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Baghouse / Fabric The Neundorfer KnowledgeBase is an 1 - ESP Operation Filter Services industry-leading information resource about 2 - ESP Components electrostatic precipitators. The Introduction Electrostatic to Precipitators is a great starting point for 3 - ESP Design Precipitator background information, or proceed directly Parameters Services to specific topic areas of interest. The downloadable manuals at the right are 4 - ESP Design Review Flow Modeling Services

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Introduction to Precipitators

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An electrostatic precipitator is a large, industrial emission-control unit. It is designed to trap and remove dust particles from the exhaust gas stream of an industrial process. Precipitators are used in these industries: Power/Electric Cement Chemicals Metals Paper

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In many industrial plants, particulate matter created in the industrial process is carried as dust in the hot exhaust gases. These dustladen gases pass through an electrostatic precipitator that collects most of the dust. Cleaned gas then passes out of the precipitator and through a stack to the atmosphere. Precipitators typically collect 99.9% or more of the dust from the gas stream.

Precipitators function by electrostatically

charging the dust particles in the gas stream. The charged particles are then attracted to and deposited on plates or other collection devices. When enough dust has accumulated, the collectors are shaken to dislodge the dust, causing it to fall with the force of gravity to hoppers below. The dust is then removed by a conveyor system for disposal or recycling. Depending upon dust characteristics and the gas volume to be treated, there are many different sizes, types and designs of electrostatic precipitators. Very large power plants may actually have multiple precipitators for each unit. Basic Principles (Back to top) Electrostatic precipitation removes particles from the exhaust gas stream of an industrial process. Often the process involves combustion, but it can be any industrial process that would otherwise emit particles to the atmosphere. Six activities typically take place: Ionization - Charging of particles Migration - Transporting the charged particles to the collecting surfaces Collection - Precipitation of the charged particles onto the collecting surfaces Charge Dissipation - Neutralizing the charged particles on the collecting surfaces Particle Dislodging - Removing the particles from the collecting surface to the hopper Particle Removal - Conveying the particles from the hopper to a disposal point

The major precipitator components that accomplish these activities are as follows: Discharge Electrodes Power Components Precipitator Controls Rapping Systems Purge Air Systems Flue Gas Conditioning

Design & Performance Requirements

(Back to top) Designing a precipitator for optimum performance requires proper sizing of the precipitator in addition to optimizing precipitator efficiency. While some users rely on the precipitator manufacturer to determine proper sizing and design parameters, others choose to either take a more active role in this process or hire outside engineering firms. Precipitator performance depends on its size and collecting efficiency. Important parameters include the collecting area and the gas volume to be treated. Other key factors in precipitator performance include the electrical power input and dust chemistry.

Precipitator sizing The sizing process is complex as each precipitator manufacturer has a unique method of sizing, often involving the use of computer models and always involving a good dose of judgment. No computer model on its own can assess all the variables that affect precipitator performance. Collecting Efficiency Based on specific gas volume and dust load, calculations are used to predict the required size of a precipitator to achieve a desired collecting efficiency. Power Input Power input is comprised of the voltage and current in an electrical field. Increasing the power input improves precipitator collecting efficiency under normal conditions. (Back to top)

Process Variables

Gas characteristics and particle properties define how well a precipitator will work in a given application. The main process variables to consider are:

Gas flow rate The gas flow rate in a power plant is defined by coal quality, boiler load, excess air rate and boiler design. Where there is no combustion, the gas flow rate will have process-specific determinants. Particle size and size distribution

The size distribution in a power plant is defined by coal quality, the coal mill settings and burner design. Particle size for noncombustion processes will have similar determinants.

Particle resistivity The resistivity of fly ash or other particles is influenced by the chemical composition and the gas temperature. Gas temperature

Following are details of these process variables:

1. Gas Flow Rate

A precipitator operates best with a gas velocity of 3.5 - 5.5 ft/sec. At higher velocity, particle reentrainment increases rapidly. If velocity is too low, performance may suffer from poor gas flow distribution or from particle dropout in the ductwork.

2. Particle Size
A precipitator collects particles most easily when the particle size is coarse. The generation of the charging corona in the inlet field may be suppressed if the gas stream has too many small particles (less than 1 m). Very small particles (0.2 - 0.4m) are the most difficult to collect because the fundamental fieldcharging mechanism is overwhelmed by diffusion charging due to random collisions with free ions.

3. Particle Resistivity
Resistivity is resistance to electrical conduction. The higher the resistivity, the harder it is for a particle to transfer its electrical charge. Resistivity is influenced by the chemical composition of the gas stream, particle temperature and gas temperature. Resistivity should be kept in the range of 108 1010 ohm-cm. High resistivity can reduce precipitator performance. For example, in combustion processes, burning reduced-sulfur coal

increases resistivity and reduces the collecting efficiency of the precipitator. Sodium and iron oxides in the fly ash can reduce resistivity and improve performance, especially at higher operating temperatures. On the other hand, low resistivity can also be a problem. For example (in combustion processes), unburned carbon reduces precipitator performance because it is so conductive and loses its electrical charge so quickly that it is easily re-entrained from the collecting plate.

