exhibited greater strength and positive mood when in a pink room than when in a blue room. Counseling implications. Counselors should consider the age and sex of their clientele when choosing office colors. Research indicates that both children and young adults associate positive emotions with light colors and negative emotions with dark colors. Research supports the use of pink walls, rather than blue walls, and a variation in wall color and ceiling height when working with children. Blue is the favorite color of both sexes of young and older adults, with green and red being preferred next by young adults. In addition, counselors should be aware of the physiological effects of color choices. For example, although cool colors, such as blue and violet, may be desirable because they may decrease blood pressure and pulse rate, research indicates that they may also contribute to feelings of sadness and fatigue. Color theory suggests that counselors should consider choosing wall and ceiling colors that are visually pleasing to them because many counselors occupy the office on a daily basis. Balanced against the desire to please oneself is the desire to create a counseling space in which clients with
different color preferences can all be comfortable. In addition, neutral room colors are useful when furniture or artwork changes are expected because they offer flexibility and do not limit or dictate a specific color scheme for furnishings and flooring. Neutral colors are also practical for counselors who share space. Theory suggests that darker colors can make an overly large office more intimate, whereas white and other very light colors can make a small office seem larger. Furniture and Room Design Description. Furnishings link the space with its occupants and convey the personality of the space through form, line, color, texture, and scale. The furniture placement may convey a sense of enclosure, define spatial movement, function as walls, and communicate visible or invisible boundaries (Ching, 1987). For example, seats with armrests give individuals a feeling of personal space and separation (Carpman & Grant, 1993). In addition to furniture, room size affects the environment. Rectangular rooms are perceived to be larger than square rooms of equal square footage (Sadella & Oxley, 1984). Recognizable changes in ceiling height affect spatial perception more than a similar change in room width or length. High ceilings convey feelings of spaciousness, whereas low ceilings are associated with coziness and intimacy (Ching, 1996). Interaction distance. Hall (1969) and Sommer (1969) have emphasized the significance of understanding the psychological aspects of territoriality and interpersonal distance when designing environments and determining furnishing layouts. Horowitz, Duff, and Stratton (1964) explained that each person has the perception of a body buffer zone, which exerts a powerful influence on face-to-face interactions and is influenced by the individuals psychological and cultural history. For example, individuals with schizophrenia generally have larger body buffer zones than others. Individuals with narcissism tend to react more strongly than others to violation of their body buffer zones. Women tend to have smaller body buffer zones than do men. Malemale dyads have been shown to prefer larger body buffer zones than femalefemale dyads or femalemale dyads. Opposite-sex dyads have been shown to prefer larger body buffer zones than same-sex dyads, even when the individuals were familiar with one another (Bechtel, 1997). Although there have been many studies on personal space, only a few have investigated body buffer zones and interpersonal distance in a counseling setting. The studies conducted in this area indicate that clients prefer an intermediate distance, ranging from 1.2 m (48 in.) to 1.5 m (60 in.) (Broekmann & Moller, 1973; Dinges & Oetting, 1972; Knight & Bair, 1976; Lassen, 1973; Lecomte, Bernstein, & Dumont, 1981; G. L. Stone & Morden, 1976). Cultural issues may influence clients preferred interpersonal distance. For example, research by Remland, Jones, and Brinkman (1995) suggested that clients from contact cultures (e.g., South American cultures) may prefer less distance in interpersonal interactions than do cli-
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ents from noncontact cultures (e.g., Northern European cultures). In a related area, Haase and DiMattia (1970) and Broekmann and Moller (1973) found that differences existed between counselors and clients in preferences for seating arrangements. It is interesting that these researchers reported that clients preferred more protected furniture layouts, such as formal arrangements (counseling across a desk), than did counselors. Gasss (1984) research on the influence of counselor attire and seating arrangement on participants perceptions of counselor attractiveness, competence, and trustworthiness provides a somewhat different and more complex set of findings. Gass reported that participants rated a counselor who was dressed in casual attire and not seated behind a desk the most favorably. Female participants responded negatively to the counselor seated behind the desk, regardless of counselor attire. Widgery and Stackpole (1972) studied the influence of desk placement on participants anxiety level. Their research revealed that highly anxious participants responded negatively to a desk separating them from another person, whereas low anxiety participants responded positively. Finally, Lundeen and Schuldt (1989) found that counselor disclosure had a greater impact on ratings of the counselors trustworthiness and interpersonal attractiveness when a physical barrier separated counselor and client. This finding suggests that when physical accessibility of the counselor is reduced, psychological accessibility may take on additional importance. Privacy and client self-disclosure. Holahan and Slaikeu (1977) investigated the effects of varying degrees of privacy on selfdisclosure of research participants in a counseling environment through private, invasion, and spatial divider experimental conditions. In the private condition, the interviewer and participant were alone in the room, whereas in the invasion condition, a third person entered the room and remained throughout the process. In the spatial divider condition, a third party again entered the room, but dividers separated the interviewer and participant from the invader. As expected, findings revealed that the reduced privacy conditions decreased participant self-disclosure. Although spatial dividers increased participants perceptions of privacy, they did not result in increased participant self-disclosure. Design aesthetic. Researchers have examined the influence of office dcor on the perception of competence. In two investigations, the degree to which office dcor was formal versus informal or traditional versus nontraditional was unrelated to ratings of the counselors credibility (Amira & Abramowitz, 1979; Kerr & Dell, 1976). On the other hand, Bloom, Weigel, and Trautt (1977) found significant differences in perceptions of counselor competence based on the interaction of sex of the counselor and the office dcor. Bloom et al. reported that female counselors in traditional, professional offices were perceived to be significantly more competent than were female counselors in humanistic offices, whereas male counselors in humanistic offices were perceived to be significantly more competent than male counselors in traditional, professional offices.
Studies on the impact of university faculty office environments on visitors have produced implications for future research that may be applicable to the counseling environment (Campbell, 1979; P. C. Morrow & McElroy, 1981; Zweigenhaft, 1976). Campbell (1979) and P. C. Morrow and McElroy (1981) reported that students felt more comfortable and welcome if seated in a generally clean office with living elements (plants) and accessories (posters) and in offices in which they perceived they had greater control over their surroundings (Darby & Judson, 1987). In addition, students in these offices expected the professor to be more affable, less hurried, and to hold common interests. In contrast, students perceived cluttered offices to indicate hurried and busy professors, thereby decreasing the students comfort (Campbell, 1979; P. C. Morrow & McElroy, 1981). Studies on college classroom environments have produced results similar to those on faculty offices. For example, Wollin and Montagne (1981) reported that students rated a classroom decorated with bright wall paint, posters, kites, rugs, softer lighting, cushions, and plants significantly more positively than an unadorned classroom. Teachers in the decorated classrooms were also rated more positively. The influence of the surrounding environment on perceptions of peoples mental health was also demonstrated in research on the perception of energy and well-being in faces. Maslow and Mintz (1956) reported that photographs of faces in attractively decorated rooms were rated more positively than photographs of faces in unattractively decorated rooms. Furthermore, research on prolonged and repeated experiences in attractive versus unattractive rooms revealed that participants in unattractive rooms complained of monotony, fatigue, and headaches, and displayed irritability and hostility (Mintz, 1956). Visitor personality is yet another variable to be considered in understanding visitor responses to the environment. For example, Gallagher (1999) has suggested that people with very active mental lives, such as many artists and academics, need little in the way of external stimulation and do best in restrained environments, whereas others may require more external stimulation. Data in support of Gallaghers suggestion come from Samuelson and Lindauer (1976), who discovered that low scorers on the Zuckerman Sensation Seeking Scale responded less positively to a cluttered room than did high scorers, whereas high scorers responded more negatively to an uncluttered room. Chaikin, Derlega, and Miller (1976) studied the influence of room environment on client self-disclosure and discovered that intimacy of self-disclosure was significantly greater in a warm, intimate counseling setting (i.e., pictures on the wall; soft, cushioned furniture; rugs, soft lighting) than in a cold, nonintimate environment (i.e., unadorned, cement block walls; general, fluorescent lighting). Status and credibility cues. Studies regarding the effect of displayed credentials, such as diplomas and awards, on perceptions of counselor competence have indicated that visual displays of credentials significantly influence participants initial perceptions of counselor competence (Heppner & Pew, 1977; Siegel, 1980; Siegel & Sell, 1978; Strong &
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Dixon, 1971). Although displayed credentials have been associated with greater perceptions of counselor competence, research by Siegel suggested that counselors nonverbal behaviors must also reflect expertise for them to be perceived as competent. Research has also demonstrated significant gender differences in expertness ratings in the presence or absence of displayed credentials. Siegel reported that in the presence of displayed credentials, women perceived the counselor to be more competent than men did, whereas in the absence of displayed credentials, men perceived the counselor to be more competent than women did. As indicated earlier, research suggests that the formality of room decoration has little impact on evaluations of counselor credibility (Amira & Abramowitz, 1979; Kerr & Dell, 1976). Room size. Haase and DiMattia (1976) examined the influence of room size on verbal conditioning, finding that smaller rooms detracted from the conditioning process. Savinar (1975) studied the effect of room width, room depth, and ceiling height on peoples perceptions of the adequacy of the size of a room. She found that if room width and depth were perceived as small, the desire for a high ceiling increased. Room accessibility. Finally, the physical accessibility of the space must be considered for both ethical and legal reasons (see Rubin, 1995, regarding requirements of the Americans With Disabilities Act [ADA]). The ADA mandates that public spaces are accessible to and physically negotiable by individuals with physical disabilities. Therefore, counseling offices must provide sufficient space for door swings, wheelchair turn-around (5-foot circumference), and comfortable counselorclient interaction. Counseling implications. Research on furniture and room design has produced findings that have important implications for counseling. For example, although clients may differ in their preferences for interaction distance, they tend to prefer intermediate distances in counseling with protected furniture placement. Desk placement, however, may vary with the sex of the clients and their anxiety levels. Research also suggested that counselors should consider the influence of their office dcor on clients perceptions of their competence. Female counselors were viewed as more competent when they resided in traditional offices, whereas male counselors were viewed as more competent when they resided in humanistic offices. In addition, research suggested that offices with reduced privacy often result in decreased selfdisclosure, whereas offices with a warm, intimate setting tend to produce greater self-disclosure. Clean offices with living elements and accessories increase visitors comfort more than cluttered offices do. Furthermore, research indicated that counselors can establish initial credibility with clients by displaying their diplomas and awards, particularly when their nonverbal behaviors are consistent with these status cues. Several issues are important in selecting and placing furniture, including (a) the degree to which clients can control furniture arrangement, (b) cultural issues, (c) accessibility of the environment to people with physically handicapping conditions. First, research suggested that clients may feel a
greater degree of comfort, autonomy, and equality if they have control over the furniture arrangement. For example, couches and movable chairs enable clients to influence the physical distance between counselor and client. Counselors whose offices have couches and moveable chairs can also use the furniture and body placement of clients as indicators of clients social comfort and cultural norms. This type of furniture can also allow counselors to monitor interaction distance changes during the counseling process. For example, clients who are socially uncomfortable may remain further away from the counselor, but over time may move their chairs closer to the counselor, as they become more comfortable. Second, cultural issues may influence clients preferences, with research suggesting that those from contact cultures (e.g., South American cultures) may prefer less distance in interpersonal interactions than clients from non-contact cultures (e.g., Northern European cultures). Finally, the counseling office must be physically accessible to individuals with physically disabling conditions, for both ethical and legal reasons. Therefore, counseling offices must provide sufficient space for clients in wheelchairs to enter, exit, and function comfortably. Lighting Description. The type of lighting in an environment directly influences an individuals perception of the definition and quality of the space, influencing the individuals awareness of physical, emotional, psychological, and spiritual aspects of the space (Kurtich & Eakin, 1993). Light influences the perceptions of form, color, texture, and enclosure (Ching, 1996). Lighting can be either natural or artificial. Natural lighting (sunlight) consists of a balanced distribution of the visible wavelengths of light. Sunlights spectral qualities significantly contribute to physiological functioning, influencing the endocrine, nervous, and immune systems, as well as biological clocks, sexual development, and stress and fatigue responses (Hastings, Fadiman, & Gordon, 1980). Artificial lighting, on the other hand, typically consists of an unbalanced distribution of the visible wavelengths of light and may be characterized as general, local, or accent lighting. General, or ambient, lighting disperses uniform and diffused light throughout the space. Local, or task, lighting provides luminance for specific areas to allow for the performance of activities. Accent lighting results in focal points and emphasizes spatial features (Ching, 1987). Task performance and interpersonal communication. Studies in psychophysics and environmental psychology have assessed the relationship between light intensity and task productivity, revealing that individuals perceptions of light influence their perceptions of the environment. For example, researchers have found that participants held more positive perceptions for a task and reported decreased boredom in a room with windows than in a room without windows (Kim, 1998; N. J. Stone & Irvine, 1994). Researchers have also investigated the effects of different types of lighting on cognitive performance, mood, ratings of others, and
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room attractiveness and have reported no significant differences among warm white, cool white, and full-spectrum fluorescent lighting (Boray, Gifford, & Rosenblood, 1989). In addition, studies regarding the effects of lighting (cool-white fluorescent versus daylight-simulated fluorescent) on hyperactive children have indicated no effects of lighting conditions on hyperactive behavior. However, decreased visual-sensory fatigue was associated with the daylight-simulated fluorescent lighting (OLeary, Rosenbaum, & Hughes, 1978). Wohlfarth (1984) investigated the effect of color and lighting on disciplinary incidents in elementary schools and reported similar findings. Results suggested that in some classrooms the use of natural light significantly reduced reported incidents of aggressive, disruptive, and destructive behavior. Furthermore, Gifford (1988) researched the influence of lighting level and room dcor on interpersonal communication, comfort, and arousal. Results indicated that general communication was more likely to occur in bright environments, whereas more intimate conversation occurred in softer light. Psychological dimensions. Flynn (1992) described several psychological dimensions of artificial lighting that caused similar reactions across individuals. These dimensions include peoples impressions of visual clarity, spaciousness, relaxation, privacy, and of pleasantness. First, impressions of visual clarity may be achieved through bright light shining evenly across walls and horizontal surfaces (e.g., floors, ceilings). Second, feelings of spaciousness may be increased through similar strategies, that is, by brightening walls and ceiling surfaces as well as by applying uniform, even lighting. Third, nonuniform, diffused lighting may increase peoples feelings of relaxation and privacy. Fourth, environments in which lighting is designed to harmonize with furniture and accessories are perceived as more pleasant than environments in which lighting does not harmonize with other elements of the room (Steffy, 1990). Seasonal affective disorder. Light has also been researched for its depression reducing potential. Seasonal affective disorder (SAD) is a depressive condition that occurs in individuals who experience chronic winter depressions followed by nondepressive springs and summers (Rosenthal et al., 1984). Results of studies on SAD and light exposure have revealed that regular exposure to full spectrum light is effective in treating SAD (Rosenthal & Blehar, 1989). One interesting refinement on this research indicated that individuals with SAD who have high pitched voices and small variation in pitch benefit more from light therapy than individuals with low pitch and large variation in pitch (Boenink, Bouhuys, Beersma, & Meesters, 1997). Researchers have also found that individuals with SAD prefer brighter rooms than do individuals without SAD (Heerwagen, 1990). Although light treatments typically occur outside of the counseling office, and therefore do not fall squarely within the domain of this article, we included this section because counselors whose offices lack sufficient full-spectrum light may be at increased risk for SAD. Counseling implications. Research findings suggest that counselors may benefit from using soft lighting, full-spectrum light-
ing, and natural lighting in their counseling offices. Used in combination, these three lighting types may facilitate greater self-disclosure, reduce the risk of depression, and be perceived by counselors and clients as more desirable. To enhance clients feelings of privacy, theory suggests that counselors should consider using nonuniform lighting, with diffused amounts near the client and higher amounts farther away. Exclusive reliance on uniform lighting may not be an effective choice for the counseling environment, because it does not promote stimulation and de-emphasizes areas of visual interest. Smell Description. The environment embodies elements, such as plants, ambient fragrances, and general odors, that may stimulate the olfactory sense. Exposure to specific odors affects various psychological processes such as mood, cognition, person perception, health, sexual behavior, and ingestive functions (Martin, 1994). Olfactory psychology. Olfactory psychologists have empirically investigated the effects of odors on such psychological dimensions as person perception, cognition, mood, and memory (Martin, 1994). The results of several carefully conducted studies indicate that odor can significantly influence memory, mood, and social behavior (e.g., R. A. Baron, 1980, 1990; Knasko, 1992; Schab, 1990; Warm, Dember, & Parasuraman, 1991). For example, Erlichman and Halpern (1988) found that exposure to unpleasant smells triggered retrieval of unhappy memories, whereas exposure to pleasant smells triggered happy memories. Rotton (1979) found that men behaved more aggressively following exposure to an unpleasant smell than following exposure to a smell-free environment. R. A. Baron (1997) found that mall shoppers who smelled baking cookies or roasting coffee were significantly more likely to spontaneously help a same-sex stranger than people not exposed to these pleasant smells. Olfactory remediation. Olfactory remediation, which consists of aromatherapy and olfactory stimulation, is distinguished from olfactory psychology in that it focuses on the potential therapeutic effects of exposing clients to specific scents. Although aromatherapy is neither scientifically based nor often practiced by physicians or licensed therapists, olfactory stimulation has been empirically investigated and informs the practice of aromatherapy (Martin, 1996). For example, research by Schiffman (1992) revealed that food and fruit fragrances inhaled either from bottles or pumped secretly into patients rooms resulted in decreased selfreported depressive mood. Counseling implications. Research findings suggest that unpleasant smells may trigger clients retrieval of unhappy memories, whereas pleasant smells may trigger clients happy memories. In addition, clients depressive moods may decrease if they are exposed to food or fruit fragrances. One implication of this research is that counselors should consider the detrimental effect that noxious smells, such as bad breath, and intense smells, such as too heavily applied perfume and cologne, may have on the counseling process and relationship. Unpleasant smells may have a pervasive,
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and perhaps even unconscious, impact on the evaluations that clients and counselors make of one another. Sound Description. Just as color and light vary in saturation, sound may vary in saturation from single to complex frequencies. The basic elements of sound are loudness, which is the amplitude or height of sound waves, and pitch, which is the frequency of sound waves. At higher levels, loudness is perceived as undesirable, especially when the sound is unexpected or is subjectively perceived as undesirable (Kryter, 1985). Different types of sound include white noise (diffused sound that masks other sounds), machine noise (which produces peaks of sound at certain frequencies), impulse noise (which produces sounds of a few frequencies at high amplitude), and speech (which produces varying frequencies within the middle of the hearing range and at moderate amplitude) (Bennett, 1977). Perception of sounds is influenced by the treatment of room surfaces, which may be sound reflective or sound absorptive (Bennett, 1977). Too much sound can be detrimental to human physiology and may result in decreased concentration, headaches, hearing loss, increased activity, increased blood pressure, irritability, and tension. High general sound levels can hinder conversation, reading, or introspection. Sudden sounds cause startle responses and, with repeated exposure, can result in chronically tensed muscles. Sound tolerance varies from individual to individual, and situation to situation, depending on ones perceived ability to control the sound source, the relationship of the sound to the listener, or whether it is perceived as positive (Venolia, 1988). Too much quiet and silence may be as problematic as constant sound. Ultimately, the most effective balance is achieved not from only remedying sound problems but also from incorporating pleasant sounds into the environment, which may serve to mask, or cover, less desirable sounds (Venolia, 1988). In addition to the functions described earlier, floor, wall, and ceiling surfaces also serve acoustical functions that, in turn, can influence peoples perceived spatial boundaries. Soft, absorptive surfaces (e.g., carpets, upholstery, drapes, textile wall hangings, acoustical panels and tiles) reduce the loudness of sounds and divert attention away from a focus on room size. On the other hand, hard, nonporous surfaces (e.g., plaster, glass, concrete) reflect sounds and call attention to the room size (Ching, 1996). The influence of sound on mental and psychomotor task performance in sound. Several counseling-relevant conclusions emerge from the research regarding the influence of sound on task performance. First, sound has been shown to hinder tasks that require hearing and to a lesser degree has been shown to hinder tasks that require internal dialogue. Second, sound has been demonstrated to sometimes enhance the performance of tasks that do not require hearing, probably because sound can activate physiological arousal and can also mask other, more undesirable, sounds. Third, sound has been shown to sometimes detract from task perfor-
mance, especially when specific sounds are associated with particular meanings (e.g., an infants cry is associated with the threat of harm to the infants well-being). Although most of this research has focused on the detrimental impact of sound on psychological and physiological functioning, some researchers believe that sound is not necessarily detrimental. In fact, the sudden or unexpected experience of sound may be the key element in its perceived unpleasantness and its detrimental impact (Kryter, 1985). Vibroacoustic therapy. Wigram (1995) studied the effects of sound and music on such psychological conditions as the experience of pain, and on such physical conditions as muscle tone, blood pressure, and heart rate. Vibroacoustic therapy, which uses a pulsed tone of low frequency sound underlying relaxing music, has been useful in treating psychological and somatic difficulties, including autism, anxiety, pulmonary disorders, self-injurious behavior, and asthma. Music therapy. Musical sounds, evaluated by hospital patients as beautiful or calming, have been shown to have therapeutic effects. Although music was previously thought to have healing effects, this notion did not receive empirical scrutiny until the 1980s. Most studies reviewed indicated that musical treatments facilitated healing, whether healing was assessed by physiological response, patient self-report, or behavioral observation. For example, studies revealed that slow, quiet music can successfully calm agitated patients with dementia (Ragneskog & Kihlgren, 1997) and decrease physiological indicators of stress, whereas fast, loud music may increase stress indicators for these patients (Standley, 1986). Counseling implications. Research findings suggest that counselors take into consideration the qualities and dimensions of sound when evaluating the effects that desirable and undesirable sounds may have on counseling. Research indicates that counselors should consider controlling or masking sounds that are unexpected and sounds that are perceived as unpleasant. To address confidentiality concerns, water sounds and music may be used to keep external sounds from being heard during counseling and to keep counselor and client voices from being heard outside of the counseling office, thus increasing clients feelings of privacy. Furthermore, research indicates that slow, quiet music may be used to calm agitated clients and decrease stress. Texture Description. Because texture is perceived through the senses of sight and touch, two textural dimensions are used to describe the surface qualities present in an environment, such as floors, walls, ceilings, and furniture. Tactile textures (such as surfaces hard vs. soft to the touch) are perceived by touch, whereas visual textures (such as upholstery patterns) are perceived by the eye and may either be illusory or real. Individuals physical reactions to surfaces are based on previous associations with similar materials (Ching, 1987). Viewing distance, light, and scale (how large or small the space is in comparison with the person perceiving it) contribute to the visual perception of texture in an environment (Ching, 1996).
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Counseling implications. Theory suggests that visual and tactile textures have a powerful impact on peoples perceptions of a room as being soft and comfortable or hard and cold. Texture can convey a sense of intimacy and can give dimension to a space. In small, confined offices, the use of heavy textures should be minimized, so that the space does not seem even smaller or more confining. Theory also suggests that the texture of floor, wall, and ceiling surfaces affects the acoustical and luminance properties of the counseling environment. Counselors should consider using soft, textured surfaces to absorb sound and to increase clients feelings of privacy. Bare, painted concrete block walls tend to deflect sounds and to cause echoes in the room. If counselors wish to soften the environment by decreasing glare and brightness, flat or satin paint should be applied to the walls. However, if counselors wish to brighten or increase the perceived size of a small room, high-gloss or semigloss paint should be applied. Thermal Conditions Description. Thermal conditions affect human physical strength and mental functioning. These conditions include air temperature, relative humidity, air velocity, the presence of heating and cooling sources, insulation (including clothing), and a persons physical activity level. If the room temperature falls outside the human comfort range, efficiency declines, and stress and susceptibility to illness may increase (Bennett, 1977; Olgyay, 1963). Although individuals differ in thermal responses and preferences, most individuals feel comfortable in temperatures ranging from 69F to 80F and 30% to 60% relative humidity. However, discomfort may result with motionless air, drafts, one side of the body noticeably warmer or cooler than the other, or with a large floor-to-ceiling temperature variance (Olgyay, 1963). Heschong (1979) questioned whether a thermally neutral environment is ideal, suggesting instead that a neutral thermal environment may reduce an individuals vitality. Heschong instead endorsed variation, rather than uniformity, in ambient temperature. Counseling implications. Research findings suggest that room temperature influences the comfort and mental concentration of both counselors and clients. Counselor control of the thermostat allows for individual differences in comfortable temperatures, as well as a sense of greater ownership of the space. Counselors should set the thermostat at a comfortable temperature or periodically change the temperature, but keep it within a comfortable range. Counselors should be sensitive to counselorclient differences in thermal comfort preferences. To reflect this sensitivity, counselors can temporarily adjust the thermostat, or they can provide themselves or their clients with sweaters, blankets, or fans, as needed for everyones comfort. Summary There are useful and promising implications for counseling process and practice to be drawn from the varied literature
related to the space in which counseling is conducted that has been reviewed in this section. For example, research revealed that people prefer texturally complex images of natural settings, rather than posters of people, urban life, and abstract compositions. Researchers have found that colors have the potential to elicit both psychological and physiological responses. Bright colors are associated with positive emotions, and dark colors are linked with negative emotions; cool colors (i.e., violet, blue) decrease blood pressure, pulse, and respiration, whereas warm colors (i.e., red, orange) increase these biological functions. Studies on furniture and room design have suggested that clients prefer intermediate distances in counseling and clients prefer more protected furniture layouts (such as counseling across a desk) than do counselors. In addition, data collected by researchers support the widely held assumption that client self-disclosure decreases in reduced privacy conditions and increases in warm, intimate counseling environments. People also reported feeling more comfortable in offices that are clean and have plants and artwork. Lighting research has indicated that general communication tends to occur in bright environments, whereas more intimate conversation tends to occur in softer light. People are more likely to perceive that environments in which lighting enhances furniture and accessories are more pleasant than environments with general lighting. Evidence also suggests that full-spectrum lighting helps to decrease depressive symptomatology and coincides better with peoples biological rhythms than narrow-banded lighting does. Research on smell suggests that unpleasant smells elicit unhappy memories, whereas pleasant smells trigger happy memories. Furthermore, inhaled food and fruit fragrances have resulted in decreased self-reported depressive symptoms. Finally, research on sound has revealed that sound may enhance or detract from task performance, and that music may enhance the healing process and affect muscle tone, blood pressure, heart rate, and the experience of pain.
RESEARCH IMPLICATIONS
This section offers a three-part research agenda that expands the findings presented in this article. First, however, we briefly evaluate the published research related to the environment. General Observations About Existing Research Our first observation is that studies have investigated various aspects of the environment and provided potentially useful counseling implications. Second, research on the environment and counseling is still in its early stages. The studies that have been conducted whet the appetite for more and, indeed, this is an area wide open for additional exploration. Several research questions pertaining to effective counseling practice are virtually unresearched, paving the way for future programs of research. Third, not all of the studies reported in this article were done with counse-
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lors and clients in counseling settings. Thus, some findings should be replicated in counseling contexts to determine if they are generalizable to counseling settings. Fourth, theories and conceptualizations were often not the primary focus in the empirical investigations reviewed. Research may profit from relying more directly on relevant theory as a guide. Fifth, counseling researchers may wish to build upon architectural design concepts and principles to enhance the effective translation of design theory into counseling contexts. A Three-Part Research Agenda What follows is a three-part research agenda that offers a possible guide for future research efforts, including (a) an observational research approach, (b) a critical incident research approach, and (c) an experimental research approach. Perhaps the most important aspect of the proposed research agenda is the shift in thinking it represents. Counselors and counselor educators need to think about environmental factors along with the many inter- and intrapsychic factors that occupy their conceptualizations and analyses. Thinking carefully about and collecting data on the actual environment in which counseling occurs is an important acknowledgment of an often ignored influence on human behavior, namely the physical context (see Manoleas, 1991). One unifying theme of the proposed research agenda is a focus that begins with relatively straightforward and direct effects. This focus does not reflect any fundamental preference for such effects, but rather reflects the recognition that scientific inquiry tends to be more productive when it moves from general and simple to specific and more complex foci. Our perception is that this research area is at a relatively early stage of development, one in which the search for general principles and straightforward effects may bear more fruit than other approaches. As time goes on, this approach to investigation should yield to a more complex one, for example to investigations of interactions between personality and environmental dimensions. Another unifying theme of the research agenda is the principle of hedonic relevance. We believe that the aspects of the counseling environment that will be most influential on human behavior are those associated with pleasure and pain. Our research agenda focuses on aspects of the environment that lead to changes in clients and counselors experiences of pleasure and pain. Counseling environments are improved, according to this perspective, when pain is minimized and pleasure is maximized for counselors and clients. The three parts in this research agenda correspond to three perspectives or traditions in social science research: the observational, the narrative, and the experimental. These three traditions provide three distinct lenses for observing human experience. Of equal importance, each makes unique contributions to understandingin this case understanding of the relationship between the environment and counseling. Observational research approach. An important approach to investigating the impact of the environment is observation, both direct and indirect. Webb, Campbell, Schwartz,
and Sechrest (1966) present a classic review of this approach in the social sciences. The heart of this approach is the observation of naturally occurring behavior and changes in the environment. We suggest that counseling researchers observe what counseling offices look, sound, smell, and feel like. In so doing, no doubt researchers will note variability, but they are also likely to observe similarities that may hold a key to understanding features of the environment of counseling that are helpful. Such similarities may become even clearer when noncounseling spaces are also observed, as a natural control experience. In other words, this approach asks: What environmental features do counseling rooms often have in common and that distinguish them from other spaces? A related observational approach involves noting the kinds of changes that counselors make to a space when they first come to possess it. Observation of these changes and the order in which they are instituted may provide insight about aspects of the environment that are important for counselors and thus counseling. For example, if researchers were to find that lighting and background sound changes were typically the first two changes introduced to newly occupied counseling rooms, this could indicate their greater importance to counselors than other features. Finally, spaces should be observed where mostly successful/unsuccessful counseling has occurred or where there are counselors who are mostly satisfied/dissatisfied with their work lives in order to compare and determine the physical features that might provide insights regarding influential aspects of the counseling environment. Critical incident research approach. A markedly different approach from the observational approach just described involves Flanagans (1954) critical incident method, in which research participants are asked to recall specific incidents of a particular class or type. For example, this approach could be used to ask counselors and clients to recall and describe in detail incidents in which one or more features of a counseling environment seemed to help or hinder counseling process or outcome. Researchers could review many of these critical incidents for recurring themes or patterns of association between environmental features and changes in counseling process and outcome. Experimental research approach. Another approach to researching the environment, one receiving more attention than the two others in published investigations, is the experimental approach. In a typical experimental approach to assessing the environment and counseling, an aspect or group of aspects of the environment will be manipulated, and the responses of people randomly assigned to this manipulated environment will be measured and compared with the responses of people randomly assigned to a control environment. Because of random assignment, any resulting differences between the two groups can be attributed to the environmental variable manipulation, rather than to other causes. One useful approach implementing this method is to combine it with the data gleaned from the observation and critical incident approaches. Thus, observations of environ-
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mental features that were associated with positive and negative counseling outcomes could be manipulated and assessed experimentally to determine whether these observed relationships are indeed causal relationships. For example, if observational research suggested a link between the presence and vitality of indoor plants and the success of counseling, experimental research could be conducted to answer the crucial question of whether healthy looking plants cause any improvement in counseling outcomes. Likewise, the conclusions suggested by critical incident methodology (e.g., that clients commonly associated dark and cluttered counseling offices with unsatisfying counseling experiences) could be assessed experimentally to ascertain whether clients randomly assigned to such spaces did, indeed, have more unsatisfying counseling experiences. If they did, this experimental approach would allow people to conclude that such environmental features cause reductions in client satisfaction with counseling. As research in this area advances and matures into greater complexity, experiments can also be useful in evaluating the validity of more elaborate explanations. These explanations include (a) those that involve the interaction of two or more environmental variables, (b) the mediating role of variables in the relationship between environment and counseling, and (c) the moderating role of variables in the environmentcounseling relationship. For example, experiments that use factorial designs can be very helpful in exploring whether the effect of one or more environmental components varies under differing levels of another component. We reviewed an investigation with such a design that found that the influence of counselor self-disclosure on perceptions of counselor credibility differed depending on whether there was a physical barrier between counselor and client (Lundeen & Schuldt, 1989). Factorial experimental designs are useful in evaluating the validity of these and other complex, interactive predictions. In sum, data from observational and critical incident approaches can generate viable hypotheses to be evaluated experimentally. Experiments have the flexibility to assess complex interactive, moderational, and mediational hypotheses, as well as more straightforward ones.
counseling implications, counselors may have a better understanding of how they may create environments that promote healing, while also enhancing the counseling relationship and process. Although additional research is needed, consideration of these various issues has the potential to increase the awareness of counselors and counseling researchers. In addition, this review identified ways in which researchers can build upon existing studies of the environment: (a) researchers may expand their topics of focus and further explore counseling relevant research questions; (b) researchers may replicate existing studies in counseling contexts; (c) researchers may focus more directly on relevant theories to guide research; and (d) researchers may further investigate the relationship between architectural design principles and the environment in which counseling is conducted. Finally, this article has detailed a three part research agenda that includes observational, critical incident, and experimental approaches. This agenda is based on the authors evaluation of the published research related to the environment of counseling and may facilitate important future research regarding the physical context of counseling.
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CONCLUSION
This article has described and reviewed the research related to eight features of the environment in which counseling is conducted. The review of research identified many important research findings that have implications for counseling practice and research and provided information on the following content areas: (a) accessories, (b) color, (c) furniture and room design, (d) lighting, (e) smell, (f) sound, (g) texture, and (h) thermal conditions. This article has also highlighted a series of tentative counseling implications based on research related to the space in which counseling is conducted. These implications involve suggestions and issues related to these same eight features. By considering these research findings and suggested
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The Physical Environment and Counseling: A Review of Theory and Research

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JOURNAL OF COUNSELING & DEVELOPMENT SPRING 2001 VOLUME 79

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Pressly and Heesacker

JOURNAL OF COUNSELING & DEVELOPMENT SPRING 2001 VOLUME 79

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Pressly and Heesacker

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Pressly and Heesacker

JOURNAL OF COUNSELING & DEVELOPMENT SPRING 2001 VOLUME 79

JOURNAL OF COUNSELING & DEVELOPMENT SPRING 2001 VOLUME 79

JOURNAL OF COUNSELING & DEVELOPMENT SPRING 2001 VOLUME 79

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