for Galois Theory Beginners

JohnStillwell

algebra, and the is regarded the peak of undergraduate as Galois theory rightly usually takento be the is to modern algebra syllabus designed lead to itssummit, agreewiththisgoal,but I equation.I fully unsolvability the generalquintic of normal supplied-inparticular wouldliketo point that out most theequipment of and a lot of grouptheory-is fields irreducible polynomials, splitting extensions, of "fundamental theorem is The encumbrance theso-called unnecessary. biggest This theorem, interesting thoughit is, has littleto do with Galois theory." to It the structure a normal of extension the polynomial equations. relates subfield and can be proved use without of polynomials structure its group, of subgroup to one (see, e.g.,theappendix Tignol[6]). Conversely, can provetheunsolvability extensions the or aboutnormality field of ofpolynomial without knowing equations and between Galoiscorrespondence subfields subgroups. (in of the by The aimofthispaperis to prove unsolvability radicals thequintic of thegeneral degreeequation n ? 5) using thefundamentals for just nth factof The mainfactit and fields a first coursein algebra. from standard groups, rings of willbe necessary know thatif 4 is a homomorphismgroupG ontogroup to is of G' thenG' G/ker4, and conversely, G/H G' thenH is thekernel a if whichguidesthe of homomorphism G onto G'. The conceptof Galois group, a of will whenit comesup. Withthisbackground,proof wholeproof, be defined will basicideas,which from can unsolvability radicals be constructed justthree by be explained morefully below: 1. Fieldscontaining indeterminates be "symmetrized". n can 2. The Galoisgroup a radical of extension solvable. is group is notsolvable. 3. The symmetric Sn on who Whenone considers number mathematicians haveworked Galois the of all seem it this is new.In fact, proofs to theory, is notpossible believe proof really most to contain to Nevertheless, ofthestandard just stepssimilar thethree listed. I the becamevisible. read had proof awaybefore present approach to be stripped the books of Edwards[2], Tignol[6], Artin[1], Kaplansky MacLane and [3], and a Birkhoff and Lang [4],taught coursein Galois theory, thendiscarded [5] 90% ofwhatI had learned. and Mark for I wish thank students, suggestions to my particularly Kisin, helpful to led of which to thewriting this paper.I am also grateful thereferee discussions forseveral improvements.
THE GENERAL EQUATION OF DEGREE n. The goal of classical algebrawas to

nth the of express roots thegeneral degreeequation

(*)
xn + an-lX

+ * * * +alx

+ ao =O

22

GALOIS

THEORY

FOR BEGINNERS

[January

in terms the coefficients a. of a0,..., 3x, and radicals ,T. +-, general quadratic equation are expressed theformula by

-1,

usinga finite number operations of For example,the roots X1lX2 of the

X2 + a x + aO =O

-a, ? Val - 4ao 2

byradicals. The set of elementsobtainable fromao, .. ., an_ by +, -X , + is the field of G(ao,..., and). Ifwe denotetheroots (*) byxl, .. ., xn, so that
(X - X)
...

Formulas the rootsof general for cubicand quarticequations also known, are cuberootsas wellas squareroots. saythattheseequations solvable using We are

(X - Xn)

= Xn + an-

xn-1

+ *

+alx

+ ao

symmetric functions:
ao = (-1)

then a0,..., an1

are polynomial functions xl,..., xn called the elementary of

X1X2 ... Xnl

-* an-1

(X1 + X2

Xn)

The goal of solution by radicals is then to extend0(a0,..., an 1) by adjoining the radicals until field a the For containing rootsx1,.. ., xn is obtained. example, roots xl, x2 of the quadraticequation lie in the extension Q(ao,a,) = of Q(x1x2, x1 + x2) bytheradical
4a0
=

(x +x 2)2

4x1X2

V(Xl

- X2)

?(X1

- X2)

In thiscase we getQ(x1,x2) itself theradicalextension as Q(ao, a,, Val - 4ao0), in cases a radical of extension 0(a0, ... , an-d) containing ..., xn though other x1, the is larger thanG(xl,..., xn). In particular, solution thecubicequation of gives as a radical extension Q(ao, a,, a2) which cube of of includes imaginary roots unity wellas X11 X2, X3. a the of In general, an adjoining element to a fieldF meansforming closure of F u {a} under +, -, x, (by a non-zeroelement),i.e., takingthe intersection all fieldscontaining U {a}. The adjunction called radicalif some positive F is integer power am of a equals an elementf E F, in whichcase a maybe represented theradical by expression F. The result F(a1)(a2) . .. (ak) Ofsucceswe is siveadjunctions denoted F(a1,..., ak) and ifeach adjunction radical is by E It is clearfrom that thesedefinitions a radicalextension of Q(ao,..., an-1) containingx1,.. ., xn is also a radical extensionof 0(x1, . . ., xn), since of radicalextensions aO,... , an1 E Q(x1,.**, xv). Thus we also have to study it of important property G(x1,..., xn) is that is symmetric Q(x1, ..., xn). The most a withrespectto x1,..., xn, in the sense thatanypermutation Of x1,..., xn
extendsto a bijectionoa of Gl(xl,..., xn) definedby
f aXoa a

say F(a1,.. ., ak) is a radical extension F. of

.f o .

Xn)

= fM(rX

ve o,

sX s b

this foreach rational function of xI,. ..., Xn. Moreover, bijection obviously ar f 1994]
GALOIS THEORY FOR BEGINNERS

23

satisfies
o(f +g)= of +o-g, o(fg) = of -fg,

and henceis an automorphism Q(xl,..., xn). of A radicalextension of G(x1, . . ., xn) is not necessarily symmetric this in E sense.Forexample, Q(x1,..., xn,jx7) contains squarerootof xl, butnotof x2, a hencethere no automorphism is exchanging and x2. However, can restore x1 we symmetry adjoining by generalization this of /X,..., V/x as well.The obvious idea gives wayto "symmetrize" radical a any extension of ((xl, ..., xn): E
o- extending permutationsx11 .... extension D E with E automorphisms all of Theorem 1. For each radical extension of Q(x1, ..., xn) there is a radical E
S Xn.

element, represented radical by expression e(x1,.. ., xn), Proof:Foreach adjoined and each permutation of x1,.. ., xn, adjointheelement ff e(x1, ... , oxn). Since fieldE D E is also a thereare onlyfinitely many permutations the resulting o, radical extension ((x1,.. I.,xn). of This givesa bijection (also called a) of E sending each f(x1,. .., xn) E E (a rational function x1,..., xn and theadjoined of radicals) f(fx1,.. ., oxn), and to this an the a. bijection obviously automorphismE, extending permutation U is of The reasonforwanting automorphism extending an oa each permutation of x1,.. ., xn is thatao,. . ., an-1 are fixed suchpermutations, henceso is and by the every element thefield of Q(ao,..., an_d4 If E D F are anyfields, automorphisms of E fixing elements F form oa all of whatis calledthe Galoisgroup E of over Gal(E/F). Thisconcept 1: F, alerts to thefollowing us corollary Theorem of
x Corollary. If E is a radicalextension Q(ao, . ., an -1) containing ,...., xn then of thereis a further radical extension D E such that Gal(E/Q(a0, .. ., an -)) inE ocludesautomorphisms extending permutations X11 ... I Xn. all of

1 extension of from Theorem and thefactthata radical Proof:Thisis immediate of ... , an-1) containing .. ., xn is also a radical extension Q(x1, .. ., xn). xl, Q(ao, thata solution THE STRUCTUREOF RADICALEXTENSIONS. So farwe know a of of byradicals thegeneralnthdegreeequation entails radicalextension (*) . . . , ana containingxl, . .., xn, and hence a radical extensionE withthe (a -) in described the corollary above. This opens a routeto provenonsymmetry aboutGal(E/Q(a0,. .., an-)) to existence sucha solution learning of by enough we section showthatsuchsymmetrylacking, leastforn ? 5. In thepresent is at shallshowthatthe Galois groupGal(F(a1... ., ak)/F) of anyradicalextension of inherited has a special structure, fromthe structure called solvability, the in To described thecorollary. simplify derivawith incompatible thesymmetry abouttheadjunction certain tionofthisstructure, shallshowthat we assumptions ofradicals can be madewithout ofgenerality. loss ai is that we each radicalai adjoined a pthrootforsomeprime First, can assume if va Va of p. E.g.,instead adjoining we can adjoinfirst = ,3,then . Second, a1 24
GALOIS THEORY FOR BEGINNERS