4. Gas Temperature
The effect of gas temperature on precipitator collecting efficiency, given its influence on particle resistivity, can be significant.

5. Interactions to Consider
Particle size distribution and particle resistivity affect the cohesiveness of the layer of precipitated material on the collecting plates and the ability of the rapping system to dislodge this layer for transport into the precipitator hopper without excessive re-entrainment. About Discharge Electrodes top) (Back to

Discharge electrodes emit charging current and provide voltage that generates an electrical field between the discharge electrodes and the collecting plates. The electrical field forces dust particles in the gas stream to migrate toward the collecting plates. The particles then precipitate onto the collecting plates. Common types of discharge electrodes include: Straight round wires Twisted wire pairs Barbed discharge wires Rigid masts Rigid frames Rigid spiked pipes Spiral wires

Discharge electrodes are typically supported

from the upper discharge frame and are held in alignment between the upper and lower discharge frames. The upper discharge frame is in turn supported from the roof of the precipitator casing. High-voltage insulators are incorporated into the support system. In weighted wire systems, the discharge electrodes are held taut by weights at the lower end of the wires. About Collecting Plates (Back to top) Collecting plates are designed to receive and retain the precipitated particles until they are intentionally removed into the hopper. Collecting plates are also part of the electrical power circuit of the precipitator. These collecting plate functions are incorporated into the precipitator design. Plate baffles shield the precipitated particles from the gas flow while smooth surfaces provide for high operating voltage. Collecting plates are suspended from the precipitator casing and form the gas passages within the precipitator. While the design of the collecting plates varies by manufacturer, there are two common designs:

Plates supported from anvil beams at either end The anvil beam is also the point of impact for the collecting rapper Plates supported with hooks directly from the precipitator casing Two or more collecting plates are connected at or near the center by rapper beams, which then serve as impact points for the rapping system

Top, center, or bottom spacer bars may be used to maintain collecting plate alignment and sustain electrical clearances to the discharge system. About Power Supplies and Controls (Back to top) The power supply system is designed to provide voltage to the electrical field (or bus section) at the highest possible level. The voltage must be controlled to avoid causing sustained arcing or sparking between the electrodes and the collecting plates. Click here to view a precipitator power system animated schematic showing

representative components. Electrically, a precipitator is divided into a grid, with electrical fields in series (in the direction of the gas flow) and one or more bus sections in parallel (cross-wise to the gas flow). When electrical fields are in series, the power supply for each field can be adjusted to optimize operation of that field. Likewise, having more than one electrical bus section in parallel allows adjustments to compensate for their differences, so that power input can be optimized. The power supply system has four basic components:

Automatic voltage control Step-up transformer High-voltage rectifier Sensing device Automatic voltage control varies the power to the transformerrectifier in response to signals received from sensors in the precipitator and the transformerrectifier itself. It monitors the electrical conditions inside the precipitator, protects the internal components from arc-over damages, and protects the transformer-rectifier and other components in the primary circuit. The ideal automatic voltage control would produce the maximum collecting efficiency by holding the operating voltage of the precipitator at a level just below the spark-over voltage. However, this level cannot be achieved given that conditions

1. Voltage control

change from moment to moment. Instead, the automatic voltage control increases output from the transformer-rectifier until a spark occurs. Then the control resets to a lower power level, and the power increases again until the next spark occurs. Automatic Voltage Controllers (for Electrostatic Precipitators) An electronic device used to control the application of D.C. power into a field of an electrostatic precipitator. (PIC OF MVC4 FACE PANEL AND PIC OF INTERFACE BOARD) Theory Optimize power application The primary purpose of a voltage controller is to deliver as much useful electrical power to the corresponding electrostatic precipitator field(s) as possible. This is not an easy job; electrical characteristics in the field(s) are constantly changing, which is why a voltage controller is required. Spark reaction When the voltage applied to the electrostatic precipitator field is too high for the conditions at the time, a spark over (or corona discharge) will occur. Detrimentally high amounts of current can occur during a spark over if not properly controlled, which could damage the fields. A voltage controller will monitor the primary and secondary voltage and current of the circuit, and detect a spark over condition. Once detected, the power applied to the field will be immediately cut off or reduced, which will stop the spark. After a short amount of time the power will be ramped back up, and the process will start over. Protect system components by adhering to component limitations The Transformer Rectifier set (TR set) can be damaged by excessive amounts of current or voltage flowing through it. Each TR set has voltage and current limits established by the manufacturer, which are labeled on an attached nameplate (PIC OF A NAMEPLATE). These nameplate limit values (typically primary and secondary current, and voltage) are programmed into the voltage controller. Through metering circuits, the voltage controller will monitor these values, and ensure these limits are not

