Living on the Rim: Ecology and Forest Monks in Northeast Thailand Author(s): J.L.

Taylor Reviewed work(s): Source: Sojourn: Journal of Social Issues in Southeast Asia, Vol. 6, No. 1 (FEBRUARY 1991), pp. 106-125 Published by: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies (ISEAS) Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/41056814 . Accessed: 24/01/2012 23:15
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Livingon the Rim: Ecology and Forest Monks in NortheastThailand

J.L.Taylor

With rapidly the in s disappearing primary forests Thailand Laosome reclusive have been speaking provinces, forestmonks and moral, environmentally practical, teaching villagers friendly the strategies survival. for Historically, extension "Thaiof isation"andan urbanized vision progress development, and led , of tothe unbridled hostile, ofthese "patternless" clearing potentially on rim that monks have places.Itis here, the ofsocialorder, ascetic and settled peaceful in with coexistence longwandered eventually nature. Awareoftheconsequences deforestationthewider to of the and own and monastery its community totheir tradition, forest monastic inmates havebecomein recent a vitalmeansof years This the frontier forests. paperlooks firstly protecting remaining at thecosmologica!, social,andpoliticalimplications forest of and a the and environment; secondly, case-study monks, state, the addressed these constructed monk problems, ofhowoneforest Buddhist around orthodox teachings. seizes so Foras the beasts, also [in forest] by leopard hislurking the strenuous his will theBuddha's son, withinsight by gifted, . fruit seize thehighest to [saintship]. . . returning theforest 1975,pp. 157-58) (Buddhagosa

Introduction of the Thailand elimination primary of In thefarprovinces northeast andcultural settlement with traditional forests practices patterns coupled has Thisscenario of haslongreached point noreturn the (Uhlig1987).1 of been connectedwiththe development the nationaleconomy

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of and sincetheFifth (expansion cashcropping) polity Reign(1868Fornewsettlers loggers frontier limitless and the held 1910). possibilities; while forthe hegemonicstate,dispersed,agglomerated human were settlements a meansof taming bringing frontier and the under centralized control as noted 1981, 46-49).Thesesettlements, (Girling pp. inclassical Southeast Asianstates Koninck McTaggart and 1987, (De p. In the or 348), defined territoriality.thefrontier, "extensification" of cultivation meant expansion landunder increasing agricultural output with minimum for state, thedetrimentthenation's fuss the to of forests 1989, 37). (Hirsch p. Thepolitical of formation involved direct the of process state linking thecountrysidethe to centre cultural, of andeconomic political, power; this facilitated easieraccessinto isolated hard-to-reach and previously Thesewere forests situated the at terminus civilization forests. of where the acclaimed saint (1870-1949)andhispupils AjaanManPhuurithatto wandered eventually and settled.2 Beingon therimof social order, forest as term forest for connotationsthe of monks, inthe (paa), carried "untamed" "uncivilized".3 word is sometimes and The with linked paa a similar wordofKhmer "wild"or "illegal" theuan, origin, implying criticisms urban of (Haas 1964,p. 221), andhas beenused in recent Buddhist functioning cults outside establishment the 1989,p. (Jackson monksduring earlydecades of the the 164) - as withwandering twentieth century. The Forestand ForestMonks Thenation's forests seenas hostile centralized are to control, disordered, andinimical national to and In remote, security well-being. effect, they arethe "antithesisthe of socialandritual order civilization" of (O'Connor threat the to meuangdominated 1980, 33) anda likely (urban) p. polity (Keyes 1989,p. 138,n. 16). In thewordsof MaryDouglas (1966), disorder that or as "spoilspattern", is theordered patterned society a also "unlimited" for whole;butdisorder implies potentiality creativity anddevelopment, both and (ibid., 94). symbolizing "danger power" p. like and establishment, Villagers, themeuang envisage "development"

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in of land "wellcleared" productive human for progress terms their being In real terms, "forestclearingand accessibilityas agriculture. link an deforestation and development provides important between n.d., 6-7). (Hirsch development" pp. Richard Davis (1974)remarked the on negative attributes associated in with forests thenorth, as contraband such and articles, undisciplined in to immoral to means, addition its people;andthat "'go totheforest' or a The is domain literal to sense, defecate toenter cemetery". forest the and tribal of wild animals, demons, spirits, uncivilized people.As in in Brodrick (n.d.) observed his travels Laos in 1939,thepeople demons thewoodsandtheguardian of believed there "numberless are wild are avoided". ofthe Theforests fearsome placesandbest genii inforests, all "beauty in lies as Noris there senseofnatural any beauty the human settlements" p. 13). In addition, cosmologica! (ibid., layout in settlements to human of"patterned" corresponds a hierarchy which flows downwards the from towns the to villages. and beauty civilization to hamlets the at very in downward Ateachstage this fringe process, the civilization "losessomeofitsluster" oftheforest, (ibid., 14). In the p. werethespiritual ancient Vedas,forests aranyd) (the "gaps"situated sites Thesewere settlement between centres human of 1978). (Malamoud andindividualistic for dispersed the wandering agglomerated pupillages centres. the sanctified purified) between various hermits, (and moving with to associated consideration thenegativity Another important be with "familiar" the man domesticated to forests the is needfor (Tuan twentieth the fields". kinsfolk "cleared and 1988),with During early were around countryside often the monks forest wandering century the seen as intimidating secure, receivedwithfearand hostility, or of village. may Strangers outsiders be familiaritythe circumscriptive in latent of sources power as potentially dangerous generally perceived and theunknown a Nietzschean sense) in contra(in individuality which Mulder as to distinctiontheir "insiders", opposite complementary reinforce beliefs hassaid, (1985, 46) religious "safety". Popular implies p. in to thisbasic binaryconception an attempt createan enduring this disorder. out orderliness ofthesurrounding Extending to temporal of kin, familiar cluster outsidetheculturally we theforest, see that

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is of and consisting thevillage, theever-threatening primordial chaotic forest inhabited unseen wildanimals, strangers and by malignant powers, - which wouldinclude monks. wandering It is well-known forest that monks wildanimals ableto coand are existcongenially, in thepopular as Jataka talesandtheparadigmatic modem textualized accounts forest life of monks haveproliferated (which sincethe 1960s). Merit-powers, and morality ensure compassion, for in monks dangerous, (porngkah) forest protection unpredictable the of desiresand places and simultaneously signify taming worldy suchas fears, andso on). lust, (kilet, proclivities In Tuan's thinking, and are "strangers" "forests" of the same hostile situated outside purlieu the"known the of potentially category, world". Thesearethe andas suchallprecautions interstices, "marginal" must taken villagers protect be to themselves their from likely by dangers; with as who from these similarly, a person regarded "polluting" emerges form ritual a divide patternless placeswhich (Douglas1966, 96-97). pp. Thereis also an unpredictable source powerin "inarticulate of areas, confused and the boundaries" lines, beyond external (ibid., margins, p. in or 98) whichis manifested individuals potency capability) (as this occupying restricted space. needtosurround themselves ordered with Worldly beings familiarity, tobe incontrol abletomakesenseofcosmic and order. as Thus, Tuan the of is and is remarks, purpose civilization tomake"theearth all that onit[seem] threatening, supportive, more less more and and predictable, more familiar" which outside is ordered as (1988,p. 23).That society we haveseenis somehow dangerous, unpredictable. monks and Forest raw, are able to maintain within thismarginal and disorderly "purity" ambiencedue to thespatialand conceptual demarcation between and profanity. This involvesan unambiguous objectified sanctity and from with and mundaneness, itsdefilements separation distance untamed In domesticated Buddhism can see that we the sensuality. siimaa sanctified clearly this area) function, (ritually performs delimiting within "patterned" the of of and totality thevillagein terms itsspatial socialorganization. in thecase offorest But monks with less clearly a defined than domesticated this brethren, ritual physical boundary their

