Beechers Handouts

TOC
Beecher's Handouts
Jim Beecher
http://www.photokaboom.com/
Beechers Handouts by Jim Beecher (http://www.photokaboom.com/) This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivs License. To view a copy of this license, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/2.0/ or send a letter to Creative Commons, 559 Nathan Abbott Way, Stanford, CA 94305, U.S.A.
Class Questionnaire
Please fill this out and pass it in to me. The information will enable me to know what you want to learn.
Name: E-mail:
Which camera are you using? Is it new to you? What do you like and dislike about your camera? How familiar are you with its operation? Describe in your own words or check a box below. I'm a beginner. I have used only simple cameras before. I have used the camera on automatic or program exposure. I want to learn how to use it on manual exposure control. I know how to use the camera on manual exposure control. I want to learn more about things like depth-of-field. I have been taking pictures for years, but have never taken a class. I would like to review basic concepts in an organized way. What sort of photography do you enjoy? Do you use photography at work or school? If so, please describe. What do you want to learn? Why are you taking this class?
Table of Contents
Introduction ........................................................................................ 1
1 Class Goal ........................................................................................................ 1 2 Help ................................................................................................................ 1 3 Camera Type .................................................................................................... 1 4 Photography Cautions ........................................................................................ 1 5 Inclement Weather ............................................................................................ 2
Class Overview .................................................................................... 2

1 What to Bring ................................................................................................... 2 2 During Class ..................................................................................................... 2 3 Missed Assignments & Classes ............................................................................ 2
How to Get the Most Out of the Class ..................................................... 2

1 Quantity........................................................................................................... 3 2 Learning Pathways ............................................................................................ 3 3 Visual Notes ..................................................................................................... 3 4 Howard Gardner ................................................................................................ 3 5 Personality & Identity ........................................................................................ 3 6 Confusion Is Normal .......................................................................................... 3 7 Photography Isn't Easy or Quick .......................................................................... 3 8 Mistakes Are Good . . . ....................................................................................... 3 8 Limit Your Variables........................................................................................... 4 9 Ask.................................................................................................................. 4 10 Share ............................................................................................................. 4
Purchases ........................................................................................... 4
1 Fall Term.......................................................................................................... 4 2 Must Have Items ............................................................................................... 4
Visual Notes ........................................................................................ 4

1 What? .............................................................................................................. 4 2 Create a Folder ................................................................................................. 5 3 - Captions ........................................................................................................... 5
Confusing Terms.................................................................................. 5
1 Camera Feature Terms ...................................................................................... 6 2 Digital Data Terms ............................................................................................ 6 3 General Terms .................................................................................................. 9
Camera ............................................................................................. 10
1 The #1 Reason for Bad . . . ...............................................................................10
2 Camera Is Grab-able ........................................................................................10 3 Focus ..............................................................................................................10 4 Focus Problems ................................................................................................11 5 Shutter Release ...............................................................................................12 6 Two Viewfinder Problems ..................................................................................12 7 Select the File Format .......................................................................................14 8 Default Settings ...............................................................................................15 9 Checklist .........................................................................................................18 10 Lens & Sensor Cleaning ...................................................................................18 11 Deleting Photographs ......................................................................................20
Computer .......................................................................................... 21
1 Download Your Photographs ..............................................................................21 2 Get Organized! ................................................................................................23 3 Backup! ..........................................................................................................24 4 Backup on the Road .........................................................................................24 5 Migrate Files ....................................................................................................24
Light ................................................................................................. 25
1 Introduction ....................................................................................................25 2 Snow Analogy ..................................................................................................25 3 Sensitivity .......................................................................................................26 4 Encouragement ................................................................................................26 5 Take Pictures Out Your Window..........................................................................26 6 Take Pictures of a Newspaper ............................................................................27 7 Play with Light .................................................................................................27 Direction of the Light..............................................................................................28 Size of the Light Source ..........................................................................................28 8 Watch an Old B&W Movie ..................................................................................28 Summary .............................................................................................................29 9 What You See Is NOT .......................................................................................30 What You Get ........................................................................................................30
Lighting Contrast ................................................................................ 30

1 Introduction ....................................................................................................30 2 Detrimental Contrast ........................................................................................31 3 Beneficial Contrast ...........................................................................................31 4 See Like Your Camera .......................................................................................31 5 Averaging Doesn't Work ....................................................................................32 6 Camera & Software ..........................................................................................33 7 Change the Lighting .........................................................................................33
8 Polarizing Filter ................................................................................................34 9 Graduated Neutral Density Filter ........................................................................35
An Advanced Light Topic ...................................................................... 36

Dark Backgrounds with Flash ..................................................................................37 Why? ...................................................................................................................37
Light Summary ................................................................................... 38 Exposure Introduction ......................................................................... 38

Definition ..............................................................................................................38 Three Controls.......................................................................................................38
ISO ................................................................................................... 39
Definition ..............................................................................................................39 Lower ISO Settings ................................................................................................39 Higher ISO Settings ...............................................................................................39 Noise ...................................................................................................................39
Lens Opening ..................................................................................... 40

Aperture-Priority Exposure Mode .............................................................................40 Advantages ...........................................................................................................40
Shutter Speed .................................................................................... 40

1 Introduction ....................................................................................................40 2 Slow Shutter Speeds ........................................................................................41 3 Shutter Speed Example.....................................................................................42 4 Two Kinds of Blur .............................................................................................43
Setting Exposure ................................................................................ 43

1 The Light Meter ................................................................................................43 2 More about Light Meters....................................................................................44 3 Exposure Modes ...............................................................................................45 Auto Exposure Mode ..............................................................................................45 4 Exposure Mode Icons ........................................................................................46 5 Bracketing .......................................................................................................47 6 Exposure Compensation ....................................................................................47 7 Histograms ......................................................................................................48 8 How to Use Histograms .....................................................................................50 9 Autoexposure Lock ...........................................................................................52
Language of Stop................................................................................ 54
1 Note ...............................................................................................................54 2 Introduction ....................................................................................................54 3 Encouragement ................................................................................................54
4 Definitions .......................................................................................................54 5 Grammar Example #1 ......................................................................................55 6 Grammar Example #2 ......................................................................................55 7 More Examples ................................................................................................55 9 Three Countries ...............................................................................................56 10 Stop & ISO ....................................................................................................56 11 Stop & ISO Example .......................................................................................56 12 Stop & Lens Opening ......................................................................................57 13 Stop & Shutter Speed .....................................................................................57 14 Trading Stops ................................................................................................58 15 Moon Exercise ................................................................................................59
Light Meters Are Stupid ....................................................................... 60

1 Introduction ....................................................................................................60 2 Why Are They Stupid? ......................................................................................62 3 Getting the Correct Exposure .............................................................................62 5 Be Careful with Backlighting ..............................................................................63
Depth-of-Field .................................................................................... 64
1 Introduction ....................................................................................................64 2 Lens Opening...................................................................................................65 3 Distance from the Subject .................................................................................66 4 Sensor Size .....................................................................................................66 5 How to Get Less ...............................................................................................67 6 A Reason for Poor Backgrounds..........................................................................68 7 A Myth ............................................................................................................69 8 Diffraction .......................................................................................................69
Focal Length ...................................................................................... 70

1 MMs ...............................................................................................................70 2 Odds & Ends ....................................................................................................72 3 Lens Factor .....................................................................................................72 4 Flare ...............................................................................................................72 5 Volume & Background.......................................................................................73 6 Portraits ..........................................................................................................75
Filters................................................................................................ 75
1 Introduction ....................................................................................................75 2 Clear ..............................................................................................................76 3 Polarizing ........................................................................................................76 4 More About Polarizing Filters ..............................................................................76 5 Graduated Neutral Density ................................................................................76
White Balance .................................................................................... 76

1 Introduction ....................................................................................................76 2 Is AWB the Best? .............................................................................................77
Composition ....................................................................................... 78
1 Introduction ....................................................................................................78 2 Guidelines .......................................................................................................79 3 The Frame .......................................................................................................79 4 Planes.............................................................................................................79 5 Other Factors...................................................................................................81
Flash ................................................................................................. 81
1 Pros & Cons of Using Flash ................................................................................81 2 Pros................................................................................................................81 3 Cons ...............................................................................................................82 4 Fill Flash .........................................................................................................83 5 Flash Exposure Compensation ............................................................................84 6 Red Eye ..........................................................................................................85 7 Catch Lights ....................................................................................................85
Assignments ...................................................................................... 87
Introduction ..........................................................................................................87
Assignment #1 Transform a Mundane Object with Light & Color ............ 89

Do the Following ....................................................................................................89 Look for Stage Sets .............................................................................................89 Look for Found Lighting Design................................................................................89 Tips .....................................................................................................................89 Repetition .............................................................................................................91
Assignment #3 Shutter Speed ........................................................... 93

A Little History ......................................................................................................93 Do the Following ....................................................................................................93 Blinking Hi ............................................................................................................93 Blinking Lo ............................................................................................................94 Tips .....................................................................................................................94 More Tips..............................................................................................................94 For More Experienced Students ...............................................................................94 A Bungee Jumper Frozen ........................................................................................95 In Mid-Fall Panic ....................................................................................................95 Autumn Leaves Floating Down .................................................................................95 As Stream as Streaks of Yellow ...............................................................................95
City Lights as Streaks, Jiggles, & Swirls ....................................................................95 Zooming During the Exposure .................................................................................95 Panning ................................................................................................................96
Assignment #4 Depth-of-field ............................................................ 97

Point-and-shoot Camera Users ................................................................................97 Digital SLR Camera Users .......................................................................................97
Assignment #5 Portrait Sitting ........................................................... 99

Do the Following ....................................................................................................99 Planned ................................................................................................................99 Your Goal .............................................................................................................99 Tips .....................................................................................................................99 The Most Important Tip ........................................................................................ 100
Assignment #6 Interiors ................................................................. 101

Tips ................................................................................................................... 101 Preparation ......................................................................................................... 103 Do the Following .................................................................................................. 103 Tips ................................................................................................................... 103 Your Own Assignments ......................................................................................... 105 Project ............................................................................................................... 105 Ideas ................................................................................................................. 105 Also ................................................................................................................... 105
Instruction Manual Assignments ......................................................... 107

Four Tips ............................................................................................................ 107 Changing the Settings .......................................................................................... 107
Instruction Manual Assignment #1 Flash ........................................... 108

1 - Introduction ................................................................................................... 108 2 - Default Flash Settings ..................................................................................... 108 3 - Turn the Flash Off ........................................................................................... 108 4 - Turn the Flash On in the Sun ............................................................................ 109 5 - Use the Night (Twilight) Portrait Setting ............................................................ 109 6 - Frozen with a Blurred Image ............................................................................ 110
Instruction Manual Assignment #2 ISO ............................................. 110

Exercise ............................................................................................................. 110 Reduce Noise ...................................................................................................... 110
Instruction Manual Assignment #3 Shutter Speed .............................. 111

1 - Jogger & Blur Icons ......................................................................................... 111 2 - S or Tv .......................................................................................................... 111
3 - Scene Modes .................................................................................................. 111
Instruction Manual Assignment #4 Lens Opening ............................... 112

Note................................................................................................................... 112 1 - Flower & Face Icons ........................................................................................ 112 2 - A or Av .......................................................................................................... 113 3 - Scene Modes .................................................................................................. 113
Instruction Manual Assignment #5 White Balance .............................. 113

White Balance Icons ............................................................................................. 114 Custom (Preset) White Balance ............................................................................. 114
Instruction Manual Assignment #6 Autoexposure Lock ....................... 115

Example #1 ........................................................................................................ 115 Example #2 ........................................................................................................ 115 Spot Metering ..................................................................................................... 115
Instruction Manual Assignment #7 Exposure Compensation ................ 116

Richer Color ........................................................................................................ 116 Tricky Exposure Situations .................................................................................... 116 Setting Exposure Compensation ............................................................................ 116 Caution .............................................................................................................. 116
Instruction Manual Assignment #8 Focal Length ................................ 116

Simple Use of Focal Length ................................................................................... 117 More Creative Use of Focal Length ......................................................................... 117 Experiment ......................................................................................................... 117
Final Exam Review ............................................................................ 119

1 Wisdom ........................................................................................................ 119 2 Light ............................................................................................................. 119 3 WYSINWYG ................................................................................................... 120 4 Language of Stop ........................................................................................... 120 5 Exposure Mode Dial ........................................................................................ 120 6 Depth-of-field ................................................................................................ 121 7 Focal Length .................................................................................................. 121 8 Filters ........................................................................................................... 121 9 White Balance ................................................................................................ 121 10 Light Meters Are Stupid ................................................................................. 122 11 And Lastly, the Hard Part . . .......................................................................... 122
Introduction
Table of Contents
1 Class Goal
My goal for teaching was created by an experience I had twenty-some years ago. As a teaching assistant in an advanced class, I was surprised by how many of the students didn't have a solid foundation in photography. You will, with the help of Beecher's Handouts.
I found that students using pointand-shoot cameras did as well as those with digital SLR cameras. There are features that some pointand-shoot cameras dont have. Point-and-shoot cameras users have to circle the airport when were discussing those features. Likewise, digital SLR camera users have to patient when were searching through the complicated point-and-shoot camera menus. All students should remember that the person behind the camera is far more important than the camera.
2 Help
Please contact me at Jim@photokaboom.com if you have a question. I often come early to class, as well. Visit my website, http://www.photokaboom.com/, for additional resources. Look for the For Jims Students menu. Ive gathered resources pertinent to your needs there.
4 Photography Cautions
Many organizations do not allow photography on their premises. Be sure to ask. Be cautious photographing government buildings, other structures, property, and transportation systems. Although rare, photographers have been harassed and even arrested for innocuous photographs. Police officers, and other government personnel, generally, do not like to be photographed. Be sure to ask. Do not photograph children without their parents or guardian's permission.
3 Camera Type
In the film era, most photography classes required students to use SLR cameras. Point-and-shoot camera users couldnt take most classes. During the transition to digital photography, any type of camera was okay.
5 Inclement Weather
Classes are cancelled for weather by the administrators at the institutions below.
International Center of Photography: 212-857-0000 92nd St. Y: 212-415-5562
Class Overview
Table of Contents
1 What to Bring
Bring your camera to class. Bring the handouts to each class.
You can show prints, or files from a CD, flash card, memory stick, and so forth. 4) Creative Topics We'll begin to study the art of photography as the class proceeds: How to use the tools of photography, especially light, to make photographs that communicate well. How the camera and sensor see the world compared to our vision. You'll see the work of many photographers.
2 During Class
We'll do the following four activities each week: 1) Technical Tools The technical tools of photography will be covered during lectures, demonstrations, and critiques of assignments. 2) Assignments You'll be given an assignment each week. The assignments are described below. You may show photographs unrelated to the assignments, as well. 3) Critique Critiques are positive. At home, edit your photographs down to about eight or so.
3 Missed Assignments & Classes

If you're unable to do an assignment, please come to class anyways. You may bring in photographs from previous assignments at any time. If you miss a class, feel free to contact me about what you missed.
How to Get the Most Out of the Class

Table of Contents
You're photography will benefit if you do the following.

1 Quantity
Take/make lots of photographs.
identityhis or her way-ofworking. Do the Creative Energy Questionnaire at http://www.photokaboom.co m/. The Creative Energy Questionnaire asks you lots of questions about you and photography. With PATH and the Creative Energy Questionnaire you'll find out who you are as a photographer.
2 Learning Pathways
Use every learning pathway. Text, such as this book Visual, such as the photographs seen in newspapers, magazines, books, galleries, and museums. Experiential, such as doing assignments and projects
3 Visual Notes
Reinforce your learning with visual notes (to be described).
6 Confusion Is Normal
Understand that you'll be confused at first. You have a mastery of what you do. It may be disconcerting to suddenly find yourself confused, especially if you haven't been a student for a long time.
4 Howard Gardner
Think about your type of intelligence. Howard Gardner developed a theory of multiple intelligences. The interests and career of a new student tell me something about how they'll learn in my class. That may be a good starting point for your thinking as well. For example, an opera singer may learn differently than an investment banker.
7 Photography Isn't Easy or Quick

You can't learn photography easily and quickly. The landscape photographer, Philip-Lorca diCorcia, wrote, "Photography is the foreign language that everyone thinks they can speak." Learning photography takes effort and time.
5 Personality & Identity

In addition to type of intelligence, think about your photographic personality and identity. Read PATH: Ways-ofWorking in Photography, my other free book. PATH is about the photographerhis or her photographic personality and
8 Mistakes Are Good . . .

. . . as long as it isn't your best friend's wedding. Make lots of mistakes, and learn from them.
8 Limit Your Variables

Don't try to learn everything at once.
10 Share
Learn from each other by sharing your experiences and photographs, including the mistakes.
9 Ask
Ask lots of, what you may think are, stupid questions.
Purchases
Table of Contents
1 Fall Term
Fall semester students should note that many photography dealers are closed for extended periods for the Jewish holidays.
2 Must Have Items

The following items should be in the "toolbox" of every photographer. A light source, such as a flash separate from the camera, or a hot light.
Smith-Victor 90UL Adapta-Light
Two filters: Polarizing filter and graduated neutral density filter. Go to the For Jims Students menu on my website. There, look for Buy > Two Filters.
Visual Notes
Table of Contents
1 What?
Visual notes are photographs that you want to do more ofor to do less of. They're your worst photographs and your best ones. Visual notes are your mistakes, experiments, and masterpieces.
Taking visual notes is an obvious idea, to me, but I've never encountered it elsewhere. Photography is visual. So why not take visual notes? It's unlikely that you'll review this book before a trip.
5 But, you'll readily click through twenty or so visual notes.
3 - Captions
When doing experiments, caption the photographs. Lets say youre comparing different focal lengths (to be described), such as 18mm, 50, and 200mm. Write 18mm, 50, and 200mm on cards. Place the appropriate card in the scene, or have the subject hold the card. You can hold the card so it appears in the lower corner of your viewfinder. However, your camera may focus on the card, instead of on the scene. Youll learn how to set your cameras focus system.
2 Create a Folder
So, create a folder called Visual Notes on your computer's desktop. Put your mistakes, experiments, and masterpieces into the folder. Review them periodically to get what you learned into your head and shutter finger. Dont fill the folder up. Once a concept or technique has soaked in, delete the photograph. You should have about ten to twenty photographs in the folder.
Confusing Terms
Table of Contents
6 Photography terminology can be confusing. Refer back to this section as you encounter the terms in your readings. for each bit, 2, and there are 256 possible combinations (82). Now, if we combine the three colors, the three color channels, there are millions more combinations of each bit and its two possibilities of being on or off. Take the number of possible combinations for each color channel, 256, and multiply them together. 256 x 256 x 256 = 16,777,216 There are 16.7 million possible colors in a JPEG with a bit depth of 8 per color channel, or a bit depth of 24 for the entire file. Advantage of 12-Bit Raw Files Raw files generally have a bit depth of 12 per color channel, for a total bit depth of 36 for a file. Each color channel has 4,096 possible combinationscompared to the 256 of a JPEG color channel. Take the number of possible combinations for each color channel, 4,096, and multiply them together. 4,096 x 4,096 x 4,096 = 68,719,476,736 There are 68 billion possible colors in a raw file with a bit depth of 12 per color channel, or a bit depth of 36 for the entire file. With all of that data, you can do extensive editing without the loss of quality that would occur when editing a JPEG file. Whenever you edit, some of the data is degraded. With more data, a raw file will have a far smaller percentage of degradation that a JPEG file.
1 Camera Feature Terms

Go to the For Jims Students menu on my website. There, look for Camera Features. Many of the descriptions have links to relevant topics in Beecher's Handouts.
2 Digital Data Terms

Pixels, Bits, & Bit Depth Pixels The term pixel is from picture element. When photons are collected the millions of photosites on your camera's sensor, pixels are created. These pixels are the small squares that make up your photographs. Most people can skip the next section about bits and bit depth. Bits & Bit Depth Each pixel is made up of data called bits. A pixel in a JPEG file has 8 bits of data for each of the three colors, red, green, and blue. Each of those bits has two possibilitiesit can be either on or off. With 8 bits, and with each bit being either on or off, there are 256 combinations for each color. Take the number of bits, 8, to the power of the number of possibilities
7 For more about raw files, go to the Photoshop Elements menu on my website. There, look for Raw Files > Raw v. JPEG. Bytes, Kilobytes, & Megabytes Definitions Bytes, kilobytes, and megabytes are measurements of the size of photography files. A byte is the smallest unit of measurement. There are a thousand bytes in one kilobyte. In turn, there are a thousand kilobytes in one megabyte. That's 1,000 x 1,000 = 1,000,000. Because a kilobyte has a thousand bytes, multiplying it by a thousand equals 1,000,000 bytes. You may encounter slightly different amounts. Sometimes, instead of 1,000 and 1,000,000, 1,024 and 1,048,576 are used. These numbers are actually more accurate. Processing Speed of Different Sized Files The size of a file affects how fast various operations can be performed.
Saving
Many cameras have a burst mode to facilitate this activity.

Editing
Large files also take longer to process when editing. However, because you have more to work with, the final photograph may be of higher quality.
Uploading & Downloading
The speed of uploading and downloading files, the sending and receiving of files, depends in part on the size of the files. If you're e-mailing files, your e-mail program will reduce the size of large files. Megapixels & Pixel Dimensions
Megapixels
Megapixel is the measure of the devices that collect the photons, to make pixels, on the camera sensor. One megapixel is one million of these devices. So, one megapixel will produce one million pixels. A twelve megapixel camera will produce twelve million pixels, for example.
Pixel Dimensions
The pixels are arranged in a rectangular array called the pixel dimensions.
Size of the Photosites
Large files require more time to be saved to your memory card after you press the shutter release. This can be an issue if you're taking many photographs in quick succession.
Is a twelve megapixel point-andshoot camera making a photograph that has the same quality as a twelve megapixel digital SLR (DSLR? No.
8 The two cameras have the same number of megapixels, but more data is collected by the DSLR. That's because the photosites on the sensor of a DSLR are larger. They gather more photons, making for pixels with less noise in relation to image data.
3 General Terms
Overexposure & Underexposure
Underexposed Overexposed
An underexposed photograph is too dark An overexposed photograph is too light too little light reached the sensor. too much light reached the sensor.
The terms below are even more confusing because their meaning changes depending on their context. Fast & Slow ISO
Fast Slow
ISO is a rating of how sensitive a sensor is A slow ISO is less sensitive to light. to light. It has a smaller ISO number. A fast ISO is more sensitive to light. It has a larger ISO number.
Lenses
Fast Slow
A fast lens has a large lens opening, such as a f/2.8 zoom lens.
A slower lens has a smaller lens opening, such as f/4.
Shutter Speed
Fast Slow
A fast shutter speed, such 1/1000th of a second, lets less light reach the sensor.
A slow shutter speed, such as 1/8th of a second, lets more light reach the sensor.
Wide
Wide Lens Opening Wide Lens
A wide lens opening is a large lens opening, such as f/4. The lens opening is physically wide or large.
A wide lens is a lens that "sees" a wide angle of view.
10 Opening Up & Closing Down the Lens Opening

Opening Up Closing Down
When you open up the lens opening, say from f/16 to f/11, you're letting more light into the camera. The lens opening is getting physically larger.
If you close down the lens opening, such as from f/4 to f/5.6, less light is reaching the sensor. The lens opening is getting physically smaller.
Camera
Table of Contents
1 The #1 Reason for Bad . . .

The #1 reason for bad photographs is not having a camera. Take your camera with you. Point-and-shoot camera users have the advantage here.
If so, consider changing the setting to focusing only in the middle of the viewfinder. Locking in Focus If your camera is set to focus in the middle area of the viewfinder, and you're photographing something that's NOT in the middle, the focus will be off. Lets say youre photographing twins. Your camera will focus on the background between the twins. To focus on the twins, point the center of the viewfinder at one of the twins. Press the shutter release to focus, and keep the shutter release depressed. The focus remains locked as long as you keep the shutter release depressed. Then, with the focus locked in, move your camera so both twins are in the frame. Depress the shutter release fully.
2 Camera Is Grab-able
Youve got your camera with you. But, if you have to fuss to get at your camera, you won't take as many photographs. Your photography will suffer. Get a camera bag with a flap secured with Velcro.
3 Focus
Multi-point Focus Your camera probably chooses where to focus. This feature is often called Automatic Focus Area Selection. If youre happy with the results, dont change the setting. However, you may find the camera doesnt always focus where you want it to focus.
11 Four Types of Focusing You can set your camera to focus four ways. Of course, camera manufacturers may call these focusing methods by different names. Check your instruction manual. 1 Manual focus You have to focus by turning the lens. You may need to use manual focus if the light is very dim, making it difficult for autofocus to function well.
The "M" Confusion
where the subject will be when the shutter opens.
4 Focus Problems
There are several problems with focusing. Two have been discussed already. Many cameras are set by default to choose where to focus. Again, if this feature performs poorly for you, set your camera to focus on the middle of the frame. If your camera is set to focus in the middle of the frame, and you're photographing something that's NOT in the middle, the focus may be off. Here are two more possible focusing problems. Camera Wont Focus Cameras have difficulty focusing if the light is dim, or if the scene has no contrast (same tone or color). Use manual focus. Poor Composition Because the focus is often set in the middle of the frame, many photographers always center the subject in the frame. This is called bulls-eye composition. If you were the late Richard Avedon, the fashion and portrait photographer, you can get away with it. Everyone else should position the subjects in the frame according to what's best for each situation.
There are probably two Mss on your digital SLR camera. There's a switch on, or near, the lens, that's often marked M/AF (manual focus/autofocus). The other M is on the exposure mode dial. This second M stands for manual exposure. Don't confuse manual focus with manual exposure. 2 Single Focus The camera focuses, and will remain at that focus if you keep the shutter release depressed slightly. 3 Continuous Focus The camera focuses continuously as long as you keep the shutter release depressed slightly. 4 Predictive Focus When photographing moving subjects, the camera will predict
12
5 Shutter Release
Single or Continuous Shutter Release You can set your camera to take only one photograph when you press the shutter release. This setting is called S, for single. If you set your camera to the C setting, which stands for continuous, the camera will take one picture after another as long as the shutter release is held down. Check your instruction manual for variations of these settings. Shutter Delay There is a slight delay between when your brain tells you finger to press the shutter, and when the shutter actually opens. When photographing movement, you must press the shutter release just before you think you should. Photograph cyclists or skaters in a park, while trying to take the photograph when they're at a certain place. You'll quickly get a feel for when to press the shutter release. Shutter Lag Point-and-shoot cameras have a longer lag between when you press the shutter and the shutter is opened. Pre-focus to shorten the shutter lag. Shutter Release & Slow Shutter Speeds A slow shutter speed, generally, is a shutter speed slower than 1/60th of a second.
If you're using a slow shutter speed, the camera has to be on a tripod or other support. Otherwise, you may get camera shake. The photograph is blurred by the movement of the camera. Pressing the shutter release by hand may cause camera shake, even when the camera is on a tripod or other support. If it doesn't matter when the photograph is taken, such as a landscape, use the self-timer to trip the shutter. When the timing is important, such as an eagle landing on her nest, use a remote release. Image stabilization (vibration reduction) allows you to use some slower shutter speeds without a tripod or other camera support.
6 Two Viewfinder Problems

There are two problems associated with camera viewfinders. You can improve your composition if you're aware of these problems. Viewfinder Problem #1 Viewfinders are not accurate. What you see through the viewfinder is not what you get in the photograph. You see less of a scene in the viewfinderand more of the scene when you look at the photograph. You may have looked at one of your photographs, and disliked something distracting near one of the photograph's edges.
13 Perhaps there was an elbow sticking into the frame. You may have wondered, "Why didn't I see that?" You didn't. The distracting element, such as a stray elbow, didn't appear in the viewfinder. Solution You have to do an experiment to compare your viewfinder view with what actually appears in your photographs. Photograph something with welldefine edges, such as a painting. Place the edges of the painting exactly on the edges of your viewfinder. Then, look at the photograph of the painting, and note where the edges of the painting are no longer on the edge of the frame. Viewfinder Problem #2 This problem involves an important photographic tool called depth-offield. If you're a beginner, you may want to return here when you've learned more about depth-of-field. When you look through the viewfinder, what's in the background will probably be out-of-focus. That's because the lens opening is wide open, say f/4. With the lens opening wide open: 1) There's lots of light entering the camera. You can see the scene well in the viewfinder. 2) There's very little depth-of-field. The background is fuzzy. The problem is that we don't pay attention to fuzzy backgrounds. So, if the background is ugly, you may not notice. Yet, when you press the shutter release, what was fuzzy, in the viewfinder, may become sharper, in the photograph. When you look at the photograph, you may wonder, "Why didn't I see that telephone pole sticking out of her head?" You didn't The depth-of-field changed when you tripped the shutter release. If it's a sunny day, your camera may have selected f/11 as the best lens opening. When you press the shutter release, the lens opening went from f/4, background fuzzy, to f/11, sharper background Solutions 1) Keep an eye on backgrounds in your viewfinder. 2) Use depth-of-field preview. Press this button, if your camera has this feature. You'll see the actual depth-of-field that will be used in your photograph. The image in your viewfinder may be dark. Give your pupil time to adjust.
14 If you're outside, block the light from the sky that is striking your eye with your hand. You must reserve the original JPEG file, and use a copy for editing. Raw Files A raw file is created when you press the shutter release. The file contains all of the information gathered by the camera sensor. The raw file is huge. The raw file is processed into a JPEG file by your camera. On digital SLR cameras, you can choose to save your photographs as either a JPEG file or as a raw file. You can often choose to save your photographs using both formats. Many point-and-shoot cameras also allow you to use raw files. An advantage of using the raw file format is how easily exposure and white balance mistakes can be corrected when processing a raw file. A disadvantage is that the huge raw files are saved to your camera's memory card more slowly than are JPEG files. If you're shooting quickly, such as sports or dance, save your photographs as JPEG's. n digital SLR cameras, you can choose to save your photographs as either a JPEG file or as a raw file. You can often save both. You can correct exposure and white balance mistakes when processing a raw file. A disadvantage of saving your photographs as raw files, is that the
7 Select the File Format

Your camera is set, by default, to save photographs using the JPEG file format. The JPEG file format is useful for making prints, e-mailing, and for websites. JPEG files are compressed. Unimportant image information is thrown away. You can select different levels of quality, based on how much compression is implemented. Fine 1:4
Normal 1:8 Basic 1:16
Don't automatically use the highest quality setting. If you do, your memory card will fill up faster. And, the quality may not be needed. Use the highest quality if the photograph will be cropped, or has important detail in the shadow areas. Editing JPEG Files Each time you make a change to a JPEG file, and save it, more of the image information is thrown away during compression. So, JPEG files deteriorate with repeated editing.
15 huge files are saved to your camera's memory card more slowly than are JPEG files. If you're shooting quickly, such as sports or dance, save your photographs as JPEG's. More about Raw Files Go to the Photoshop Elements menu on my website. There, look for Raw Files > Raw v. JPEG. Most cameras are set by default to change f/stops and shutter speeds by 1/3-stop increments. While this is a noticeable change, the change is small. You probably don't need to change the exposure settings by 1/3-stop increments. Look in your camera's menu, such as in the custom settings menu section, for the way to change the EV stops to a 1/2-stop increment. If you need to fine tune an exposure, you can always bracket your exposures by 1/3 stops using the exposure compensation feature (described below). 2 - Display a Viewfinder Grid Some cameras can be set to display a tic-tac-toe grid in the viewfinder. The grid can be used to apply the rule of thirds guideline (described below). The lines also make it easier to photograph level horizons, formal gardens, interiors, and buildings. Disable Automatic Focus Area Selection As described above, your camera is probably set by default to choose where to focus in the frame. This is the Automatic Focus Area Selection feature. The feature worksbut not all of the time. For example, lets say you're photographing a gathering in a living room. The camera may focus on the bald head of the nearest person to the
8 Default Settings
Introduction Beginners may want to return to this section later. There are numerous default settings on your camera. In the next section, we'll look at how to change two of them to make photography easier and better. In the three subsequent sections, we'll look at how you can take more control of your camera for better photography. Change EV Stops & Display a Grid If you change the first default setting below, your thumb won't have to work as hard. If you change the second, your composition may improve. 1 - Change the EV Stop Increment If you use aperture-priority or shutter-priority exposure modes, you may find yourself scrolling through innumerable numbers to change the exposure.
16 camera, rather than the entire group of people. You may want to set the focusing area to the center of the frame. Then, you can focus where you want to focus. Once the focusing system is set that way, do the following. 1) Focus where you want to focus, and keep the shutter release partially depressed. 2) Recompose your photograph if needed. 3) Press the shutter release all the way down. Light Meter Your camera has a light meter that measures the amount of light in a scene. What this light meter "sees" can be changed. There are three light meter settings: Multiple points Center weighted Spot Multiple Zone When using the multiple zone light meter setting, the light meter measures many points on the frame. The setting is called matrix metering on Nikon cameras, and evaluative metering on Canons. Before the shutter opens, the data from these many areas is compared to thousands of patterns, called algorithms, stored in your camera's computer. If there's a match between the pattern of the scene you're photographing, and one of the algorithms, the computer will base the exposure setting on the matching algorithm. The reading at the focus point will be given greater weight, as this is probably the subject of the photograph. Therefore, when you're using multiple point metering, set your focusing system to where the focus point is decided by the camera (see Automatic Focus Area Selection). The multiple point light metering setting works wellbut not all of the time. Where setting the best exposure may be trickycompare multiple point metering with center-weighted or spot metering (described below). When Is Setting the Exposure Tricky? Contrasty scenes and backlighted subjects can confuse the multiple point metering setting. Your judgment may be better than that of your camera's computer. Use the center weighted or spot light meter settings. Center Weighted & Spot Metering
Center Weighted
With center-weighted metering, the light meter measures most of the light (60 to 75% depending on the camera) in the central area of the frame. For example, if you're photographing a landscape, and you don't want a bright sky throwing off the exposure,
17 point the central area of the frame down, removing the sky from the frame. Lock in the exposure using the autoexposure lock button (AEL button on Nikons, star icon button on Canons). Then, recompose your photograph in the frame. Go to the Autoexposure Lock section.
Spot Metering
For example, if you're photographing snow in the sun, all of the above metering types will underexpose (too dark) the snow. Similarly, if you're photographing the face of a gorilla, all of the above metering types will overexpose (too light) the gorilla's face. You have to measure the light in the scene on a surface that's medium colored or toned. Go to the Light Meters Are Stupid section. Automatic ISO Increase Many cameras will automatically increase the ISO if there's too little light. You may be surprised when you discover your photographs of an illuminated fountain at night were taken at ISO 1600, when you had the ISO set to 400. If you turn this feature off, and there's too little light, Lo will blink in the viewfinder. You can now decide, not the camera, to increase the ISO. If you don't want the added noise from using a high ISO, you can change the chosen aperture or shutter speed. Or, if your aperture is already wide open, letting in the most light, such as f/4, you can switch to a faster lens. A faster lens has a wider lens opening, such as a 50mm f/1.8 or f/1.4.
With spot metering, the light meter measures a small area in the center of the frame. This area may be from 1% to several percent of the entire area of the frame. On some cameras, you can adjust the size of the area. For example, if you're photographing an eagle nest against a bright sky, point the center of the frame at the nest. As described above, lock in the exposure using the autoexposure lock button (AEL button on Nikons, star button on many Canons). Then, recompose your photograph in the frame. Go to the Autoexposure Lock section. None of the Above Work for this Situation If you're photographing a subject that's very light colored or toned, or dark colored or toned, all of the above metering systems will fail. Your judgment will be 100% better.
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9 Checklist
Make it a habit to check the following five settings when you pick up your camera, after not using it for awhile. Otherwise, you may find that you've taken many photographs at the wrong setting. For example, let's say you photographed the lobby of the El Tovar lodge at Yellowstone National Park. You set the ISO to 1600, and the white balance to tungsten. Then, the next day, you photographed the sunrise over the Grand Canyon. If you don't have the habit of checking the settings, you may discover you've used the wrong settings. Check: ISO White balance Exposure compensation is at 0.0. A +/- icon will appear on the LCD screen if the exposure compensation is not set to 0.0. File format (JPEG and/or raw) and the JPEG The location of the focus area setting can be changed inadvertently Location of focus area On many cameras, the area that is to be used for focusing can be selected. On some cameras, the area can be changed inadvertently.
If your camera has buttons dedicated to these settings, all you have to do is press the buttons while looking at the top LCD screen.
By taking a few seconds to check you won't have to say "oops" or worse.
10 Lens & Sensor Cleaning

Sand Sand and lenses don't go well together. Take an old camera to the beach, or else be very careful. Consider using a soft-plastic underwater housing. Cleaning Lenses Use a microfiber lens cleaning cloth. You can be fastidious, but you need not be. A little dust will not affect your photographs. However, dust on the rear element, the end of the lens normally inside your camera, will degrade your photographs more. Fingerprints should be removed promptly. If there's more than dust on your lens, blow the debris off using a blower (described below), before using a cloth.
19 Don't use compressed air, such Dust-Off The propellant may spray from the can, damaging your lens. Dust Visible in the Viewfinder If you see dust when looking through your viewfinder, the dust is on the mirror or on the focusing screen. The focusing screen is located above the mirror. The dust won't affect your photographs. Remove the lens, and use a blower (described below) to remove the dust. Don't touch the mirror with a brush, or anything else, as the silvering may be on the surface of the mirror, not below a layer of glass. Again, don't use compressed air, as the propellant may spray from the can, damaging the mirror. Cleaning Sensors If you notice that the same defect appears, in the same location, in every photograph, then there's probably dust on the sensor of your camera. Because photons are being converted to electrons, the sensor surface becomes charged, which attracts dust. Check for Dust Even If . . . Even if your camera has a sensor cleaning cycle, check for dust. The cleaning cycle may not dislodge every dust particle. How to Check for Dust To check if there's dust on the sensor, photograph the sky or a plain white wall, at the following settings: 1) Set your lens to manual focus and defocus the lens. 2) Use the A or Av exposure mode, and set the aperture to f/22. Enlarge the photograph, and scroll back-and-forth, and up-and-down, looking for defects on the photograph. You can increase the contrast with Photoshop Elements, or other software, to make the dust easier to see. Cleaning To clean the sensor, follow the directions of your camera manufacturer. Cautions 1) Follow the manufacturer's directions carefully to avoid damaging the sensor. 2) Use a blower, such as an ear syringe. They're available at drug stores and supermarkets, often in the baby department.
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drugstore.com
Be sure not to jab anything inside the camera. 5) Exit Lock Up Mirror or Cleaning Function. Re-check the camera for dust as described above. If a blower can't remove the dust, follow the camera manufacturer's recommendations. Cleaning Products & Tutorials For cleaning products and tutorials, go to the Beechers Handouts menu on my website.
If you prefer, you can buy a photography blower, such as the Giotto Rocket Air Blower.
B&H Photo
There, look for Camera > 3.10 Lens & Sensor Cleaning.
3) Do not use a blower with a brush, as the bristles may damage the sensor. 4) Do not use compressed air, such as Dust Off, as the propellant may damage the sensor. Typical Cleaning Procedure 1) Make sure the camera battery is charged. You're going to lock the mirror in its up position with shutter open. You don't want the mirror to suddenly, due to loss of power, drop back into its normal position while you're cleaning the sensor. 2) Remove the lens. 3) Peruse the menu of your camera and find Lock Up Mirror or Cleaning Function. 4) While holding the camera lensside down (so the dust can fall out), blow air onto the interior of the camera.
11 Deleting Photographs
Avoid using your camera to delete photographs. Let's look at two reasons. LCD Screen You can't always make judgments using the LCD screen. The screen is small, has low resolution, and may have inaccurate color Some photographs look highly delete-able when they're only 2 inches wide, but look delectable when viewed on a monitor. User Error If you're tired or hurried, you may inadvertently delete all of the photographs on a memory card. Summary Yes, do delete the obvious duds, if you wish. But wait to delete other photographs until you're at your computer
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Computer
Table of Contents
1 Download Your Photographs

There are two section. The first, is how to download from your camera to your computer. The second, is how to download from a card reader to your computer. A card reader is a device that holds the memory card instead of the camera. If youre not familiar with card readers, go to the Tips menu on my website. There, look for Memory Cards & Card Readers > 9 - Card Readers. Camera to Computer To download, transfer, your photographs from your camera to your computer, read your camera instruction manual. Or, do the following. 1) If you haven't already, install the camera software. Look for the CD or DVD that came with your camera. When you insert the disc, an installation wizard will appear. For the software to work after installation, you may have to restart your computer. 2) Turn your camera on. 3) Make sure your camera batteries are fully charged.
If the batteries fail during the downloading, your photographs may be corrupted. 4) Turn your camera off, and connect your camera to the computer with the cord supplied with your camera. The smaller of the two connectors fits into your camera. The larger, flat, connector fits into a USB port on your computer. 5) Turn your camera on. Several windows may appear. For example, let's say you have a Canon camera and Photoshop Elements. Three windows may appear. Canon downloader Photoshop Elements downloader A window from your computer operating system, such as the Windows Autoplay window Select the download method you prefer. 6) Make sure the option to Erase Card After Transfer, or a similarly named option, is not selected. If the option is selected, the photographs on your memory card will be automatically deleted at the conclusion of the download. That's convenient. But, what if the download failed?
22 Your photographs won't be on your computer, and they've been deleted from the memory card. 7) Click Download, Transfer, Get Photos, or the button with similar commands. 8) Your photographs, unless you specified differently, are downloaded to a folder in Pictures (Windows Vista and Mac) or My Pictures (Windows XP). The name of the folder will probably be the same as the name of the manufacturer of your camera. 9) Check to make sure your photographs downloaded by opening several of them. Don't just look at the thumbnails. The thumbnails of the photographs may have downloaded correctly, but not the actual photograph files. 10) After you have ascertained that the photographs have downloaded successfully, format the memory card in your camera to delete your photographs. You could use your camera to delete the photograph files from your memory card. However, by formatting the memory card, you remove hidden administrative files as well as the photograph files. The administrative files can confuse the downloading process later. To format your memory card, check your camera instruction manual. Card Reader to Computer If you're not familiar with card readers, go to Tips menu on my website. There, look for Memory Cards & Card Readers > 9 - Card Readers. Do the following. 1) If you haven't already, install the camera software. Look for the CD or DVD that came with your camera. After you insert the disc, an installation wizard will appear. For the software to work after installation, you may have to restart your computer. 2) Connect the card reader to your computer with the cord supplied with the reader. The flat connector fits into a USB port on your computer. 3) Insert your memory card into the card reader Several windows may appear. For example, let's say you have a Canon camera and Photoshop Elements. Three windows may appear. Canon downloader Photoshop Elements downloader A window from your computer operating system, such as the Windows Autoplay window Select the download method you prefer. 6) Make sure the option to Erase Card After Transfer, or a similarly named option, is not selected.
23 If the option is selected, the photographs on your memory card will be automatically deleted at the conclusion of the download. That's convenient. But, what if the download failed? Your photographs won't be on your computer, and they've been deleted from the memory card. 7) Click Download, Transfer, Get Photos, or the button with similar commands. Don't remove the memory card during downloading. A LED on the card reader may blink during the download. 8) Your photographs, unless you specified differently, are downloaded to a folder in Pictures (Windows Vista and Mac) or My Pictures (Windows XP). The name of the folder will probably be the same as the name of the manufacturer of your camera. 9) Check to make sure your photographs downloaded by opening several of them. Don't just look at the thumbnails. The thumbnails of the photographs may have downloaded correctly, but not the actual photograph files. 10) After you have ascertained that the photographs have downloaded successfully, format the memory card in your camera to delete your photographs. You could use your camera to delete the photograph files from your memory card. However, by formatting the memory card, you remove hidden administrative files as well as the photograph files. The administrative files can confuse the downloading process later. To format your memory card, check your camera instruction manual. No Downloading Software? If theres no downloading program available on your computer, use Breeze Downloader Pro, or similar software.
2 Get Organized!
Let's say you went to Paris in 2005. Then, in 2010, you want to find a particular photograph from the trip. A few years ago, you could easily have sorted through packs of prints, looking for the photograph. Today, your digital photographs are in folders with arcane names.
And, each folder is full of unlabeled photographs.
What's what? Folders and files like those above may not be a problem now.
24 But five years from now, you're going to have tens of thousands of photographs on your computer. Get organized now! For more about organizing your files, go to my website and look for the Beechers Handouts menu. There, look for Computer > 4.2 Get Organized!. Scroll down past what youve read already. Scroll down past what youve read already.
4 Backup on the Road

When traveling, you need to back up your photographs. Copy your photographs from your memory cards to your laptop or to a portable storage device. For more portable storage, go to my website and look for the Tips menu. There, look for Portable Storage DVD Burners & Hard Drives.
3 Backup!
You're regularly backing up your photographsright? If notyou're not alone. We're often fickle when it comes to backing up our photographs. Why? 1) It's boring. 2) It's a task that has no reward 99.99% of the time. Backing up is a task that pays off only if the hard drive on our computer crashes, the computer is stolen or destroyed in a fire, or if it comes back from repair without the data. "That won't happen to me," we say to ourselves. So, we forget to backup our photographs as often as we should. For more about organizing your files, go to my website and look for the Tips menu. There, look for Back Up Your Computer.
5 Migrate Files
Computer technology changes rapidly. The ubiquitous USB port will someday be obsolete. Youll have to migrate files from USB flash drives to the latest memory media. CDs & DVDs If you have files on CDs or DVDs, consider migrating them to your hard drive, external hard drive, and/or to online storage. There are three reasons to do so. 1) The dyes used in CDs and DVDs fade. 2) Discs can suffer mechanical damage and other woes. 3) Technology changes. Youll buy a computer someday that doesn't have the software or hardware to play discs.
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Light
Table of Contents
1 Introduction
This section is the most basic sectionyou need light for your photography. This section is also the most advanced in the handoutslight is the most important ingredient in your photographs. The subject in front of your camera is less important than the light illuminating the subject. For example, a scruffy dog in great light can look better than a dogshow champion in poor light. William Henry Fox Talbot published a book of photographs between 1844 and 1846 called The Pencil of Nature. Light is our pencil. For example . . . I was climbing a long ridge west of Mt. Clark. I was suddenly arrested in the long crunching push up the ridge by an exceedingly pointed awareness of the light.
The moment I paused, the full impact of the mood was upon me. I saw more clearly than I have ever seen before or since the minute detail of the grasses, the clusters of sand shifting in the wind, the small flotsam of the forest, the motion of the high clouds streaming above the peaks. There are no words to convey the moods of those moments. Ansel Adams, 1923
2 Snow Analogy
I use snow as an analogy for light here. If you live where it snows, imagine stepping outside after the first snowfall of winter. The snow makes your neighborhood look different. You notice different things than you would have without the snow. Note how the snow on the bolder below changes how it looks.
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The lighting, the snow, makes the surface of rock more apparent. Sunlight, coming from the side, would do the same, by creating shadows. But, we may not notice the effect of lighting as much as we would the effect of a dusting of snow. Why?
You may feel that the pay off from the exercises will be low. You're not alone. Students often feel this way. The need for sensitivity to light is not visceral, is not compelling. However, after doing one of the exercises, students have become enthusiastic. They've improved their photography.
3 Sensitivity
Seeing how light is affecting a scene is difficult because light is hard to observe: Because we're immersed in light most of the time, we don't pay much attention to light. The qualities of light often change gradually, so changes are hard to notice. The light that we see with our eyes is often different when seen in a photograph.
5 Take Pictures Out Your Window

Imagine if you could click a remote control and change the time of day. If you could click back-and-forth from "10 A.M. light" to "4 P.M." light, for example, how the color of the light and shadows change. You can't click a remote, but you can take a picture out of your window once every hour. Look for: How the color of the light changes. How the direction of the light changes the shadows.
4 Encouragement
There are "light sensitivity training" exercises on the following pages.
27 How whether it's sunny or cloudy changes the shadows. In this exercise, you'll use artificial light. Simply walk around photographing a newspaper or magazine page (with mostly text) with different types of artificial lightsincandescent, florescent, and so forth. The newspaper will look the same to youwhite. On film, or with a digital camera (with the white balance on the sun icon), your newspaper will change colors. Track lighting, and floor lamps and table lamps, produce orange light. In photography, this is called tungsten lighting. Fluorescents produce green light, except for full-spectrum tubes. If you're doing a portrait of a friend, for example, the green light from florescent lights probably won't be appropriate. You have to change the white balance setting of your camera to the florescent icon. Similarly, use the light bulb icon for tungsten lighting.
The latter is called contrast. Shadows can be dark with sharply defined edges, such as those from sunlight. This high contrast lighting is caused by small light sources, such as the sun. On a cloudy day, because the light source is the huge sky, the shadows will be bright with softly defined edges. This is low contrast light. Monet did this exercise. He painted a series of paintings of Rouen Cathedral at different times of day. The National Gallery in Washington has two of the canvases. Go to the Beechers Handouts menu on my website. There, look for Light > 5.5 - Take Pictures Out Your Window. Scroll down to Monets paintings As you look at them, you can approximate the time of day by the color of the light, and the angle of the shadows. You can also photograph something repeatedly, over a period of weeks or months. Compare the photographs to learn about light.
7 Play with Light

1) Get a light Purchase a light, such as the one described above in the Purchases section. Or, use your flash if you have one that's separate from your camera. Purchase an extension cord for the flash, so you can use the flash off the camera. 2) Set up a still life.
6 Take Pictures of a Newspaper

In the last exercise, you're asked to use daylight.
28 3) Experiment. The photograph with the large light sources (the wall) will have brighter shadows with fuzzy edges.
Direction of the Light

4) Place the light in different locations: a) Near camera b) To one side c) Above the camera d) Behind the still life (backlighting) Photograph each change in lighting. 5) After each picture, step back, and take a picture of the entire scene the light and the still life. By doing so, you'll have "notes" about how each lighting setup was done. 6) Compare the photographs sideby-side. For example, shadows will make your still life look more threedimensional.
8 Watch an Old B&W Movie

Turn the sound off on a favorite 1930s or 40s black-and-white film. Then, watch the lighting, not the film. Pause the film occasionally, and study the lighting. Shadows & Direction of the Light Look at the shadows. In the last exercise, you learned about how the direction of the light changes a scene. Try to determine where the lights were placed in the scenes by looking for the shadows they create. Shadows & Contrast You can also look at the shadows to study contrast. If the shadows are dark, with sharp edges, a small light source was used, such as a spotlight. The lighting is high contrast. If the shadows are bright, with indistinct edges, then a large light source was used, such as a light passing through a scrim. The lighting is low contrast. For example, female leads were often lighted with lower contrast lighting. Contrasty lighting was often used for male leads. Watch as the film cuts between a male and female lead. The lighting often changes depending on the sex of the actor.
Size of the Light Source

If you're using a bright light, do the following. 7) Move the still life near a white wall that's to the left or right of the still life. 8) Photograph the still life with the light near the wall, but aimed directly at the still life. 9) Aim the light at the wall, bouncing the light from the wall toward the still life. 10) Compare the two photographs. The photograph with the small light (directly aimed at the scene) will have darker shadows with sharper edges.
29 Highlights Highlights, especially on faces, will also reveal the lighting design to you. A small light source produces small highlights. For example, on-camera flash produces small highlights on your subjects nose tip, forehead, and cheeks. If you photograph the subject in the shade on a sunny day, or under a cloudy sky, the highlights will be much broader. Catch Lights Catch lights are the reflections of lights in the eyes. Catch lights often add vitality to a portrait. Where they're located in the eye tells you the location of the light. If there are more than one catch light, there was more than one light. The shape of a catch light can hint at what sort of light was used. For example, a circular catch light may be from a white photography umbrella. If window light was used, the catch light may be rectangular, with windows dividers showing as well.
Summary
Direction of the Light
Direction Effect on the Lighting Because . . .
From the side
Will show texture and volume
. . . the shadows created by side lighting give the viewer a sense of texture and volume.
From the camera
Will flatten the subject
. . . there are no shadows, so the viewer cannot see volume and texture very well.
From behind the subject
1) Will make the subject stand out from the backgroundmore separation 2) Emphasizes the shape of the subject
. . . the increased separation is due to the dark subject against a bright background, as well as the bright lighting on the edges of the subject.
Size of the Light

Size of the Light Effect on the Lighting As seen in . . .
Small, like the sun
More contrast
. . . the darker shadows with sharp edges.
Large, such as the sky on a cloudy day
Less contrast
. . . the brighter shadows, with less distinct edges, or shadowless lighting.
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9 What You See Is NOT What You Get

What you see is not always what you get on your photograph. We saw how light can appear differently in photographs compared to our eyes. The contrast is always higher in photographs. That is, shadows are always darker on photographs than they are when looking with our eyes. Do an experiment. 1) Photograph a still life with a bright light to one side.
2) Take a second picture after you've placed a reflector (piece of white cardboard, newspaper, etc.) on the side of the still life opposite from the light. Reflect the light from your light back onto the still life. The shadows will appear brighter by using the reflector. 3) Leave the still life set up while your photographs are printed. 4) Compare the still life with your two photographs of the still life. The photograph with the reflector will be more similar to the way the still life looks with your eyes. We'll explore this topic in depth below.
Lighting Contrast
Table of Contents
1 Introduction
As we learned in the previous section, film and digital sensors "see" the world differently than we do. Photography paper does as well. We see this with our eyes:
This is more pronounced when you're using light coming from the sidesidelightingor from behind your subjectbacklighting. That's because the shadows created by sidelighting and backlighting will appear much darker with film or a digital sensorthan they appear to your eyes. Photography "vision" has more contrast than does human vision.
While our photographs are like this:
This has been a problem since the beginning of photography. Eadweard Muybridge, famous for his studies of movement, was also an accomplished landscape photographer.
What we see is NOT what we get.
31 When photographing Yosemite, he could not record the sky and the landscape on the same wet plate Muybridge solved the problem using two different methods: 1) He combined a negative of clouds with a negative of a landscape, when making a print. Today, we use software to combine two files, one file exposed for the clouds, and the other one exposed for the landscape. 2) Muybridge also used a board flap inside his camera to block the brighter light from the sky during a portion of an exposure. He called the board a sky shade. This is similar to how we use a graduated neutral density filter today. Again, the increase in contrast can be both detrimental and beneficial to your photography. How? Photographers have to train themselves to look for shadows. And then, we must decide whether to use the methods on the following pages to brighten any shadows.
3 Beneficial Contrast
Here's an example of how the increase in contrast can be beneficial to your photography. Let's say you're visiting a farm. You're photographing kids (with the permission of their parent/guardian) on a trampoline. It's sunny. Thus, the light is contrasty. In the shade behind the trampoline, there's a large manure spreader truck. It's covered with manure. In the photograph, the shade will be very dark, hiding the truck. Again, look for shadows. Then, decide if dark shadows will be of benefit for your photograph.
2 Detrimental Contrast
Here's an example of how the increase in contrast can be detrimental to your photography. Let's say you're taking a picture of a friend in her garden. She has 1940s red lipstick, red hair, green eyes, and two heirloom tomatoes, all under the shade of her straw hat. Later, when you look at the photograph, she is barely discernable. The shadow created by her hat has become very dark.
4 See Like Your Camera

Here are some ways to see with camera vision. Compare In my classes, I photograph a sidelighted soda can with a digital camera. My students can then compare what they see with their eyes, with the photography vision of the image on a monitor. You can do the same by doing the previous Play with a Light exercises.
32 Measure the Brightness Range Find a scene that has brightly illuminated areas, and areas with dark shadows. Using the shutter-priority exposure mode (S or Tv), set your shutter to about 1/500th of a second. Point your camera at different parts of the scene, and write down the f/stop that your camera's light meter selects. You might end up with a range of apertures like this: f/4 - f/5.6 - f/8 - f/11 - f/16 Generally, if you have a more than a two-stop difference between the bright and dark areas, you may be disappointed in the resulting photograph. In the scene below, there's a four stop range of brightness: f/4 f/5.6 f/8 f/11 f/16
1 stop 1 stop 1 stop 1 stop
That's too much contrast for photographic materials to reproduce. When you encounter a scene with too much contrast, use the techniques on the following pages. Visual Notes Be sure to place examples of camera vision into your visual notes notebook.
5 Averaging Doesn't Work

Let's say you're photographing an autumn landscape like the one above. If you set the exposure for the fall foliage, say, f/8, the deep blue sky is washed out. If you set the exposure for the sky, say, f/16, the fall foliage is too dark.
My students often suggest setting the exposure midway. In the example above, f/11 is midway between the above exposure extremes of f/8 (left photograph) and f/16 (right photograph). Most often, averaging the two extreme exposures is a poor compromise.
33 In the example, neither the sky nor the trees would look as good as they could, if you averaged the two exposure extremes. Instead, use the methods on the following sections to control contrast. The Recovery slider acts on highlight areas. The Fill Light slider affects the shadows. You can also develop a raw file twice. Develop it once to optimize the highlights. Develop the raw file again to optimize the shadows. Then, combine the best portions of the two images into a single photograph.
6 Camera & Software

If you're a beginner, go on to the next section. Adjust the Camera to the Contrast Contrast can be changed by modifying the camera settings. Exposure Mode Icons The icons on the exposure mode dial of your camera may adjust the contrast for the subject matter. For example, the head icon, for portraits, may have reduced contrast. The landscape icon may increase contrast, to make the color richer. Tone Curves You can change the tone curves on your camera. Check the instructions, and go to the menu to make changes depending on the lighting and subject matter. Adjust the File Contrast You can also change the contrast with Photoshop or Photoshop Elements by changing the levels or curves. If you saved the photograph as a raw file, the contrast can be modified when you "develop" the raw file.
7 Change the Lighting

Change Your Composition Before going into changing the lighting, you may be able to reframe your photograph. If you don't need the bright area, or the dark shadow area, crop one or the other. Now, let's look at how contrast can be changed by modifying the lighting in a scene. Come Back at Another Time There may be less contrast at a different time of day, or on a cloudy day. Use Bounce Flash, Indoors When taking pictures indoors, use bounce flash if you have a flash that can be tilted toward the ceiling. The light from the flash will illuminate the entire scene, rather than just the objects near the camera.
34 Use the Night Portrait Icon with Flash, Indoors When you set your camera to the Night Portrait exposure mode, the flash will illuminate the scene near the camera. The camera will also select a shutter speed so that the background will also be recorded. Movement may be blurred due to the selection of a slow shutter speed. Use Fill Flash, Outdoors Use fill flash to add light to the shadows on a sunny day. On digital SLR cameras, set the exposure mode to P. Then, press the button near the flash hat pops it up. If you're using a point-and-shoot camera, press the button with the flash icon until you see ON. The flash will go off until you press the flash-icon button back to the A (automatic) setting. You have to be close to your subject. Some cameras allow you to adjust the brightness of the flash with flash exposure compensation. Use a Reflector, Outdoors A reflector is held near your subject, and is aimed at the shadow area. Light reflects off of the reflector, and fills in the shadow with more light. A reflector can be improvised. You probably don't have an assistant to hold a reflector. Look for sunlight bouncing off of a white wall, or a red brick wall. Or, have the model hold a newspaper as a reflector.. If you have someone who can hold a reflector for you, use the circular fabric reflectors, such as those made by Photoflex. Use a Filter, Outdoors Use a Polarizing filter, or a graduated neutral density filter, to reduce contrast in landscapes. The next two sections describe these filters.
8 Polarizing Filter
Have you ever taken a picture of a landscape with a deep blue skyand when you looked at the photographthe sky was a pallid blue or white? A Polarizing filter will keep blue skies dark. The filter also reduces glare off of water, foliage, and other surfaces. Spin It! Polarizing filters spin. Look through your viewfinder as you revolve the filter. The Polarizing affect will change as you spin the filter. Where's the Sun? When using a Polarizing filter to darken a blue sky, the affect will be strongest when the sun is to your left or right. The effect is weaker when the sun is behind you.
35 The Polarizing filter doesn't darken the sky if the camera is pointed in the direction of the sun. What Does the Filter Look Like? A Polarizing filter is gray in color. Once you screw it on your lens (carefully and not too tightly), the front part of the filter revolves. As you spin the filter, you can see what it does. Diameter Buy a filter that's the same diameter as your lens. Look at the inside surface of your camera's lens cap. Usually the diameter of the lens is printed there, such as 67mm. Do You Have More Than One Lens? If you have more than one lens, buy a Polarizing filter that fits on the largest diameter lens. You can attach it to your other lenses using adapter rings. Circular or Linear? If you have an autofocus camera, purchase a circular Polarizing filter. Linear Polarizing filters are for manual focus cameras. Circular Polarizing filters cost about $50 to $60. Three Cautions 1) A Polarizing filter blocks about one stop of light. So, remove the filter if its not needed, especially indoors. 2) Skies are not evenly Polarized. Therefore, when youre using a wide-angle focal length, a sky may show uneven lightening and darkening. 3) As mentioned, use only one filter at a time. Because Polarizing filters are even thicker than other filters, be sure to remove other filters to prevent the darkening of the corners of your photographs.
9 Graduated Neutral Density Filter

If you're a landscape photographer, consider purchasing a graduatedneutral-density filter. The filter gradually fades from dark to clear. The filter darkens all skiesnot just blue oneslike a Polarizing filter. You position the filter so that the dark area of the filter blocks the bright sky. The two-stop graduated neutral density filter (also designated by .6 or 4X) is the most useful. The shaded portion of the filter blocks two stops of light. Cokin I use a P-series Cokin 121M filter. The P-series filters are very large, 85mm x 85mm, allowing you to move them more freely on the front of your lens. The 121M filter blocks two stops of light (.6, 4X, or ND4). If you want the holder for the above filter, get a P series filter that has the ring that fits the diameter of your lens.
36 However, many photographers hold the filter against the front of the lens instead. There are other brands of graduated neutral density filters. How to Set the Exposure The exposure is set for the foreground, without the graduated neutral density filter being in place. There are several ways you can set the exposure. Manual Exposure Use the Manual (M) exposure mode. When doing so, fill the viewfinder with the foreground when you're measuring the light. Set the exposure. Then, recompose the scene in the frame. The light meter will now "say" that the exposure is incorrect. Ignore the light meter. Position the filter. Press the shutter release. Autoexposure Lock Use autoexposure lock to set the exposure for the foreground area. You can use P (Program), A or Av (Aperture Priority), or S or Tv (Shutter Priority).
Nikon DSLRs
It's near where your right-hand thumb can reach it. When you press and hold the AEL button down, the exposure is locked in. Fill the viewfinder with the foreground. Press the shutter release slightly to turn the light meter on. Recompose the scene in the frame. Position the graduated neutral density filter. Press the shutter release.
Canon DSLRs
Fill the viewfinder with the foreground. Press the shutter release slightly to turn the light meter on. Look for the button with an asterisk icon. It's near where your right-hand thumb can reach it. When you press and release asterisk button, the exposure is locked in until the light meter shuts off. Recompose the scene in the frame. Position the graduated neutral density filter. Press the shutter release. Software You can also use software such as nik Color Efex Pro!
Look for the AEL button.
An Advanced Light Topic

Table of Contents
37 Beginners should come back to this section later. Solutions Interiors If you're photographing an interior, you'll know that the light from the windows will not illuminate the entire space. The amount of light diminishes quickly as it spreads out from the windows. If you were to set your exposure for the light near the windows, the area of the room furthest from the windows will be very dark. Or, if you were to set your exposure for the darkest part of the room, the area near the windows would be too bright. You'll know to use bounce flash (aim a flash at the ceiling), or use other lights to supplement the window light. Groups of People If you're photographing a group of people indoors, use a separate flash on your camera.. Bounce the light from the flash off of the ceiling. The people near the camera, and those further away, will be more evenly lighted.
Dark Backgrounds with Flash

When we photograph a group at a dining room table, with a pop-up flash, the exposure is uneven. People close to the flash are overexposed, and people at the other end of the table are underexposed. Yet, if we were to photograph the same group, outside, sitting at a picnic table, everyone would be exposed properly.
Why?
The distance of the light from the subject determines the evenness light. When photographing the group at the picnic table, the light sources, the sun and sky, are far away. So, there's no difference in the brightness of the light. Indoors, with a light source that's very close to the people at the dining room table, there's a huge difference in brightness. This happens because the light spreads out, gets dimmer, very quickly. How can this knowledge make for better photographs? How can this knowledge make for better photographs? Interiors If you're photographing an interior, you'll know that the light from the windows will not illuminate the entire space.
The amount of light diminishes quickly as it spreads out from the windows. If you were to set your exposure for the light near the windows, the area of the room furthest from the windows will be very dark.
38 Or, if you were to set your exposure for the darkest part of the room, the area near the windows would be too bright. You'll know to use bounce flash (aim a flash at the ceiling), or other lights to supplement the window light. Groups of People If you're photographing a group of people indoors with flash on your camera, the front row would be too bright, and the back row, too dark. Bounce the light from your flash off of the ceiling, and the front and back rows will receive about the same amount of light.
Light Summary
Table of Contents
The best summary of our discussion about light are the pictures you take doing the above Light "Sensitivity Training" exercises. Your photographs, placed in your visual notes, will illustrate the qualities of light. Color of the light
Direction of the light Which determines texture and volume
Size of the light source Which governs contrast Distance of the light from the subject
Exposure Introduction
Table of Contents
Definition
Exposure is the amount of light striking the sensor.
By changing the size of the lens opening, the intensity of the light reaching the sensor is varied. Lens opening is also known as aperture, f/stop, and rarely, diaphragm. Shutter Speed When the shutter opens, the duration of the light reaching the sensor is controlled. Let's look at ISO, lens opening, and shutter speed.
Three Controls
The amount of light is controlled by using three controls. ISO ISO is a measure of how sensitive the sensor is to light. Lens Opening The lens opening is an iris-like device in the lens.
39
ISO
Table of Contents
Definition
Again, the sensitivity of the sensor to light is called ISO. ISO is the International Standards Organization. They set standards for manufacturers to follow, such as the diameter of DVD discs.
Noise is most visible in areas of a photograph that have a similar color or tone, such as shadows. Many cameras will increase the ISO setting automatically if the light is dim. If you prefer to change the ISO setting yourself, use your camera menu to disable this feature. Here are some of the reasons for using different ISO settings. Reasons to Use Different ISO Settings
Situation Use Lower ISO Use Higher ISO
Lower ISO Settings

A smaller ISO number, say 100 or 200, means the sensor is less sensitive to light. You need lots of light to use a low ISO. However, the quality of the photograph is better.
Not enough light
Higher ISO Settings

Higher ISO settings, such as 400, 800, 1600, are increasingly more sensitive to light. Higher ISO settings enable you to photograph with less light. But, the quality decreases as the sensitivity increases, due to noise.
Need to use a faster shutter speed, such as when using a zoom lens at 300mm
Want highest quality blacks, such as when doing night photography
Want the best color
Want less noise
Noise
Noise in digital photography corresponds roughly to grain in film. Noise consists of specs of inappropriate colors (color noise) and specs that are brighter or darker than they should be (luminosity noise). When using higher ISO settings, noise will be increased.
ISO Setting
Summary
Numbers Attributes
Low
50, 100, 200
Less sensitive Less noise
High
400, 800, 1600, 3200 More sensitive More noise
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Lens Opening
Table of Contents
The intensity of the light reaching the sensor is controlled by varying the lens opening. The lens opening is an iris-like mechanism in the lens. Aperture, f/stop, and diaphragm, are synonyms for lens opening. The numbers (which are logarithmic) used to designate aperture are confusing. Use this mnemonic to help remember what the numbers represent. The bigger the number, the less light reaches the sensor.
In this exposure mode, you change the lens opening, and the camera selects the shutter speed. On Nikon cameras, and many others, this mode is called A. On Canon cameras, the mode is called Av.
Advantages
If you're using the aperture-priority exposure mode, you'll be more aware of depth-of-field. Depth-of-field is whether the background will be sharp or not. We'll cover depth-of-field later. Next, we'll look at how shutter speed controls the duration of the light striking the sensor.
Aperture-Priority Exposure Mode

You can set the aperture by using the aperture-priority exposure mode.
Shutter Speed
Table of Contents
1 Introduction
Definition Your camera probably has a mechanical shutter. There are metal curtains that travel across the frame. It may have an electronic shutter. The sensor turns on and off.
Shutter Speed Numbers Shutter speeds are usually fractions of a second. On most cameras, both the numerator and denominators are shown, such as 1/250. On older cameras, only the numerator is shown, such as 250. Shutter speeds that are full seconds are denoted by a quote mark or the abbreviation sec.
41 2" is a two-second exposure, for example. Because we're familiar with fractions, the shutter speed numbers are more understandable than lens opening numbers. However, we can use the same mnemonic sentence to understand the different shutter speeds. The bigger the number, the less light reaches the sensor. Shutter-priority Exposure Mode You can set the shutter by using the shutter-priority exposure mode. In this exposure mode, you change the shutter speed, and the camera selects the aperture. On Nikon cameras, and many others, this mode is called S. On Canon cameras, the mode is called Tv. Advantages If you're using the shutter-priority exposure mode, you'll be more aware of whether movement will be sharp or blurry. When using program exposure mode, or the action icon (jogger figure), the camera will most often freeze any motion. If you're photographing movement, such as sports, dance, and waterfalls, you may want to use shutter-priority exposure mode to blur motion.
2 Slow Shutter Speeds

When holding your camera, if you use too slow of a shutter speed, you may get camera shake. Your photograph may appear to be out-of-focus. The photograph may be streaky, and objects may have doubled edges. The slowest shutter speed you can safely use depends on the focal length of your lens. If you're at 200mm (telephoto), you need a faster shutter speed than when at 18mm (wide-angle). Here's a rule of thumb Whatever the focal length of the lens is, that's the slowest shutter speed you can use when hand holding your camera.
Focal Length Minimum Hand-held Shutter Speed
28mm
30th
50mm
60th
100mm
125th
200mm
250th
300mm
500th
500mm
Tripod
Being More Stable Do the following when using slow shutter speeds without a tripod. A heavier camera is more stable.
42 Lean against something, or rest your elbows on something. Press the camera against something, such as a lamp post. Rest the camera on a surface, and use the self-timer or a remote shutter release, to trip the shutter. Press the shutter release gently, or use a remote shutter release. Press the shutter release at the bottom of your exhale. Your body is more stable then, and not when you're holding your breath. Image Stabilization Your camera or lens may have image stabilization. This technology allows you to use slower shutter speeds. Often, you can use shutter speeds that are two-stops slower. For example, let's say you were able to avoid camera shake with a 300mm lens by using a shutter speed of 1/500th of a second. With image stabilization, you may be able to use 1/125th successfully.
3 Shutter Speed Example

Here are photographs of a waterfall taken at different shutter speeds.
Shutter Speed: 1/500th of a Second
Shutter Speed: 1/2 of a Second
Which Photograph Is Best? Or, which shutter speed is the best? The answer depends on how you're using the photograph. For example, a college promoting its natural surroundings may want to use the high-shutter-speed waterfall photograph.
The photograph would convey the natural beauty of the region, along with energy. A meditation center, on the other hand, may want to use the more serene slow-shutter-speed photograph.
43 Tripods For the above photograph, the camera was on a tripod. If it hadn't been on a tripod, the photograph would have shown camera shake because of the slow shutter speed. Everything in the scene would have shown the movement of the camera, not just the water. The rocks, water, and everything else, would have been "swirly" and may have had doubled edges. If you don't have a tripod, set your camera on a stable surface. If you place your camera on a plastic bag filled with uncooked rice, beans, etc., you can aim your camera more easily. Self-timer & Remote Releases When using a slow shutter speed, and the camera is on a tripod or on a surface, pressing the shutter release may cause camera shake. If the moment of exposure isn't critical, you can use your camera's self-timer. A remote release allows you to trip the shutter exactly when you want, unlike the self-timer. Frustration You can't always use the shutter speed that you want. Low Light You can't use fast shutter speeds with low light. As you change to faster shutter speeds, and there isn't much light, Lo will appear in the viewfinder. There's too little light. Bright Light You can't use slow shutter speeds in bright lighting. As you change to slower shutter speeds, and there's a lot of light, Hi will appear in the viewfinder. There's too much light. You can use slow shutter speed on a sunny day if you use a three-stop (.9 or 8X) neutral density filter.
4 Two Kinds of Blur

Blur from being out-of-focus, and blur caused by a subject in motion, can be confused easily. Blur from being out-of-focus is often soft. Blur from movement, recorded with a slow shutter speed, may be streaky, or there may be a doubling of the edges of the subject.
Setting Exposure
Table of Contents
1 The Light Meter

We've looked at how lens opening and shutter speed are used to
control the amount of light reaching the sensor. How do we measure the amount of light?
44 Your camera contains a light meter for that purpose. The light meter measures the amount of light that will strike the sensor. When you depress the shutter release slightly, the light meter turns on. You're taking a light reading. You're measuring the light with the light meter. Once the amount of light is known, the lens opening and shutter speed can be set. camera) in the central area of the frame. For example, if you're photographing a landscape, and you don't want a bright sky throwing off the exposure, point the central area of the frame down, removing the sky from the frame. Lock in the exposure using the autoexposure lock button (AEL button on Nikons, star icon button on Canons). Then, recompose your photograph in the frame. Go to the Autoexposure Lock section. Spot Metering With spot metering, the light meter measures a small area in the center of the frame. This area may be from 1% to several percent of the entire area of the frame. On some cameras, you can adjust the size of the area. For example, if you're photographing an eagle nest against a bright sky, point the center of the frame at the nest. As described above, lock in the exposure using the autoexposure lock button (AEL button on Nikons, star button on many Canons). Then, recompose your photograph in the frame. Go to the Autoexposure Lock section.
2 More about Light Meters

Beginners should skip this page. What Your Light Meter "Sees" Your light meter can be set to see different parts of the scene. Multiple-point Metering Your light meter can be set to measure many different parts of a scene. This is called matrix metering (Nikon) or evaluative metering (Canon). The multiple measurements are compared to exposure algorithms stored in the camera computer. The lens opening and shutter speed are set according to the best match between the multiple measurements and the algorithms. Center-weighted Metering With center-weighted metering, the light meter measures most of the light (60 to 75% depending on the
45 Light Meters Are Stupid Light meters give you acceptable exposures most of the time. However, there are several situations where the light meter will give you the wrong exposure. You'll learn about these situations below.
M Manual exposure mode
Nikon Camera Letters & Others On Nikons, and many other cameras, the exposure modes include the following.
A Most functions are set to the factory default values
3 Exposure Modes
P Program exposure mode A Aperture-priority exposure mode
Shutter-priority exposure mode
Your camera has exposure modes. Exposure modes are often located on a knob on the top of the camera. The modes are designated by letters and icons. We'll look at the letters here, and the icons in the next section. Canon Camera Letters On Canon cameras, the exposure modes include the following. The Auto exposure mode is green. It may be the word Auto, a camera icon, or a rectangle.
Auto Most functions are set to the factory default values
Manual exposure mode
What does each of the above exposure modes do?
Auto Exposure Mode

The Auto exposure mode uses program exposure mode, and also sets many defaults on the camera. Program Exposure Mode Program, P, is the most convenient exposure mode. You don't have to do anything. You can ignore lens opening and shutter speed. That's a problem. If we don't have to use these tools, our photographs won't be as good. Aperture-priority Exposure Mode Aperture-priority exposure mode, Av or A, is the most useful exposure mode.
Program exposure mode
Av
Aperture-priority exposure mode
Tv
Shutter-priority exposure mode
46 Because you have to set the lens opening, you'll use this valuable tool more often. We'll explore depth-of-field below. Shutter-priority Exposure Mode Shutter-priority exposure mode, Tv or S, is useful for freezing or blurring movement. You choose the shutter speed, and the camera selects the lens opening. Manual Exposure Mode Manual exposure mode, M, is useful if you want to bracket your exposures. Bracketing is the taking of several photographs of a scene at different exposure settings. Many photographers now use automatic bracketing or use exposure compensation. The camera may also select a color balance that's optimized for skin tone and may reduce the contrast as well. Mountain Use the mountain icon for landscapes. The camera may select a color balance with more vivid color. Flower Use the flower icon for close-ups. The camera may select a small lens opening (more depth-of-field) so more of the subject is in focus. Jogger Use the jogger icon to freeze motion. The camera will select a fast shutter speed to freeze the subject's motion. Figure w/ Moon or Star This icon is for night portraits. The flash will illuminate the person. The shutter will stay open longer to gather light from the dimmer background, so it is also wellexposed. There are icons on the exposure mode knob, and maybe, scene modes. Icons Here's what the most useful icons do. Face Use the face icon for portraits. The camera may select a wide lens opening (less depth-of-field) to blur the background.
4 Exposure Mode Icons
Movement in the background may be blurred. Scene Modes Your camera may have scene modes. Scene modes are for tricky exposure situations, such as candlelight, fireworks, and so forth.
47
5 Bracketing
What's Bracketing? Bracketing is the taking of several photographs of a scene where different amounts of light reach the sensor. Normally, as you change the shutter speed, the lens opening will change as well. Or, as you change the lens opening, the shutter speed will change. In both situations, the amount of light reaching the sensor is the same. Each photograph will have the same brightness as the others. However, when bracketing, the amount of light is varied to produce exposures each with a different brightness. Bracketing is done when you're unsure of the best exposure. For example, the shutter speed remains the same below, while the lens opening is varied. The sensor is receiving different amounts of light, so the brightness of the photographs will vary as well. Bracketing is done when you're unsure of the best exposure. How to Bracket Many cameras have automatic bracketing. You can set your camera to take several different exposures. You can also use exposure compensation, which is described in the next section.
6 Exposure Compensation
Why Exposure Compensation Is Needed Let's say you're changing the exposure settings using the following exposure modes. Aperture-priority exposure mode (A or Av) Shutter-priority exposure mode (S or Tv)
The brightness of each exposure stays the same, even though you change the lens opening or the shutter speed. When you change one, the camera changes the other, to keep the exposure brightness the same. You have to use exposure compensation to make a photograph lighter (overexposed) or darker (underexposed). Uses for Exposure Compensation Richer Colors Let's say you're photographing red petroglyphs on a canyon wall in Nevada. You want the photograph to be a little darker, underexposed, to make the colors richer. Set the exposure compensation feature to -0.5 or -1.0. The petroglyphs will be a deeper red. Bracketing Let's say you're photographing the sunset in Lugarno. Sunsets can look good lighter and darker.
48 So, you photograph the sun at different exposure compensation settings. This is called bracketing. If you're not sure of the exposure, bracket. Most cameras can be set to automatically bracket. How to Use Exposure Compensation To use exposure compensation, hold down the +/ button, and turn a knob on your camera to adjust the compensation. A plus setting makes the photograph brighter. A minus setting makes it darker.
Setting Compensation
2) Turn on the light meter (depress the shutter release slightly). 3) Turn the knob on the back of the camera to adjust the exposure compensation. Warning When using exposure compensation, most cameras display a +/ icon on the LCD screen. Check periodically to make sure the exposure compensation icon is absentunless you're using the feature. Let's say you photographed a 1950s car. You set the exposure compensation to -2.0 to make the chrome bumper stand out from the aqua paint of the car. That was yesterday. Today, you're photographing a friend's baby, little Hunter. You remember to check for the +/icon. You change the exposure compensation to 0.0 from -2.0 before photographing Hunter.
+1.5
Adds 1.5 stops
+1.0
Adds one stop
+0.5
Adds 1/2 stop
0.0
None
0.5
Subtracts 1/2 stop
1.0
Subtracts one stop
7 Histograms
Many cameras can display histograms. A histogram is a graph of how many pixels there are at different brightness levels. The bottom axis is brightness. The shadows are to the left; highlights are to the right. The left axis is the quantity of pixels at each brightness level.
1.5
Subtracts 1.5 stops
A Few Canon Cameras With a few Canon cameras, you have to switch the on/off switch on the back of the camera to the slash icon. Then, do the following. 1) Fill the frame with the part of the scene that you want to photograph.
49 Here's the histogram for the photograph of the white hydrangea flowers on sunny day. The dark corner on the right side of the photograph is to the left on the histogram. The leaf pixels are in the middle, as they have a medium brightness. The flower pixels that are in the sun are to the right.
Here's the histogram for the eggs taken on an overcast day
Because the scene is has a medium to medium-high brightness, the graph is taller in the middle and to the right. Here's a histogram of black velvet.
Because the fabric is so dark, the graph is tall on the far left side.
50
How can you use histograms?
8 How to Use Histograms

Exposure You can use histograms to judge exposure.
Here's the histogram for the normal exposure for the castor bean leaves.
There are shadows (left side) and midtones (middle), but no highlights (right side). The next histogram shows pronounced overexposure of the leaves.
51
Note the tall spike at the right side of the histogram. The spike is called clipping.
Clipping means that available image data has not being recorded. The next histogram shows severe underexposure.
Note the tall spike, now at the left side of the histogram. Again, the spike represents clipping. Image data has been lost. Contrast You can also use histograms to evaluate the contrast of a scene.
This photograph of a white CD has tall dark and bright areas. There's lots of contrast.
52
On the histogram, the contrast is seen as the tall spikes in the shadows (left side) and the bright midtones (to the right).
It's near where your right-hand thumb can reach it. When you press and hold the AEL button, the exposure is locked in. 1) Press the shutter release slightly to turn the light meter on. 2) Fill the frame with the part of the scene that you want to use to set the exposure. 3) In the example, point the camera at the Matterhorn. 4) Press the AEL button and hold. 5) Recompose the scene in the frame. 6) Press the shutter release. Canon DSLRs Look for the button with an asterisk icon. It's near where your right-hand thumb can reach it. When you press and release the asterisk button, the exposure is locked in until the light meter shuts off. 1) Press the shutter release slightly to turn the light meter on.
9 Autoexposure Lock
You can point your camera at part of a scenemeasure the lightand can lock in that exposure. Let's say you're photographing the Matterhorn from the village of Zermatt. The mountain is in the sun. The village is in the shade. Your camera may set the exposure for the shady part of the scene, Zermatt, and not the Matterhorn. If so, the Matterhorn would be too bright. Use the autoexposure lock button to make sure the camera sets the exposure for the mountain , and not the village. Do the following. How to Lock in the Exposure Nikon DSLRs Look for the AEL button.
53 2) Fill the frame with the part of the scene that you want to use to set the exposure. 3) In the example, point the camera at the Matterhorn. 4) Press the asterisk button. 5) Recompose the scene in the frame. 6) Press the shutter release. Make sure the light meter doesn't turn off before you've pressed the shutter release. If it does, start over. A few Canon cameras have an autoexposure lock "button" that is a lever on the back of the camera at the bottom. Check your instruction manual. Examples Example #1 Lets say youre at the Grand Canyon. When your light meter sees the bright sky, it may set the exposure for the sky. The canyon may become too dark. Point your camera down at the canyon, and lock in the exposure. Point your camera at the sky and canyon, and press the shutter release. Example #2 Let's say you're photographing some friends standing on the edge of the canyon, with a bright sky behind them. If you don't use the autoexposure lock button, the camera may set the exposure for the bright sky. Your friend will be in silhouette against the sky. Instead, walk up to your friends, fill the frame with their faces. Lock in the exposure. The exposure is now set for your friend, not the sky. While keeping the autoexposure lock button depressed, walk back and focus, and press the shutter release. Autofocus Lock, Too? The autoexposure lock button often does double duty as an autofocus lock (AFL) button. In your camera menu, you can set the button to: Lock in both the exposure and the focus. Lock in only the exposure. Lock in only the focus.
You may want to set the button to lock in only the exposure.
54
Language of Stop
Table of Contents
1 Note
I describe the language of stop below. The analogy makes it far easier to understand an essential concept in photography. However, the language of stop is my concoction. So, if you take a photography class, don't ask your teacher about it!
the wedding ceremony without a flash." Filters "I was using a Polarizing filter for the pictures of the new swimming pool. I had to take it off in the dark grotto, though. A Polarizing filter blocks about one stop of light." Printing "The prints from the lab were too light. I asked them to reprint them two stops darker."
2 Introduction
There is a "language" in photography that I call Stop. Stop is "spoken" everywhere in photography. You may not understand the examples below. You willafter learning the language of Stop. Exposure "I set the exposure compensation to subtract one stop of light. Now, the colors of the Grand Canyon will be richer." ISO "It got dark when the storm came through, so I changed the ISO on my camera by three stops, from ISO 100 to ISO 800." Lenses "This 50mm lens has a wide lens openingf/1.4. It's three stops faster than my f/4 zoom lens. That will help when I'm photographing
3 Encouragement
Again, because Stop is the language of photography, you'll be a better photographer if you can "speak" Stop. I encourage you to read this section a couple of times. You'll be rewarded with a better understanding of how your photography works.
4 Definitions
The basics of the language of stop are easy to learn. One Vocabulary Word The Language of Stop has only one word: Stop Definition of the Single Word The definition of stop: A stop is a quantity of light.
55 Grammar of Stop The "grammar" is very simple: When you add a stop of light, you're doubling the amount of light. When you subtract a stop of light, you're decreasing the light by half. If you subtract yet another stop of light, the amount of light halves again.
2X
That's the grammar of Stop: 1/2 and 2X. We've been looking at Stop abstractly. Let's see Stop in action with a photograph.
1/2X
7 More Examples
Let's see how you can put the language of Stop to work for your photography. Here's an example of the Language of Stop with a photograph. Let's say this picture was taken at f/8.
5 Grammar Example #1
If you have a stop of light, you have a quantity of light. Here, one stop of light is represented by a box.
f/8
If you add one more stop of light, the amount of light doubles.
The exposure on the next photograph was changed by one stop: f/8 to f/5.6. The amount of light has doubled. The photograph is brighterby one stop.
If you add yet another stop of light, the light doubles again.
6 Grammar Example #2
If you have one stop of light . . . f/5.6
. . . and you subtract one stop of light, the amount of light halves.
Here's the first photograph again, taken at f/8.
56
10 Stop & ISO

f/8 ISO is one of the countries on your camera. ISO 800 is more sensitive to light than an ISO 100 setting. The exposure on the next photograph was also changed by one stop: f/8 to f/11. The amount of light was halved. The photograph is darkerby one stop. You can take photographs in dimmer light more readily. But you don't have a sense for how much more readily, unless you speak Stop. Stop gives you the answer: 3 stops more readily. Let's go from ISO 100 to ISO 800 using Stop.
ISO 100 to ISO 200 is 1 stop more sensitive
f/11
Now let's look at how the Language of Stop is "spoken" by three countries on your camera.
9 Three Countries
Stop is spoken by the three "countries" on your camera. The countries are: 1) ISO 2) Shutter speed 3) Lens opening Cameras have always had globalization. The three countries are interdependent. They all "speak" to each other with the Language of Stop. Let's look at how Stop is spoken in each country.
Total 3 stops
So, the total change is three stops. An ISO 800 setting is three stops more sensitive to light than ISO 100. So?
11 Stop & ISO Example

By understanding that an ISO 800 setting is three stops more sensitive than ISO 100, you now know that you can use a shutter speed that's three stops faster. Let's say, with an of ISO 100, you're photographing a horse at twilight. The horse is called Second Chance. There's enough light to use an exposure of f/4 with a shutter speed of 1/15th of a second.
57 1/15th of a second is a slow shutter speed. Second Chance, the horse, will be blurry if she's moving. And, you'll get blur from camera shake. So, you switch to ISO 800. The sensor is now more sensitive to light. So, you can use a faster shutter speedthree stops faster. So, you switch to ISO 800. The sensor is now more sensitive to light. So, you can use a faster shutter speedthree stops faster. Here's how to count the number of stops in this example.
1/15th to 1/30th is 1 stop
If you change the lens opening by one stop, the light either doubles or decreases by half. How many stops difference between f/4 and f/22? The lens opening is getting smaller, so the amount of light will decrease.
f/4 to f/5.6 is 1 stop less light
f/5.6 to f/8
is 1 stop less light
f/8
to f/11
f/11
to f/22
Total 4 stops
By going from f/4 to f/22, there are five stops less light reaching the sensor. Let's look at how Stop is spoken on the last country, shutter speed.
1/30th to 1/60th
is 1 stop
13 Stop & Shutter Speed

If you move the shutter speed one stop, the light reaching the film either doubles, or decreases by half. How many stops difference between 1/500th and 1/60th of a second?
1/500th to 1/250th is 1 stop more light
1/60th to 1/125th is 1 stop
Total 3 stops
Second Chance will be sharp. That's because you're able to use 1/125th instead of 1/15th. You were able to change the shutter speed by three stops because you changed the ISO by three stops. Now, let's look at how Stop is spoken in the country called lens opening.
1/250th to 1/125th is 1 stop more light
1/125th to 1/60th
is 1 stop more light
Total 3 stops
12 Stop & Lens Opening

Lens opening is the second country on your camera.
There are three stops difference between 1/500th and 1/60th. There are three stops more light reaching the sensor.
58 We've looked at how Stop is spoken within the three countries. It was mentioned earlier that the countries speak with each other. They trade stops back and forth. ISO, lens opening, and shutter speed, "trade" stops between each other. The photographs below look the same, exposure-wise. That's because lens opening and shutter speed traded stops.
14 Trading Stops
ISO, lens opening, and shutter speed, "trade" stops between each other.
f/5.6 1/4000th
f/8 1/2000th
f/11 1/1000th
The above photographs look the same because the same amount of lightthe same number of stops of lightreached the sensor in all three photographs. Yet, the lens openings and shutter speeds below each photograph are different. Again, lens opening and shutter speed traded stops. Below, bar graphs are used to represent the amount of light that reached the sensor. You can see that the bar graphs are the same length. That's because, as mentioned, the same amount of light reached the sensor in each photograph.
But, less or more light came through the lens opening and the shutter, depending on how the two countries traded the stops between themselves.
59
f/11 f/8 f/5.6
1/1000th 1/2000th 1/4000th
In the first photograph, lots of light came through the lens opening, the light gray part of the bar graph. Very little light came through the shutter, as seen in the dark gray portion of the bar graph. The last photograph is the reverse. The countries of lens opening and shutter speed traded stops, allowing the same amount of light to reach the digital sensor. The exercise below will help you to fully understand Stop.
15 Moon Exercise
I photographed a flower bed with the light of the full moon. The photograph looks like it was taken in daylight, because daylight was used. That is, the sunlight reflected off of the moon was the light source. We expect moon light to be blue. Thats because film makers use a blue filter for day-for-night scenes.
60
The exposure was:

ISO: 1600
Let's trade between ISO and lens opening. The new lens opening is f/2.
ISO: 1600 100
Lens opening: f/8
Shutter speed: 60 seconds
Lens opening:
f/2
Shutter speed: 60 seconds
How would the above numbers change if we "trade" stops between the three countries? Let's change the ISO from 1600 to 100. That's a four stop change. We have to trade some stops.
We traded four stops from the ISO to the lens opening. The ISO is now four stops less sensitive. The lens opening now gathers four stops more light.
Light Meters Are Stupid

Table of Contents
1 Introduction
The light meter in your camera is stupid, some of the time.
When I photographed a white hydrangea in the sun, the left hand version is what I got, exposure-wise. The flower actually looked like the version to the right.
Light meters "think" everything is average: medium toned.
So, when you photograph a nonmedium toned flower in the sun, the
61 light meter gives you an exposure setting that will make the flower For example: If your light meter "sees" this white square . . . Or: If your light meter sees this black square . . . . . . it will think there's very little light, and will brighten the square. . . . it will "think" there's lots of light, and will darken the square. medium toned.
Here's a photograph taken from a cliff of a snowy valley. The version to the left is how the light meter in my camera decided to set the exposure. The light meter measured lots of sunlight reflecting off of the snow,
and set the exposure to make the snow look averagegray. The right hand version is the correct exposure that I had to set myself. You can't rely on the light meter when photographing light subjects that are brightly lighted.
Black gloves can become gray gloves in your photographs. Here's a photograph taken of my gloves with a ski pole.
The gloves, in the left hand version, are too bright. The gloves to the right are properly exposed because I set the exposure myself.
62
2 Why Are They Stupid?

If you wish, you can skip this explanation. However, if you read on, you'll be one of the few photographers who understand completely how their light meters work. Go to the Beechers Handout menu on my website. There, look for Light Meters Are Stupid > 15.3 - Why Are They Stupid?.
Be sure to set the exposure compensation back to 0.0 when you're done. Dark Colored/Toned Subjects You need to underexpose dark colored/toned subjects that are in bright light. Set the exposure compensation feature on your camera to -1.5. Take a photograph. Then set it to -2 and take another one. Be sure to set the exposure compensation back to 0.0 when you're done. Method #2 - Measure Something More Average In this method, you look around the scene for something that's average colored or toned. This object must be in the same light as the subject, of course. 1) Find something in the scene that is average colored/toned. For example, in the snowy valley scene, this tree bark was medium toned.
3 Getting the Correct Exposure

How do you photograph subjects that are bright or dark? There are four methods. Method #1 - Exposure Compensation Light Colored/Toned Subjects You need to overexpose light colored/toned subjects that are in bright light. Set the exposure compensation feature on your camera to +1.5. Take a photograph. Then set it to +2 and take another one.
63 b
2) Fill the viewfinder with the average colored/toned part of the scene, and set your exposure. You can lock in this exposure by using the automatic exposure lock (AEL) feature, or set the exposure using manual exposure mode (M). 3) Then, point your camera at the scene you want to photograph, and press the shutter release. Method #3 - Gray Card You can use an 18% gray card. Hold the gray card in the same light as the subject. Measure the light by pointing your camera at the card. The photograph below is of a gray card held in front of the hydrangea. The camera light meter measured the light reflecting back from the gray card. The light reading was 1/500th at f/8. This exposure was locked in using the autoexposure lock (AEL) feature of the camera. Method #4 - Incident Meter You can use a separate light meter. The light meter in your camera is measuring the light reflected from the scene.
As we have seen above, this can confuse the light meter. A separate light meter can take incident measurements. An incident light reading is of the light falling on the scenenot the light reflecting back at the camera from the scene. Therefore, an incident light reading is not confused by how much light gets absorbed and reflected from the scene. To take a light reading, place the meter in the scene, and point it back at the camera.
5 Be Careful with Backlighting

As discussed in the Lighting Contrast section, most digital sensors cannot record scenes that have both dark and light areas. You have to choose which part of the scene to record properly, the bright area or the dark area. Light meters don't know what is important in a scene. You have to decide.
64 In the example below, the light meter won't know whether the sky is more important to you or the parrot. Example Let's say you're on the dock at Key West and the sun is setting. You're taking a picture of a man with the parrot on his shoulder. You expect the colors of the parrot will look good with the colors of the sunset behind the bird. When you look at the photograph, however, the sunset looks great, but the parrot is a dark silhouette. The above situation is called backlighting. Backlighting can confuse even sophisticated light metering systems. How do you measure the light better than the light meter? Take the light reading from the parrot, not the bright sky. There are three methods. Method #1 - Walk Closer To Measure the Light Walk up to the parrot, and measure the light on the parrot. Lock in the exposure with the auto exposure lock button (AEL). Then, step back, and take the photograph. Method #2 - Closer with Spot Metering Switch your light meter to spot metering, if your camera has this feature. When your camera is set for spot metering, it is measuring the light in a small portion of the viewfinder. Set your exposure by pointing the spot metering zone at the bird. Lock in the exposure with the auto exposure lock button (AEL). Then, take the photograph. Method #3 - Add Light You can also add more light to the man and bird. Use fill flash or a reflector. Then, the sensor can record the scene properly.
Depth-of-Field
Table of Contents
1 Introduction
Depth-of-field is a valuable composition tool. When you focus on your subject that's where the focus is the sharpest.
Howeverthere's a zone in front and behind the subject that's acceptably sharp. This acceptably sharp zone is the depth-of-field. Compare the two photographs below.
65 In each, the camera was focused on the crystal paper weight. The left photograph has very little in focus. The depth-of-field is shallow. There's more in focus in the right photograph. It has more depth-of-field.
The amount in focus, the depth-offield, depends on: 1) Lens opening 2) Distance from the subject 3) Sensor size
We'll look at each of these factors.
2 Lens Opening
In both photographs below, the camera was focused on the bottom edge of the book.
f/4.5
f/22
Note how the title is out-of-focus when the lens opening is at f/4.5. