A Travelog of Instructional Design

Fiona Springer

Photo: Fiona Springer. 12 Aug 2010

Table of Contents

Page 3-4.............History of I.D. 5-6.............Definition of I.D. 7-8.............Notion of "Systems" 9-10...........Use of Models 11-12.........Constructivism 13-14.........Empiricism 15-16.........Behaviorism 17-18.........Information Processing Theory 19-20.........Relate I.D. to Ed Tech

History of ID
According to Reiser (2001), I.D.'s genesis came from psychologists who developed instructional solutions for training WWII personnel. Training started to be treated as a system where instructional tasks were broken down using analysis, developing strategies and evaluation. The shape of ID grew from models, learning theories and the development of media and technology tools for instructional purposes. By the 1970's, Skinner's programmed instruction, behavioral objectives popularized by Mager and Bloom, criterion referenced testing, and using formative evaluation of learning materials were incorporated into ID's development. From the 1990's the use of computers, authentic learning tasks, rapid prototyping, web-based learning, and performance support systems were some updates that called for careful design of learning resources. The history as to where I am here now on my map lies in many stages I passed through and the connections I made using different media whether bus, plane or train.

Scanned image of RATP Paris Travel Kit map.

Definition of ID
Instructional Design can be viewed as a process that uses analysis, strategy and evaluation of principles of learning and media to produce effective, creative and engaging resources for learning. By integrating proven principles with the instructional designer's personal creativity, the quality of the resource materials should be more assured. The design of the Lancashire Halo stands on 3 legs just as ID resources/ learning materials arise from the 3 basic elements of the process. Engineering principles guarantee the stability of the Halo which stands out in the landscape of an expended landfill.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Halo_in_Haslingden,_Rossendale,_England.jpg This file is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported license. Attribution: Mafiasheep at en.wikipedia

Notion of "Systems" A "systems" approach recognizes that all components comprising the whole are needed to achieve a common objective. Tools, materials, strategies, the learning context, all players in an instructional environment must operate coherently. Systematic planning breaks down the process into small steps, lays the basis for subsequent steps and acts as a security net when design or process flaws are identified. This allows the designer to revisit previous steps, taking corrective action. Scaffolding's iterative design covers the entire building and breaks access to it into small sections. The bottom of the scaffold is the foundation for steps that come after. The safety net catches flaws before there is a "fatal crash".

http://www.flickr. com/photos/matthijs/49773076/sizes/o/in/photostream/

Use of Models
Models provide guidelines to complete complex tasks,often presenting common traits applicable for most contexts. It is easier for others to replicate the process. Gustafson and Branch (2002) reveal that models help us visualize and manage the process, select the best tools, and provide us with thought for future research. Most Instructional Design models incorporate the ADDIE process: Analyze, Design, Develop, Implement and Evaluate. Some models favor a sequential approach, building on completed steps but as suggested by Molenda (2003), most agree to a largely sequential yet iterative process. Others prefer concurrency models, likened to a ball of worms in Smith and Ragan (2005). The latter model is frequently used with rapid prototyping techniques. The choice of model should be adapted as required. The orchestra has to produce the music just as the composer wants. The sheet music can be used as a model since it breaks down the passages for each instrument and guides the tempo, interpretation, and pauses.

http://www.fotopedia.com/items/jupilucha-GTb_cte4Q4c Michel Tronchetti

Constructivism Knowledge is not transmitted, instead, learners actively draw meaning through their own personal interpretations and experiences. Smith and Ragan (2005) discussed 3 major movements from among constructivist thinking: 1. that learners reason and construct knowledge individually; 2. that they work collaboratively to negotiate and elicit meaning from multiple perspectives; 3. that learning is contextual or situated in the learning activity itself. How can a blind person know what an elephant looks like? By touching individually or by many people touching and describing their perspective, the elephant's appearance is constructed.

http://www.flickr. com/photos/vipez/2529914051/sizes/z/in/photostream/

Empiricism

Empiricists stress that what is experienced becomes the source of knowledge. Therefore, most contend that reality or knowledge is objective and there is only one meaning to be derived from the data presented. John Locke the 17th century philosopher thought that we came as blank slates to be filled. Making generalizations on the basis of results of experiments rather than interpretation or personal experience is the essence of this philosophy. With my chemistry set, I understand my world and what is reality once I have completed my experiment.

http://www.flickr.com/photos/jvk/1349712069/sizes/z/in/photostream/

Behaviorism
Since behaviorists focus on what is observable, giving an appropriate response to a specific stimulus indicates learning has occurred. Early theorists felt that positive reinforcement for correct responses encouraged learning. While much of behaviorism is now criticized for encouraging teacher centered instruction, contemporary ID draws upon the practice of formative evaluation of learning materials as they are developed and incorporating a range of media into instructional design.

Anger a chameleon or flirt (if you are one) and watch him respond to that particular stimulus with the appropriate color change. Environment can also lead to color change.

http://www.flickr.com/photos/hamed/1240847864/sizes/z/in/photostream/

Information Processing Theory As a cognitive learning theory, Information Processing Theory highlights the role of the learner in constructing meaning. MultiStore Models view learning "as a series of transformations of information through several types of storage or memory" (Smith and Ragan, 2005, p. 26). Information that moves from short term storage into long term memory, has to be meaningful and thus more likely to lead to permanent change in behavior.

The cocoon 'stores' the chrysalis before that final meaningful transformation, permanently changed into a butterfly.

http://www.flickr. com/photos/kukkurovaca/2808693341/in/photostream/

Relate I.D. to Ed Tech Based on the definition from Januszewski & Molenda (2008), Educational Technology focuses on improved learning and performance through the use and management of the most appropriate technological process and resources. Similarly, Instructional Design uses processes and resources strategically to achieve effective learning outcomes. Both Ed Tech and I.D. draw their validity from theoretical and philosophical bases of learning. Consequently, I.D. is a critical process in the choice, use, management and evaluation of the materials and strategies that bring about improved educational outcomes. Going safely by the Ed Tech plane leads to improved speed of travel. The I.D. wheels and landing gear provide the smooth take off and safe landing for the instructional journey.
Photo Credit: Fiona Springer. 12 June 2011.

A.P.A. References

Gustafson, K. L. & Branch, R.M. (2002). Survey of Instructional Development Models. 4th Edition. Retrieved from: http://edtech.mrooms.org/pluginfile.php/45994/mod_page/content/2/IDMODELS_Gustafson-and-Branch.pdf Januszewski, A., & Molenda, M. (2008). Chapter 1: Definition. In Educational technology: A definition with commentary (pp. 1 14). NY: Lawrence Erlbaum, Inc. Molenda, M. (2003). The ADDIE Model Retrieved from http://edtech.mrooms.org/pluginfile. php/45994/mod_page/content/2/The_ADDIE_Model_Encyclo-1.pdf Reiser, R.A. (2001). A History of Instructional Design and Technology: Part II: A History of Instructional Design . (pp. 5767). Retrieved from http://edtech.mrooms.org/pluginfile. php/45994/mod_page/content/2/History-of-ID_Reiser.pdf Smith, P. L., & Ragan, T. J. (2005). Instructional design. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.