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"marker" more theambience thelocaleandtheir to of seemstorelate rules(winai) and asceticpractices. These rules particular training of to theintegrality thesangha)arehighly personalized, (pertaining the cloistered and and community, individually collectively, among small monks moreattuned socialized to are notso evident amongvillage calendrical rituals. with these individuals tocoexist able out ordinary, special Being ofthe transcended thewild and untamed musthave spiritually (through their ownmental defilements the"disordered personal conquest) of regions themind"(Douglas 1966,p. 95). Withthepresenceof sanctified still the habitat becomes renouncers" forest (though "worldly inTuan'swords, anditssymbolic harmful) powers possess, potentially of or and of "an auraofmystery hint theexistence thesuperhuman ofa conceived" the (1988,p. 19). grace beyond goodas ordinarily in Northeast forests the the Region remaining primeval Presently, only texts informants biographical and that resembling described elderly by in and are ofAjaanMan's early years small disciples thepre- post-war in less here dotted andthere thestill parts relatively accessible pockets andcremation The ofthecountryside. forest (paa monastery grounds to the forested incloseproximityvillages. areas chad)arenormally only less monk As oneforest remarked, than twenty years the ago succinctly the cleared ofthe were only forest monks' forest; primal part dwellings in is the however, monastery theonlyforest thecleared today forest where the an Presently, area nearKhoraat countryside. surrounding of time the aforementioned Man spent beauty among "unearthly Ajaan for with mountain a reputation harbouring and theforest" surrounding mountains" consists "bald-headed of (MahaaBua 1982,p. 106). tigers, since 1950sdueto the started appear to mountains" These"bald-headed world market response landand feed for the demand livestock inthe by in forested northeastern settlers parts dryland crops the growing hungry hitherto not had beentouched which Khoraat ofthe (Uhlig1984, plateau p. 125). and monksmay play a vital,sanctifying, The forest-dwelling forest A few well-known teachers forests. role remaining protective inthe sermons and tree havebeenencouraging planting, intheir impress upon

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the Man's third of the villagers importance conserving environment. In(WatPaa Kham and Noi,Udornthaanii) Ajaan pupils generation Ajaan discussed Thui(WatDongSii Chomphuu, below)aretwo Norngkhaai, in isolated In went Nam Som district suchmonks. Ajaan wandering someeleven invited (Udorn years andwas eventually ago by province) a monto settle establish samnak and (officially unregistered villagers in 2 of the hived astery) a forestkm.from small village BaanNaa Kham he went binthabaat on Noi. AjaanIn saidthat when first (alms-round) he wildelephants wouldfollowhimand before entered village the overa decadelater, the intothedenseforest. Now,a little disappear forests gonealongwith elephants. ricelandsandupland have the New cash crops(maize and cassava gardens) dominate countryside. the hadthesamnak beenestablished, itsforest not would even Seemingly, inthe andnewsettlers. havegone denudation illegal ensuing by loggers monasteries locatedin and around are Manyof thenewerforest forest reserve the is (paa sanguan)though term a misgovernment as for forest nomer, often, itself, are trees. except the monastery there few Muchseemsto depend theinterest determinationtheforest on and of teacheras to how muchsurrounding forest can protect he from But encroachment. in many cases external havesimply developments followed and ascetic monks theextent is of course, thedilemma facing incommunity environmental active and issues. Thecaseparticipation belowshowshowa forest teacher to takean active had rolein study and environmental while simultaneously ecosystem management the tradition of (Dhamma maintaining monastic Vinaya) themeditative recluse.A survey fifty-eight of forest monasteries the throughout whose to that northeast, lineages be traced AjaanMan,showed there may wasunequivocal concern increasing and awareness forest monks among for theprimitive considerable variation the in habitat, maintaining yet extent "worldly" of in involvement curtailing destruction native the of forests. There were forest the monks, many during settlement (the phase establishment ofpermanent monasteries) intheir forest later who Uves, watched forest the cleared around sometimes them, ineffectually being The right to themonks'hutsthemselves. now ailingAjaan Thet up was (Wat Thetsarangsii HinMaakPeng, Norngkhaai) one suchmonk;

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with now a of the forest, much monastery hasonly small patch secondary with non-native andeucalypti. ofthis pines replanted in Sakon ThelateAjaanWanUtamo's district, monastery Sorngdao of samnak a on consists a grouping three of Nakhorn separate province, PhuuLek ortheIronMountain) mountain forest reserve (called large The monastic hadto head the some5 km.from nearest village. present andinfluential from Sorngdao District Office seekassistance the patrons It of forest. to the (yom upatthaak) prevent denudation thesurrounding which timber make houses were to wasfound somevillagers cutting that business town(representing werethen soldto a dealerin thenearest the houses dismantled and in who interestsBangkok) bought completed to went and timber. strategy onfor This the years, managed circumvent timbers the from extractionvaluable of on commercial the restrictionthe forests. nation's protected to to considered Forest monks danger their villagers be thegreatest have influential monasteries habitat. Whilst manyforest primordial in of able logging thevicinity the illegalcommercial patrons to curtail to village arelittle toeffect able wayoflife changes the monastery, they - norcomprehend complexities involved. an addedproblem, As the areas where are forest monasteries locatedin mountainous many soil irreversible has causedsevere on deforestation surrounding slopes coverin many The water erosion. ground loss through nutrient places which such of consists insidious polystachion the grasses, as Pennisetum uselessandhard call (yaa kormmiwnit), grass" villagers "commmunist tocontrol. and with are forests associated On a political dimension, negative But suchas insurgency. and illicit categories, dangerous potentially inhabited of interstices thecountry at during residing thefuzzy despite monks forest reform the1960sand 1970sby communist insurgents, a were in (those thelineofAjaan Man) paradoxically notconsidered the1950sinSriLanka, to nation-state. comparison, threat the during By forest periphery-dwelling monkswereaccused en masse of being communist theestablishment clergy(Yalman 1962); thiswas by the towards behaviour and becauseoftheir outspoken critical probably too werefunctioning far that and institutions thefact they mainstream