exceeded. Tripping When a condition occurs that the voltage controller cannot control, often times the voltage controller will trip. A trip means the voltage controller (by way of the contactor) will shut off the individual precipitator power circuit. A short inside the electrostatic precipitator field caused by a fallen discharge electrode (wire), or a shorted out Silicone Controlled Rectifier are examples of conditions that a voltage controller cannot control. (PIC OF CLOSEUP OF TRIP LIGHT ON MVC4 FACE PANEL) Operation To maximize electrostatic precipitator efficiency a voltage controller usually attempts to increase the electrical power delivered to the field. However in some conditions a voltage controller must just maintain power at a constant level. Increased electrical power into the electrostatic precipitator directly correlates with better precipitator performance, but there is a limit. If too much voltages is applied for a given condition (as mentioned in the spark reaction section), a spark over will occur. During a spark over precipitator performance in that field will drop to zero, rendering that field temporarily ineffective. To overcome the crippling effect that spark over has to increasing the electrical power in the precipitator field, spark response algorithms have been developed that will interrupt power upon detection of a spark, then ramp power back up to a high level. These response algorithms can greatly influence overall precipitator performance.

1. Transformer-Rectifiers
The transformer-rectifier rating should be matched to the load imposed by the electrical field or bus section. The power supply will perform best when the transformerrectifiers operate at 70 - 90% of the rated capacity, without excessive sparking. This reduces the maximum continuous-load voltage and corona power inputs. Practical operating voltages for transformerrectifiers depend on: Collecting plate spacing Gas and dust conditions

Collecting plate and discharge electrode geometry

At secondary current levels over 1500 mA, internal impedance of a transformer-rectifier is low, which makes stable automatic voltage control more difficult to achieve. The design of the transformerrectifier should call for the highest possible impedance that is commensurate with the application and performance requirements. Often, this limits the size of the electrical field or bus section. It is general practice to add additional impedance in the form of a current-limiting reactor in the primary circuit. This reactor will limit the primary current during arcing and also improve the wave shape of the voltage/current fed into the transformer-rectifier.

2. Corona current density

Corona current density should be in the range of 10 - 100 mA/1000 ft2 of plate area. (Calculate this using secondary current divided by collecting area of the electrical field or bus section.) The actual level depends upon: Location of electrical field or bus section to be energized Collecting plate area Gas and dust conditions Collecting electrode and discharge wire geometry (Back

About Gas Distribution Systems to top)

One electrical field or bus section of an electrostatic precipitator is by itself an independent precipitator. Its operation is governed by the inlet gas and dust conditions, as well as the collecting plate and discharge electrode geometries. Within this electrical field or bus section, one gas passage is also an independent precipitator - governed by the same factors. (Note that the gas passage shares the voltage level with the adjacent gas passages of the same electrical field or bus section, but not

the corona current level, which can be different in each gas passage.) This points to the importance of creating similar gas and dust conditions 1) at the inlet of each electrical field or bus section, and 2) further at the inlet of each gas passage of the electrical field or bus section. Ideally, uniformity is desired in: Gas velocity Gas temperature Dust loading

Gas velocity distribution can be most effectively influenced by the use of gas distribution devices. The quality of gas velocity distribution can be measured in a scaled-down model of the precipitator and its ductwork, and also in the precipitator itself. Typical criteria are based on ICAC (Institute of Clean Air Companies) recommendations using average gas velocities or on a calculated RMS statistical representation of the gas velocity pattern. In general, gas distribution devices consist of turning vanes in the inlet ductwork, and perforated gas distribution plates in the inlet and/or outlet fields of the precipitator. About Rapping Systems (Back to top) Rappers are time-controlled systems provided for removing dust from the collecting plates and the discharge electrodes as well as for gas distribution devices (optional) and for hopper walls (optional). Rapping systems may be actuated by electrical or pneumatic power, or by mechanical means. Tumbling hammers may also be used to dislodge ash. Rapping methods include: Electric vibrators Electric solenoid piston drop rappers Pneumatic vibrating rappers Tumbling hammers Sonic horns (do not require transmission assemblies) In general, discharge electrodes should be kept as free as possible of accumulated particulate. The rapping system for the discharge electrodes should be operated on a continuous schedule with repeat

1. Discharge Electrode Rapping

times in the 2 - 4 minute range, depending on the size and inlet particulate loading of the precipitator.

2. Collecting Plate Rapping

Collecting plate rapping must remove the bulk of the precipitated dust. The collecting plates are supported from anvil beams or directly with hooks from the precipitator casing. With anvil beam support, the impact of the rapping system is directed into the beams located at the leading and/or trailing edge of the collecting plates. For direct casing support, the impact is directed into the rapper beams located at or near the center of the top of the collecting plates. The first electrical field generally collects about 60-80% of the inlet dust load. The first field plates should be rapped often enough so that their precipitated layer of particulate is about 3/8 - 1/2" thick. There is no advantage in rapping more often since the precipitated dust has not yet agglomerated to a sheet which requires a minimum layer thickness. Sheet formation is essential to make the dust drop into the precipitator hopper without reentrainment into the gas stream. Rapping less frequently typically results in a deterioration of the electrical power input by adding an additional resistance into the power circuit. Once an optimum rapping cycle has been found for the first electrical field (which may vary across the face of a large precipitator), the optimum rapping cycles for the downstream electrical fields can be established. The collecting plate rapping system of the first field has a repeat time T equal to the time it takes to build a 3/8 - 1/2"layer on the collecting plates. The plates in the second field should have a repeat time of about 5T, and the plates in the third field should have a repeat time of 25T. Ideally, these repeat times yield a deposited layer of 3/8-1/2" for the plates in all three fields. Adjustment may be required for

factors such as dust resistivity, dust layer cohesiveness, gas temperature effects, electrical field height and length, and the collecting area served by one rapper.