F(al,...

is ., ak). Then in the nextsectionwe shall show thatthisstructure indeed

[January

list a1, .. ., ak. Hence we have:

in the roots; areincluded the adjoined thesame,anditremains sameifthenewly

tower fields of F(a1, . . ., a k) is theunionof an ascending Any radical extension

not is a pth rootwe can assume that F(a1, . .. , ai) containsno pth rootsof unity in F(a1, ... , ai1) unless ai itselfis a pth root of unity.If this is not the case ; adjoin a pth root of unity # 1 to F(a1,.. ., ai-1) before initially simply we adjoiningai (in whichcase F(a1,..., ai-1, ) containsall the pth roots of unity: the Withboththesemodifications finalfieldF(al,..., ak) is 1, ,; 2,... P-l).

F = Fo c F, c ... c Fk = F(al, ... ,ak)

each Fi = Fi-1(ai), ai is thepi-throotof an element Fi1, pi,is prime,and in where a not Fi containsno pi-throotsof unity in Fi- 1 unlessai is itself pi-throotof unity.

tower groups of we to of Corresponding thistower fields havea descending Gal(Fk/FO)= G

where Gi = Gal(FkFi)= ** Gk = Gal(Fk/Fk) = {1} G, D automorGal(Fk/Fi-1(ai)) and 1 denotes the identity

of from definition Gal(E/B), forany the The containments immediate are phism. each of E of fields D B, as thegroup automorphismsE fixing element B. As B of to pointis thatthe increases E, Gal(E/B) mustdecreaseto {1} The important rootq to the of stepfrom -1 to itssubgroup reflecting adjunction thepi-th Gi Gi, in terms: is a normal to F, is "small"enough be describable group-theoretic Gi
subgroup Gi-1, and Gi 1/Gi is abelian, as we shall now show. of

we notation further set To simplify

E = Fk, B = FiJ1,a = ai, P =pi,

we so thetheorem wantis:
p, Theorem2. If E D B(a) D B are fieldswithagPE B forsomeprime and ifB(a) then is not in B unless a itself a pth root of unity, containsno pth rootsof unity is of Gal(E/B(a)) is a normalsubgroup Gal(E/B) and Gal(E/B)/Gal(E/B(a)) abelian.

to a it theorem groups, suffices find homomorfor Proof:By thehomomorphism kernel of (i.e.,ontoa Gal(E/B(a)), intoan abeliangroup phism Gal(E/B), with which courseis also abelian).The obvious of of map subgroup an abeliangroup, to with kernel Gal(E/B(a)) is restrictionB(a), IB(a), sincebydefinition
oaE Gal(E/B(a))
|IB(a)

is theidentity map.

The homomorphism property,

aIUIB(a)

= ffUIB(a)OB(a)

all for o', oaE Gal(E/B),

B(a) is is automatic provided oIB(a)(b) E B(a) foreach b E B(a), i.e. provided closedunder each oaE Gal(E/B). determined thevalue o(a). If a is a Since oa fixesB, oTIB(a) is completely by pth rootofunity then
(f(a))P =

a(aP)

= a(;P)

= o(1)

1,

hence o(a)

a' E B(a), since each pth rootof unity some Vi.If a is not a is
GALOIS THEORY FOR BEGINNERS

1994]

25

rootofunity then
(f(a))' = o(aP) = aP since aP e B,

This also impliesthat IB(a) maps Gal(E/B) into Gal(B(a)/B), so it now then, we as remains checkthatGal(B(a)/B) is abelian.If a is a rootof unity to o-i, havejust seen,each oIB(a) E Gal(B(a)/B) is of the form whereoi(a) = ai, hence
uiuj(a) = oi(ai) = a'j
-jfi(a).

so ;, somepthrootofunity and ; E B byhypothesis, again henceo(a) = Via for o(a) E B(a). Thus B(a) is closedas required.

ai where oi(a) = Via, hence

oiuj(a)

if then each oIB(a) E Gal(B(a)/B) is oftheform Likewise, a is nota rootofunity

= fi((ia) = "ia = oj,i(a) .

Hencein either case Gal(B(a)/B) is abelian. since; E B andthereforeis fixed. ; thatit has by The property Gal(F(a1,..., ak)/F) implied thistheorem, of subgroups Gal(F(a1, ..., ak)/F) = Go G, D ...* Gk = {1} witheach Gi norof mal in Gi1 and Gi l/Gi abelian, is called solvability Gal(F(al,..., ak)/F).
.

that extension Q(a0,..., an - ) does not of to . said,thisamounts proving a radical containx, .. ., xn or, equivalently, Q((x1,. . ., xn). We have now reducedthis E that of extension containing problem proving thesymmetrythehypothetical to with to 1, x1,. . ., xn,given thecorollary Theorem is incompatible thesolvability by at 2. looksonly theeffect ofGal(E/ Q(a0, . . ., an 1)), given Theorem Ourproof by about ofthehypothetical of automorphismsE on x1,..., xn, andhenceitis really a we thesymmetric Sn ofall permutations x, ..., xn. In fact, are adapting of group in to standard thatSn is nota solvable given Milgram hisappendix by group, proof Artin [1].
of Theorem3. A radicalextension Q(a0, whenn > 5.
..

NON-EXISTENCE OF SOLUTIONS BY RADICALS VHEN n ? 5. As we have

.,

an-,) does not containQ(x1,..., xn)

of that Proof:Supposeon the contrary E is a radicalextension 0(a0, . . ., an-1) of which contains Q(x1,.. ., xn).Then E is also a radicalextension (x1,. . ., xn) E radicalextension D E suchthat 1 and bythe corollary Theorem thereis a to all oa automorphismsextending permutaGo = Gal(E/Q(a0,..., an-j) includes
tions of xl,...,

ByTheorem Go has a decomposition 2,

Go2G,D . DGk={l}

xn.

of whereeach Gi,1 is a normal subgroup Gi and Gi1/Gi is abelian.We now a. of showthatthisis contrary theexistence theautomorphisms to of of SinceGil1/Gi is abelian, is thekernel a homomorphismGi-1 ontoan Gi abeliangroup, therefore and
E=-E Gi_ . ar-1 E- Gi.

on We use thisfactto proveby induction i that,if n > 5, each Gi contains oa all (xa, Xb, xd). This is true for Go by automorphisms extending 3-cycles 26
GALOIS THEORY FOR BEGINNERS

[January

from persists and hypothesis, whenn 2 5 theproperty Gi-1 to Gi because

(Xa, Xb, Xc) = (Xd, Xa,Xc) (Xc,Xe, Xb) (Xd, Xa, XJ)(Xc, Xe, Xb)

Thus if thereare at leastfiveindeterminates wherea, b,c, d, e are distinct. xj, extend arbitrary 3-cycles Xb, xc),and this means (Xa, there orin each Gi which are showsthatQ(x1,. .., xn) is not that Gk -(1). This contradiction in particular 2 in of extension 0(a0, ... , an-1) whenn 2 5. contained anyradical
REFERENCES 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Notre Dame,1965. E. Artin, GaloisTheory, Springer-Verlag, York,1984. New H. M. Edwards, GaloisTheory, of 1969. University Chicago Press, I. Kaplansky, Fields Rings, and New S. Lang,Undergraduate Algebra, Springer-Verlag, York,1987. 2nd New S. MacLane& G. Birkhoff, Macmillan, York,1979. Algebra, ed, Collier New of Equations, Longman, York,1988. J.-P. Tignol, Galois'Theory Algebraic

of Department Mathematics MonashUniversity 3168 Clayton Australia

of the (from collection Paul Halmos)

PICTURE PUZZLE

This famous topologistwas usually considered morescary thanscared. (see page 86.)
1994]
GALOIS THEORY FOR BEGINNERS

27