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In outside traditional norms. Thailand, inthecase ofAjaanManand as hisfirst when onthe outside there always danger was the moving pupils, ofbeingseenas political activists to thestate'spowerand opposed common boundaries with authority. Movingon therimand sharing intheir waysareexpressingradical own communist both a insurgents, of with monks decision the to However, forest critique thesocialorder. turn routinized institutions positive is a statement "giving of awayfrom an of rather "taking than up",andthus exemplary expression purity; up" inthesenseofmilitant tosociety. opposition and Dhamma,Subsistence, Responseto Change: The Case ofAjaan Thui As I often heard from forest it monks, is becoming increasingly necessary to stay not in to of around, order keepwhatis left the put, to wander northeastern With forests. one'sbackturned, forest the is prey monastery to theresource-hungry Thus,due toexternal circumstances, villagers. someoftheyounger forest teachers secondandthird (the generation of conscious conserving of the pupils Man) havebecomeincreasingly environment. forest One WatDongSii Chomphuu, held even monastery, a "treeplanting seen in the day" (usingnativespeciesnow rarely one visits which involved active the northeast) during ofmy participation ofthenearby with presence various the of district village, government officials the officer nottobe left andmedia out) (including forestry Channel SevenNetwork material for coverage thearmy's by (seeking its "Green Isaan"orIsaanKhiiew Theteacher, highly publicized project). did want excessive afraid the of AjaanThuiChanthakaro, not publicity, nation-wide attention monastery the receive.In might subsequently the of Thuialso seemed encouraging replanting native species, acutely awareoftheproblems associated with existing the government policy ofpromoting monoculture of which were planting non-native eucalypti in not somelocal planted extensively thenortheast, though without resistance articulated through (NGOs) non-governmental organizations anda handful village of leaders. and of monks him, notsimply like do believe Thui, a number forest

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to unless peoplecan the inthepower persuasion solvethis of problem will individuals cometo theresult their of actions. first Slowly, accept to themselves others and thecause of suffering (thuk) comprehend behaviour. saidthat Thui andhabitual, non-adaptive through ignorance had and inlessthan fifteeen the years forest disappeared as a consequence themselves" thepeopleweresimply (khaatuaeng). "killing and of for The forest vital thelivelihood well-being thevillagers, is monks the similar the to indigenous ascetic as wellas practising latter, the that in alsofacing extinction. flora fauna, a sense and Despite fact the tall a there of areaconsists forest reserve, arenowonly few surrounding Thui walls. with cassavagardens uptothe trees monastery right standing term cometoseehim about when often tothe talks longer they villagers it Thuifirst arrived When forest tohabitual clearing. relating problems ofvaluablehardwoods, commercial was selective loggers felling by followed close behind total rosewood{maiphayung), by especially and for clearing ricefields cashcrops. meditation in arrived SakonNakhorn 1969topractise from Thuifirst He Sii Chomphuu). had Forest" the inanisolated called "Pink site (Dong and order was a pupilofAjaan in beenordained thestrict Thammayut for Bua Siripunyo (Wat Paa NorngSaeng,Udornthaanii province) Khao Anaalayo(Wat after death, his andthen, nineteen Ajaan years were teachers Boththese Udornthaanii ThamKlongPhen, province). Thui Khao's death, after Morerecently, as regarded "saints". widely of present the cameunder pupillage the head, AjaanMahaaBua lineage (Wat province). Yaanasampanno Paa Baan Taat,Udornthaanii the his that Around time Thuiestablished monastery, villageof the from wassettled migrants more 5 BaanNaa Khaam km. densely by away and in Roi areas Ubon, Et,Mahaasaarakhaam, Kaalasin, Khorn populated was of hived a time Kaen.A short later newly village Baan SaengArun deaths weremany There 1 the established km.from forest monastery. and from this malaria, notall early rampant period during settlement Baan Naa Khaamwas settled, Notlongafter to stay. decided settlers samnak to somesupport theforest (then continuing though villagers, more for built monastery the a known WatPaa Naa Khaam), as adaptive Mahaanikaai order Wat Baan Naa Khaam- insidethevillage,