3. Gas Distribution Plate and Hopper

Wall Rapping The gas distribution plates should also be kept free of excessive particulate buildup and may require rapping on a continuous base with a cycle time in the 10-20 minute range, depending on the inlet particulate loading of the precipitator and the nature of the particulate. Gas distribution plates in the outlet of the precipitator may be rapped less often (every 30 - 60 minutes).

4. Improving Rapping System

Performance All precipitator rapping systems allow adjustment of rapping frequency, normally starting with the highest frequency (the least time between raps), progressing to the lowest frequency. The times that are actually available may be limited. Rapping systems with pneumatic or electric actuators allow variations of the rapping intensity. Pneumatic or electric vibrators allow adjustments of the rapping time. State-of-the-art rapper controls allow selection of rapping sequences, selection of individual rappers, and provide anti-coincidence schemes which allow only one rapper to operate at a given time. Rapping systems can be optimized for top precipitator performance using precipitator power input and stack opacity as criteria. Optimization of the rapping system starts with the discharge electrode rapping system operating on its own time schedule, for example with repeat times of 2 - 4 minutes. The rapping system for the gas distribution screens in the inlet and outlet of the precipitator should then be operated with repeat times of 2-3 minutes for the inlet and 2 - 3 hours for the outlet screens. The only rapping system requiring optimization is the collecting plate rapping

system. The optimization should start with the Collecting Plate Rapping Schedule determined above. Next, the rapping frequency of the inlet field should be increased or decreased until the electrical power input of the inlet field remains constant. Next, the rapping frequency of the other fields should be adjusted in sequence until their electrical power inputs remain constant. If the stack opacity trace shows rapping spikes, the rapping intensity should be reduced while observing the electrical power input of the precipitator. The adjustment of the rapping system for optimum precipitator performance is a slow process. It requires a substantial amount of time for stabilization after each adjustment. About Hoppers (Back to top) Precipitator hoppers are designed to completely discharge dust load on demand. Typically, precipitator hoppers are rectangular in cross-section with sides of at least 60-degree slope. These hoppers are insulated from the neck above the discharge flange with the insulation covering the entire hopper area. In addition, the lower 1/4- 1/3 of the hopper wall may be heated. Discharge diameters are generally 8" - 12".

1. Insulation
Insulation provides protection for facility personnel as well as working to retain as much hopper wall temperature as possible. Hopper wall temperature retention discourages condensation on the inside of the hopper. Heaters are added to ensure hot metal surfaces immediately above the fly ash discharge.

2. Facilitating hopper discharge

Hopper discharge problems are caused by compaction of the fly ash in the hopper. Compaction characteristics are affected by moisture content, particle size and shape, head of material, and vibration. The flow of fly ash out of the hopper can be facilitated by the use of external vibrators. These can operate on the outside wall of the hopper or on an internal hopper baffle.

3. Hopper fluidizers
Hopper fluidizers have a membrane

that permits air flow to the fly ash directly above. This air flow fills the voids between the fly ash particles at a slight pressure, changes the repose angle of the particles, and promotes gravity flow.

4. Ash handling system

The fly ash handling system evacuates the fly ash from the hoppers, and transports the fly ash to reprocessing or to disposal. The ash handling system should be designed and operated to remove the collected fly ash from the hoppers without causing reentrainment into the gas flow through the precipitator. The design of the ash handling system should allow for flexibility of scheduling the hopper discharges according to the fly ash being collected in these hoppers. Either the precipitator hopper or the feeder hopper is used for temporarily storing material prior to discharge. Three types of handling systems are in use:

Negative pressure or vacuum system Connects to the hopper by a simple discharge valve Positive pressure dilute phase system Uses an airlock-type feeder; the feeder is separated from the hopper by an inlet gate and from the conveying line by a discharge gate Positive pressure dense phase system Connects to the hopper with an airlock type feeder. (Back to top)

About Ductwork

Ductwork connects the precipitator with upstream and downstream equipment. The design of the ductwork takes into consideration the following:

Low resistance to gas flow Achieved by selecting a suitable cross-section for the ductwork and by installing gas flow control devices, such as turning valves and

flow straighteners

Gas velocity distribution Gas flow control devices are used to maintain good gas velocity distribution Minimal fallout of fly ash Fallout can be minimized by using a suitable transport velocity Minimal stratification of the fly ash A suitable transport velocity also reduces fly ash stratification in the gas stream Low heat loss The goal is to reduce the heat loss of the flue gas to a level that will prevent acid or moisture condensation in the downstream equipment, requiring the use of thermal insulation protected by external siding. Structural integrity Ductwork structure supports its total load, including wind and snow loads. The design also allows for accumulated fly ash, negative/positive operating pressure, and gas temperature. Expansion joints are used to accommodate thermal growth. (Back