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in from outside. the rains bringing onemonk During three-month retreat of 1988,there werefifteen monks novices, in the and but (phansaa) outside the of period retreat, were of months there between tothree one This of importance tothe monks. is a reflection the traditional rite given ofpassage, is ordination, "raw" that for the (khon young dip) boys during The retreat. Mahaanikaai took important function a local as monastery the for a of "ripening ground" youngboys from number newlyhived In other in forest monks Thui, surrounding villagers. constrast, as with theAjaan Man lineage,wouldnotaccepttraditional "transitional" ordination hismonastery. at Inthe Thuiwent alms-roundsBaanNaa Khaamand on to early days, another smaller Baan Klorng Baan SaengArun, Khem. nearby village, about 1 km. away,whichtodayprovidesmostof theday-to-day had yet The started to patronage, not beenestablished. forest monastery attract outside interest since early In the 1980s. 1987the only monastery received "royal" its consecration khaamasiimaa) {wisung temporary of markers by 40 metres 80 aroundthe consisting eightboundary hall communal (saalaa) where sanctified ofthe the acts can sangha now be performed. Thui'spurpose having siimaawas to permit in the the ofhigher ordinations timeto time, from with visiting a performance fromthe newlyestablishednearbyThammayut town preceptor inSo Phisai district. candidates ordination for had monastery Previously, togo toeither or some80 km.away.Although Norngkhaai Beungkaan Thuinowhas a siimaa, is nevertheless strict has setdown he and very firm for with ordinands, guidelines prospective contrasting theeasier admission ordination village to in monasteries. Thui is knownforhis profound knowledgeof Dhamma {mii andintensely ofbush-craft phuumtham suung) practical understanding former forest Before rains the retreat of (likemany monks). wandering Thui'smonastery seventeen had monks two and novices marked 1988, (a contrast thenumbers WatBaan Naa Khaamnoted with for above)and onelong-time resident related royalty.4 are to There chiiphraam distantly occasionalBangkokvisitors, meditators, one or two other and lay with influential families. Thui'slinkage with temporary chiiphraam influential figures tofacilitate lite with helps dialogue localbureaucrats,

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attention matters on such as road repairs,bridge and resultant or concerns. maintenance,general village comefrom Themonks WatDongSii Chomphuu at many provinces: one from six the and Janthaburii, from northeast (onlyone monk one one onefrom from Baan SaengArun), monk from novice Kampuchea, and in and Mai electrical Chiang (a former engineer third seniority), one in with rains retreats from (thesecondin seniority) nineteen England This monks comefrom central the The remaining 1989.5 provinces. inmates Thui'sselectivity monastic reflects of diversity well-educated under forest most forest monasteries a punctilious andis common among notedthisfeature a forest at Kirsch(1967, p. 148) earlier teacher. in on land a established 1940/41 donated near Phuuthai village monastery of with homogeneity thevillage the in Nakhorn Phanom, compared the camefrom In survey twooutofsixmonks only monastery.Kirsch's from and Sakon who with localvillage, twomonks camefrom Ubon, one at two the As Nakhorn. is normally case,the novices hisforest monastery inmates resident most As the camefrom nearby village. expected, ofthe about the at Wat Dong Sii Chomphuuseemed betterinformed than of deforestation the and environment theconsequences extensive monks. village in surveillance the1970s was the The areaaround monastery under area"(khet or"pink communist as andclassified a potential stronghold timeit was assumedthatwhenthe trees At sii chomphuu). that and so fevers, insurgents thedebilitating disappeared, wouldanylikely One for new thus development. ground national breaking "patterned" of from Ministry the worker Department Development Community me for little Interior, accompanied ononevisit empathy Thui, expressing of indicative theofficial to themonastery. Thoughnotnecessarily how he consensus, saidhe couldnotunderstand Thuihadbeenableto the the remain crisis,unlesshe had befriended during insurgency not about henone Thuiwould talk On communists. hispart, it, although The concerns. or in disinterestedpolitical ideological theless seemed at worker thesametimealso Department Development Community afford athowThuicould wonderment financially tokeepsuch expressed that but ten the over past years, conceded the in of tract forest situ a large