About Gas Velocity Distribution to top)

Efficient precipitator performance depends heavily upon having similar gas conditions at the inlet of each electrical field or bus section and at the inlet of each gas passage of the electrical field or bus section. Uniformity of gas velocity is also desirable good gas velocity distribution through a precipitator meets these requirements: 85% of all measured gas velocities < 1.15 times the average gas velocity 99% of all measured gas velocities < 1.40 times the average gas velocity

1. Improving Gas Velocity

Distribution The gas velocity distribution in a precipitator can be customized according to the design of the precipitator and the characteristics of the dust particles. Traditionally, precipitators have been designed with uniform gas velocity

distribution through the electrical fields, to avoid high-velocity areas that would cause re-entrainment. While this is still a recommended practice, there is an advantage in some cases to developing a velocity profile that brings more particles closer to the hopper. Both of these schemes have applications in site-specific conditions. Gas velocity distribution can be controlled by the following: Adding/improving gas flow control devices in the inlet ductwork Adding/improving flow control devices in the inlet of the precipitator Adding/improving flow control devices in the outlet of the precipitator Adding a rapping system to the flow control devices (where applicable) Adding/improving anti-sneak baffles at the peripheries of the electrical fields Adding/improving hopper baffles Eliminating air leakages into the precipitator (Back to top)

About Re-entrainment

Reducing rapping re-entrainment to an acceptable level generally requires a substantial improvement of the gas velocity distribution and the electrical power density and uniformity, as well as an extended optimization program for the collectingplate rapping system. Factors Affecting Re-entrainment Re-entrainment of collected particles is the major contributor to particulate emissions of the precipitator. In some cases, reentrainment accounts for 60 - 80% of the residual. The major causes of re-entrainment are as follows: Particles: Low cohesiveness Low adhesion to collecting plates

 Voltage Controls: Design: Rapping System:

Particle size Low resistivity Spark rate setting Collecting plate design Discharge electrode design Plate spacing Frequency Intensity Duration (if applicable) Collecting plate and discharge electrode rapping Sparking Saltation Erosion (localized high gas velocity) Sneakage Hopper design Leakage (hopper valve) Hopper gas flow

Electrical Field:

Hopper:

About Corona Power

(Back to top)

Precipitator corona power is the useful electrical power applied to the flue gas stream to precipitate particles. Either precipitator collecting efficiency or outlet residual can be expressed as a function of corona power in Watts/1000 acfm of flue gas, or in Watts/1000 ft of collection area. The separation of particles from the gas flow in an electrostatic precipitator depends on the applied corona power. Corona power is the product of corona current and voltage. Current is needed to charge the particles. Voltage is needed to support an electrical field, which in turn transports the particles

to the collecting plates. In the lower range of collecting efficiencies, relatively small increases in corona power result in substantial increases in collecting efficiency. On the other hand, in the upper ranges, even large increases in corona power will result in only small efficiency increases. Equally, in the lower range of the corona power levels, a small increase in the corona power results in a substantial reduction in the gas stream particle content. In the upper range of the corona power level, a large increase is required to reduce the particle content. Optimizing Corona Power Optimum conditions depend upon the location of the field (inlet, center and outlet), fly ash characteristics (resistivity) and physical conditions (collecting plates and discharge wires). Corona power levels can be optimized by adjusting or optimizing the following: Gas velocity: Uniformity Particle size Resistivity Spark rate setting Current & voltage limits Plate spacing Collecting plate & discharge electrode design Frequency & intensity Purge air system operation

Fly Ash: Voltage Controls:

Design:

Rapping System: Support Insulator:

About Performance Improvements (Back to top) Improvement or optimization of precipitator operation can result in significant savings. Many specific situations encourage a review

of precipitator operation: Deterioration of existing equipment Tightening of air pollution emission regulations Changes in products and/or production rates Frequent forced outages De-rating of production

To learn more about performance improvement programs, refer to the appropriate section: Gas Velocity Distribution Corona Power Re-entrainment Process Improvements Flue Gas/Fly Ash Conditioning Equipment Improvements Equipment Improvements (Back to top)

The objectives of equipment improvements are to optimize corona power, reduce reentrainment, and optimize gas velocity distribution inside the precipitator. Some important topics to consider when planning equipment improvements include:

1. Precipitator Size
When sizing the precipitator, it is important to provide a crosssection that will maintain an acceptable gas velocity. It is also important to provide for enough total discharge wire length and collecting plate area, so that the desired specific corona current and electrical field can be applied.

2. Gas Velocity Distribution

Improving gas velocity distribution in the precipitator reduces particle re-entrainment and boosts precipitator efficiency. Typically, a uniform gas velocity is desired, but there are site-specific exceptions. Gas velocity distribution can be modified by using flow control devices and baffles. Refer to the special section on gas velocity distribution.

3. Corona Power
The separation of dust particles from the gas flow in an electrostatic precipitator depends

on the applied corona power. Corona power is the product of corona current and voltage. Current is needed to charge the particles. Voltage is needed to support an electrical field, which in turn transports the particles to the collecting plates. For additional information, refer to Corona Power.

4. Sectionalization
The precipitator is divided into electrical sections that are crosswise and parallel to the gas flow to accommodate spatial differences in gas and dust conditions. Optimization of corona power involves adjusting the corona power (secondary voltage and current) in each electrical section for optimum conditions.

5. Particle Re-entrainment
Minimizing re-entrainment of dust particles is important to improvement of precipitator efficiency. Most precipitator equipment affects the reentrainment level. For a detailed discussion, visit the special section on re-entrainment.

6. Additional Equipment
Performance improvement options include the installation of a second precipitator in series with the existing precipitator; using fabric filters downstream of the precipitator; and adding a second particle collector in parallel with the existing collector. Other possibilities include sonic or electrostatic particle agglomerators upstream of the precipitator; a mechanical upstream collector; or an electrostatically-enhanced or mechanical collector, or a filter downstream of the precipitator.

7. Review the General Equipment

Requirements Reviewing the Neundorfer Knowledge Base sections on equipment will provide additional insight into performance improvements. For more information, see these related topics:

Gas Velocity Distribution Corona Power Re-entrainment Discharge Electrodes Collecting Plates Power Supplies Gas Distribution Rapping Systems Hoppers and Dust Handling Ductwork Combustion Process Improvements for Power Plants (Back to top) Combustion process conditions mainly affect the corona power level. The primary contributors to combustion process conditions and their effects include: Coal Flue gas flow rate Flue gas moisture content Fly ash resistivity Fly ash inlet loading Fly ash particle size Coal mills Fly ash particle size Unburned carbon (LOI) Furnace Base load/swing load operation Flue gas flow rate Burners Flue gas temperature Fly ash resistivity Unburned carbon (LOI) Air pre-heaters Rotation Gas flow pattern Gas temperature pattern SO3 distribution pattern Coal Bituminous coals from Eastern mines, subbituminous and lignite coals from Western mines, and lignites from Texas mines are substantially different from each other in the combustion process. Coal blending is now used for operational and financial benefits. This results in a wide range of boiler and precipitator operating conditions. Precipitating fly ash from difficult coals can be improved with conditioning systems. However, the furnace and its associated equipment can still cause problems in the precipitator, particularly coal mills, burners, and air pre-heaters.

Coal Mills The setting of the coal mills and classifiers defines the coal particle size which in turn impacts the fly ash particle size. Larger coal particles are more difficult to combust, but larger fly ash particles are easier to collect in the precipitator. Furnace Base-load operation of the boiler is usually better for precipitator operation than swingload operation due to more stable operating conditions. Boiler operation at low loads may be as problematic for the precipitator as operating the boiler at its maximum load level, due to fallout of fly ash in the ductwork, low gas temperatures, and deterioration of the quality of the gas velocity distribution. If low load operation cannot be avoided, the installation of additional gas flow control devices in the inlet and outlet of the precipitator may prove beneficial. Coal Burner The operation of coal burners, together with the setting of the coal mills and their classifiers, affects the percentage of unburned carbon (LOI or UBC) in the fly ash. The use of Lo-NOx burners increases this percentage, and causes re-entrainment and increased sparking in the precipitator. Further, the UBC tends to absorb SO3, which in turn increases the fly ash resistivity. Over-fire air optimization or coal-reburn systems may reduce UBC in the fly ash. Air Pre-heater Regenerative air pre-heaters cause temperature and SO3 stratification in the downstream gas flow. This problem is more severe in closely coupled systems, where the precipitator is located close to the air preheater. Depending upon site-specific conditions, flow mixing devices may be installed in the ductwork to the precipitator, or flue gas conditioning systems may be used to equalize the gas flow characteristics.

Fly Ash and Flue Gas Conditioning (Back to top) Flue gas and fly ash characteristics at the inlet define precipitator operation. The combination of flue gas analysis, flue gas temperature and fly ash chemistry provides the base for fly ash resistivity. Typically, fly ash resistivity involves both surface and volume resistivity. As gas temperature increases, surface conductivity decreases and volume resistivity increases. In lower gas temperature ranges, surface conductivity predominates. The current passing through the precipitated fly ash layer is conducted in a film of weak sulfuric acid on the surface of the particles. Formation of the acid film (from SO3 and H2O) is influenced by the surface chemistry of the fly ash particles. In higher gas temperature ranges, volume conductivity predominates. Current conduction through the bodies (volume) of the precipitated fly ash particles is governed by the total chemistry of the particles. Fly ash resistivity can be modified (generally with the intent to reduce it) by injecting one or more of the following upstream of the precipitator:

Sulfur trioxide (SO3) Ammonia (NH3) Water

Sulfur Trioxide and Ammonia Conditioning Systems In most cases, a sulfur trioxide conditioning system is sufficient to reduce fly ash resistivity to an acceptable level. The source of sulfur trioxide can be liquid sulfur dioxide, molten elemental sulfur, or granulated sulfur. It is also possible to convert native flue gas SO2 to SO3. In some instances, ammonia alone has been proven a suitable conditioning agent. It forms an ammonia-based particulate to increase the space charge. The source of ammonia may be liquid anhydrous or aqueous ammonia, or solid urea. Finally, sulfur trioxide and ammonia may be used in combination. This solution has been successful because it can lower fly ash resistivity and also form ammonia bisulfate. The latter increases the adhesion of

particles, and thus reduces re-entrainment losses. Water Injection The injection of water upstream of the precipitator lowers the gas temperature and adds moisture to the flue gas. Both are beneficial in cold-side precipitator applications. However, care must be taken that all of the water is evaporated and that the walls in the ductwork or gas distribution devices do not get wet.

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Electrostatic precipitator
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Electrostatic precipitator of a biomass heating system with a heat power of 2 MW

An electrostatic precipitator (ESP), or electrostatic air cleaner is a particulate collection device that removes particles from a flowing gas (such as air) using the force of an induced electrostatic charge. Electrostatic precipitators are highly efficient filtration devices that minimally impede the flow of gases through the device, and can easily remove fine particulate matter such as dust and smoke from the air stream.[1] In contrast to wet scrubbers which apply energy directly to the flowing fluid medium, an ESP applies energy only to the particulate matter

being collected and therefore is very efficient in its consumption of energy (in the form of electricity).

Contents
[hide] 1 Invention of the electrostatic precipitator 2 The plate precipitator 2.1 Collection efficiency (R) 3 Modern industrial electrostatic precipitators 4 Wet electrostatic precipitator 5 Consumer-oriented electrostatic air cleaners 6 See also 7 References 8 External links

[edit] Invention of the electrostatic precipitator

The first use of corona discharge to remove particles from an aerosol was by Hohlfeld in 1824. However, it was not commercialized until almost a century later. In 1907 Dr. Frederick G. Cottrell applied for a patent on a device for charging particles and then collecting them through electrostatic attraction the first electrostatic precipitator. He was then a professor of chemistry at the University of California, Berkeley. Cottrell first applied the device to the collection of sulfuric acid mist and lead oxide fume emitted from various acid-making and smelting activities. Vineyards in northern California were being adversely affected by the lead emissions. At the time of Cottrell's invention, the theoretical basis for operation was not understood. The operational theory was developed later in the 1920s, in Germany. Prof. Cottrell used proceeds from his invention to fund scientific research through the creation of a foundation called Research Corporation in 1912 to which he assigned the patents. The intent of the organization was to bring inventions made by educators (such as Cottrell) into the commercial world for the benefit of society at large. The operation of Research Corporation is perpetuated by royalties paid by commercial firms after commercialization occurs. Research Corporation has provided vital funding to many scientific projects: Goddard's rocketry experiments, Lawrence's cyclotron, production methods for vitamins A and B1, among many others. By a decision of the U.S. Supreme Court the Corporation had to be split into two entities, the Research Corporation and two commercial firms making the hardware: Research-Cottrell Inc. (operating east of the Mississippi River) and Western Precipitation operating in the Western states. The Research Corporation continues to be active to this day and the two companies formed to commercialize the invention for industrial and utility applications are still in business as well.

Electrophoresis is the term used for migration of gas-suspended charged particles in a directcurrent electrostatic field. If your television set accumulates dust on the face it is because of this phenomenon (a CRT is a direct-

[edit] The plate precipitator

The most basic precipitator contains a row of thin vertical wires, and followed by a stack of large flat metal plates oriented vertically, with the plates typically spaced about 1 cm to 18 cm apart, depending on the application. The air or gas stream flows horizontally through the spaces between the wires, and then passes through the stack of plates. A negative voltage of several thousand volts is applied between wire and plate. If the applied voltage is high enough an electric (corona) discharge ionizes the gas around the electrodes. Negative ions flow to the plates and charge the gas-flow particles. The ionized particles, following the negative electric field created by the power supply, move to the grounded plates. Particles build up on the collection plates and form a layer. The layer does not collapse, thanks to electrostatic pressure (given from layer resistivity, electric field, and current flowing in the collected layer).
[edit] Collection efficiency (R)

Precipitator performance is very sensitive due to two particulate properties: 1) Resistivity; and 2) Particle size distribution. These properties can be determined economically and accurately in the laboratory. A widely taught concept to calculate the collection efficiency is the Deutsch model, which assumes infinite remixing of the particles perpendicular to the gas stream. Resistivity can be determined as a function of temperature in accordance with IEEE Standard 548. This test is conducted in an air environment containing a specified moisture concentration. The test is run as a function of ascending or descending temperature or both. Data are acquired using an average ash layer electric field of 4 kV/cm. Since relatively low applied voltage is used and no sulfuric acid vapor is present in the environment, the values obtained indicate the maximum ash resistivity. Usually the descending temperature test is suggested when no unusual circumstances are involved. Before the test, the ash is thermally equilibrated in dry air at 454 C (850F) for about 14 hours. It is believed that this procedure anneals the ash and restores the surface to precollection condition. If there is a concern about the effect of combustibles, the residual effect of a conditioning agent other than sulfuric acid vapor, or the effect of some other agent that inhibits the reaction of the ash with water vapor, the combination of the ascending and descending test mode is recommended. The thermal treatment that occurs between the two test modes is capable of eliminating the foregoing effects. This results in ascending and descending temperature resistivity curves that show a hysteresis related to the presence and removal of some effect such as a significant level of combustibles. With particles of high resistivity (cement dust for example) Sulfur trioxide is sometimes injected into a flue gas stream to lower the resistivity of the particles in order to improve the collection efficiency of the electrostatic precipitator .

[edit] Modern industrial electrostatic precipitators

ESPs continue to be excellent devices for control of many industrial particulate emissions, including smoke from electricity-generating utilities (coal and oil fired), salt cake collection from black liquor boilers in pulp mills, and catalyst collection from fluidized bed catalytic cracker units in oil refineries to name a few. These devices treat gas volumes from several hundred thousand ACFM to 2.5 million ACFM (1,180 m/s) in the largest coal-fired boiler applications. For a coal-fired boiler the collection is usually performed downstream of the air preheater at about 160 C (320 deg.F) which provides optimal resistivity of the coal-ash particles. For some difficult applications with low-sulfur fuel hot-end units have been built operating above 371 C (700 deg.F). The original parallel plateweighted wire design (described above) has evolved as more efficient (and robust) discharge electrode designs were developed, today focusing on rigid (pipe-frame) discharge electrodes to which many sharpened spikes are attached (barbed wire), maximizing corona production. Transformer-rectifier systems apply voltages of 50 100 kV at relatively high current densities. Modern controls, such as an automatic voltage control, minimize electric sparking and prevent arcing (sparks are quenched within 1/2 cycle of the TR set), avoiding damage to the components. Automatic plate-rapping systems and hopper-evacuation systems remove the collected particulate matter while on line, theoretically allowing ESPs to stay in operation for years at a time.

[edit] Wet electrostatic precipitator

A wet electrostatic precipitator (WESP or wet ESP) operates with saturated air streams (100% relative humidity). WESPs are commonly used to remove liquid droplets such as sulfuric acid mist from industrial process gas streams. The WESP is also commonly used where the gases are high in moisture content, contain combustible particulate, have particles that are sticky in nature. The preferred and most modern type of WESP is a downflow tubular design. This design allows the collected moisture and particulate to form a slurry that helps to keep the collection surfaces clean. Plate style and upflow design WESPs are very unreliable and should not be used in applications where particulate is sticky in nature.

[edit] Consumer-oriented electrostatic air cleaners

Plate precipitators are commonly marketed to the public as air purifier devices or as a permanent replacement for furnace filters, but all have the undesirable attribute of being somewhat messy to clean. A negative side-effect of electrostatic precipitation devices is the production of toxic ozone and NOx. However, electrostatic precipitators offer benefits over other air purifications technologies, such as HEPA filtration, which require expensive filters and can become "production sinks" for many harmful forms of bacteria. The two-stage design (charging section ahead of collecting section) has the benefit of minimizing ozone production which would adversely affect health of personnel working in enclosed spaces. For shipboard engine rooms where gearboxes generate an oil fog, two-stage ESP's are used to clean the air improving the operating environment and preventing buildup of flammable oil fog accumulations. Collected oil is returned to the gear lubricating system. With electrostatic precipitators, if the collection plates are allowed to accumulate large amounts of particulate matter, the particles can sometimes bond so tightly to the metal plates that vigorous

washing and scrubbing may be required to completely clean the collection plates. The close spacing of the plates can make thorough cleaning difficult, and the stack of plates often cannot be easily disassembled for cleaning. One solution, suggested by several manufacturers, is to wash the collector plates in a dishwasher. Some consumer precipitation filters are sold with special soak-off cleaners, where the entire plate array is removed from the precipitator and soaked in a large container overnight, to help loosen the tightly bonded particulates. A study by the Canada Mortgage and Housing Corporation testing a variety of forced-air furnace filters found that ESP filters provided the best, and most cost-effective means of cleaning air using a forced-air system.[2] The first portable electrostatic air filer systems for homes was marketed in 1954 by Raytheon. [3]

[edit] See also

Scrubber Air ioniser Ozone generator Air Purge System

[edit] References
1. ^ IUPAC, Compendium of Chemical Terminology, 2nd ed. (the "Gold Book") (1997). Online corrected version: (2006) "electrostatic precipitator". 2. ^ "Your Furnace Filter: What A Furnace Filter Can Do For You". Canada Mortgage and Housing Corporation. Retrieved 2008-09-01. 3. ^ "Plug-in Filter Cleans the Air." Popular Science, July 1954, p. 70, bottom of page.

[edit] External links

ESP (Electrostatic Precipitator) Knowledge Base ESP (Electrostatic Precipitator) Technical Tips A guide to ESP optimization and controls. Hamon Research-Cottrell, worldwide leader in ESP design and supply An overview and comparison of the many different types of dust collection systems, including Electrostatic Precipitators. Wet & Dry Electrostatic Precipitators Applied Electrostatic Precipitation

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