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teacher had transcendent powers merit (baaramii). obviously great in Thuitalked the and about forests wildlife So PhisaiandPaakhaat when arrived saidthat feared and he bears most. the One districts hefirst recounted AjaanMan,whenwalking that the ofhisdisciples through make whistling a sound warn to of Thui would bears hisapproach. forest, if unlike will to saidthat bears, tigers, encountered suddenly tend attack The rather turn run. forest than and where Thuieventually settled canopy and ground damp theonly so was so dense, the that placehecouldlight a fire ina small was on This he clearing a rocky outcrop. waswhere built thefirst small hall(saalaa). community The pasttwodecadeshavebrought aboutmomentous to changes a now largely deforested. some of thegovernment's On countryside cleared rubber trees wererecently and land, experimental planted itis that would ideally be suited the to micro-climate. and Thui, thought these forest monks him, tree like see rubber crops including plantations as more beneficial cassavagardens, than the returns to though financial the are which creates for term, villagers longer problems animpoverished localeconomy. modern The world fast is the catching with isolated up hamlet BaanSaengArun. village oneofthe inthe of This was last district toreceive which inthe was ofinstallation the electricity, process during timeof mymanyvisits.Thui had forewarned villagersof the the withelectrification, consequencesof changesto theirlife-style an particularly increased financialburdenon the community. Nevertheless household interviewed colourtelevision a saw as every if "for children". the priority,only Thuialso criticizes present the towards commercialization tendency of religion, whathe regards theartifice political as and especially machinations urban of movements he is careful not religious although tomention ofthese name. Likemany northeastern monks forest any by Thui does notlike goingto thecapital,or theprovincial townof unlessit is essential. will notpermit He himself be to Norngkhaai unless with in context and photographed, prior permission then only the ofanorthodox ritual. willnot He hesitate turn to sangha away"tourists" numbers religious or artefacts as amulets. such Thui seeking lucky only waswary personal of which couldendupbeing soldinthe photographs

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or, mtropole as often happens, appearin someof themany popular on charismatic monks "magical and arts". periodicals Thui of education, (andothers his Although receiving primary only veneration written for He hasgreat material. willonly destroy generation) matter withtheBrahmanical "pure"fireand will readily printed a religious whohappens leavea text to anyone (particularly reprimand As Thuiwastaught sacred the Khmer one)ina "low"position. a novice, which become has redundant Khorm Lao aksorn and tham, knowledge Tambiah's[1970,pp. 119-21]villagestudy this today (compare with in aksorn tham still was over actively taught twenty-five agowhen years In the reforms the and thenortheast). factup until twentieth century revision Pali and Dhammastudies, of Wachirayaan's prince-monk in northeast. wasalsotaught mystical Thui Khorm still was the taught the and khaathaa6 whenhe was young later but yan (sacredmarkings) and for discardedthistraditional learning reform orthopraxy the in order. meditative inthemodeofhisteacher theThammayut life and of The many lay prominent visitors supporters themonastery in senior status thelocality include and reflect elitist its sevants, public medical the local police chief,some teachers,wealthytraders, from time to also and practitioners, so on.Butvillagers see theteacher Theseare at normative Buddhist festivities. time especially annual and of of thecommemoration thespontaneous assembly theBuddha's of arabandisciples (Maakhabuuchaa);thecommemorationthebirth, and of buuchaa);andthe enlightenment, death theBuddha(Wisaakha the retreat khao and day (wan phansaa dayofentering the ofleaving rains a to and wan orkphansa), Thui makes an effort cultivate good Kaenin from who with localheadman, migrated Khorn the relationship and for a theearly1970s,with reputation beingan articulate skilled to when are festivities villagers permittedcome On Buddhist organizer. a to Thuimaytaketheopportunitydeliver en tothemonastery masse, the inharmony the with environment, on sermon "right including living" with be able children he believesshould better to cometo terms who their than environmental parents. problems for confinement In order maintain cenobitical to the necessary the times Thuiregulates life of primitive ways, perpetuationthetraditional with the visitors which Villagers monastery. mayenter forest during

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I to for restriction and whom spokeseemed sensitive thenecessity this External seclusion meditation. for the neededtheir said that monks to and are with laity kept a basicminimum villagers not is interaction the which consists a cluster of of to the allowed enter sangkhaawaat usually in from other. the Thuialso kuti theforest, onesecluded each dispersed his a thirty-year with Royal lease the (through lite supporters) negotiated in native trees to (arranged the by teacher the Forestry Departmentplant hectares contiguous of "forest reserve" see village, above)onthirty-four In the that cleared the stipulation by villagers. fact normative previously the of be atleast1 km.from perimeter thenearest a "forest monastery" of and with hamlet being was challenged thenatural growth thevillage he a additional land.Thuifelt needed forested theneedfor productive Thuioften between monastery thevillage. the and comments "buffer" destructive climacteric he on what sees as thenowwidespread phase in of forest and confronting monasteries thedecline thenumber active forest monks reformed and teaching discipline meditation. Inthe decade, the remaining generation as few first of past pupils Man Thuihas becomethefocusof intense becometoo old to teach, lite in interest orthodox the that hasreceived great fact he a religion. Despite for deal offinancial he support, especially newbuildings, has firmly controlled inside monastery. simple the The timber monks' huts, growth asceticsor "nuns") shed,saalaa, thesmallmae chii(female storage of kutiand kitchen) theonly are section(consisting three separate in buildings themonastery. The villagers on this provide dailysupport binthabaat (though is sometimes withadditional nutrition inadequate provided urban by andundertake In occasional chores. turn, Thuiwillemploy supporters) whenever to around forest the rather use than villagers possible do work mechanizationoutside or contractors hasalsohelped village and the by a landforthevillage'sfirst building largepond,purchased primary and saalaa. Thui a control over school, rice-bank, community keeps strict but much this of which comesfrom funds, seemingly monastery money the town becomes one in There distributed, wayoranother, thevillage. can be no doubting highregard the holdfor Thui,andthey villagers direct to accepthis sometimes reproaches especiallyin regard the environment morality. and Sometimes are upsetby Thui's villagers

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or du the criticisms heis calleda "fierce person" khon - but teacher him saidthis not did worry provided (the canatleast learn they villagers) from their mistakes. inrespect Thuifeels thevillagers byandlargeshort-sighted that are ofplanning the for future improve quality their to the of lives.He likens with ittoa hand-to-mouth existence no thought theconsequences, of a condition personalhardship, of motivated certain in perpetuating in or he context. circumstances "habit" nisai,a word usesoften this by of to this. the He givesa number examples illustrate Nowadays people dead and cometo theforest wood to burn their do nothaveenough If to charcoal. the to seekassistance buyincreasingly costly monastery a inside hollow a tree, smoke the of want catch squirrel to they villagers fire itout,often bush. setting to thesurrounding In another, perhaps to kind he oncea villager wanted eata certain radical, example saysthat the were ofreach, inside forest, because leaves the but out ofleaf a tree on down. he simply thetree cut maintains and that that Thuiremarked most peoplethink thevillage if but the the forest monastery monastery; today, anything, forest supports out are with The the supports village. people so concerned ekeing a living the funds supporting monastery. for time that havelittle orresidual they natural but had alsopoor, atleast Inthe they abundant past, peoplewere In on the insistence imitating availablein theforest. their resources Thuisaidthat needtoreflect on world modernization, and they meuang in for and it can these howthey maintain things whether is useful them income outside and havea regular Noneofthevillagers thelongrun. somevillagers to is seasonalwork nowmoredifficult obtain. Indeed, to nowthis alsoharder obtain, is in Middle Eastbut on depend work the The fraudulent than lesslucrative someyears andwith many agents. ago, and are exceptional, ina wider BaanSaenArun not confronting problems on of are sensethey reflective massive impinging Thai-Lao changes overthepasttwodecades. villages Conclusion and discussedWat Dong Sii Chomphuu its I have at some length with in of teacher thecontext interaction and forest monk indefatigable

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to and between localvillage the the response development ecology - andtheforest socialdimension situated the at monastery, patterned andinterstices, anuntamed potentially and dimension. purlieus dangerous neither dimension should seenas separate be However, cosmological but total interdependent phenomena. as and social With entities, enduring of ecosystem the anawareness the and importancesustainable of cultural forest monks AjaanThuihaveinrecent like times becomea practices, vitalmeansof protecting remaining the In forests. their peripheral with laity, construction monastery the the discourse of wallscircumthe officialsanctification themonastery of (with scribing forest, inalienable anda coterie influential of are rights), patrons someofthe meansto ensure and of and perpetuation maintenance theforest, its monastic tradition. dependent
Notes

1 Presently the in northeastis hard find it to which are many large yaangtrees fortheir (Dipterocarpaceae); largeshadytrees oil or calledHuu tapped a ear"; TonKung(Dipterocarpus tuberculatus),large Chaang "elephant deciduousleafytree;Tabaek (Lagerstroemia or Makhaam flosreginae) others. (Tamarindus indica)among InThailand 53-57 percent national of forest cover existed still generally in 1961(BoonchanaandThongchai inHirsch 1983 n.d.;Uhlig1984,1987). Seventeen later 25 in while 1986around 15-16 existed, years only percent forest cover remained and n.d.;Hirsch Lohmann (Hirsch 1989,p. percent 448). Official figures given the by RoyalForestry Department a grossly give over-inflatedpercent. 29 Recent shows seriousness the data the of problem. Atthe rate 3 there will (around percent annum) present ofdeforestation per be little forest coverleft theendof thecentury n.d.,p. 2). In (Hirsch by Nakhorn Raatchasiimaa 27.88 percentof thetotalarea was (Khoraat), covered forest 1973,yetnineyears in later remained by only9.17 percent (Uhlig1984). The Thai Government recently acknowledgedthisproblemafter land in in 1988caused devastating slidesandflooding thesouth November thedeath around peopleanditpushed billthrough of 400 a Parliament to national forests. remains be seenhow effective willbe. It to this protect

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2 3

4 5

as not interest thegovernment,Hirsch Lohmann and by Though a sudden awareness publicpressure thegovernment on and (1989) remark, general since overenvironmental hasbeenslowly issues mounting the1970s. monk Keyes(1982),Tambiah see On this (1984, 1987),andTaylor (1988, 1990). out occasional over O'Connor (1978,p. 141)correctly pointed the ambiguity a theword [1944,p. 521] andHaas [1964,p. 317] for paa (see McFarland from allotment which imply of may anything anovergrown range meanings) forest. todenserain to and and In contemporary relating monks monasteries in a fieldtexts for wat a the work situation term paa didnotnecessarily imply residence in also madebyGeorges Condominas theLao case, monks point forest (a with and monasteries this communication, Somevillage town 1987). personal with without andmeditating monks, or trees forest totheir name, may prefix which overa period time of for oncehavebeentheresidence forest monks, settlement. in of absorbed theexpansion human became areas on the werelocatedin forested Some dhutangamonasteries as as of outskirts Bangkok recently 20-30 years andarenowconsumed ago Wat there similar are In inthe urban examples, meuang sprawl. northeastern in Wat from north) Udorn; Manstayed hisreturn the on Paa Nonniwet (where Paa Sutthaawaat (whereMan died) in Sakon Nakhorn;and Wat Paa Wat Saalawan upbyMan'sright-hand AjaanSing)inKhoraat. Paa set pupil, andburial cremation Nonniwet tenyears was anextensive ground ago only surrounded forest. Muslims Christians, and for site Chinese, Todaythere by area and a newresidential is a primary house,shops, school,a slaughter Udorn Nongkhaai and road between with newmain around monastery the the running past. over has In thecapital itself growth beenimmense thepastfewdecades; and the monasteries traditional Reigns during Third Fourth peri-urban many O'Connor of nowin thecentre themetropolis. are (1978,p. 145) saidthat north monasteries informants offorest when elderly his surrounding spoke between was no differentiation of theold citywalls,there peri-urban forest monasteries. and monasteries remote and the whoobserves eight A chiiphraamis a woman precepts does not sociallinks able she it her shave head;thus, is believed, is better tomaintain world. the with outside is a has retreats phansaawhich monk undergone the or of Thenumber rains usualmodeofreckoning seniority.

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meansPali verses a four or half-line 6 Khaathaa(Pali: Gatha),normatively told its associations were Thai stanza. Somemonks methat magical purely inorigin.
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J.L.Taylor is a social anthropologist based at Macguarie University, currently Sydney.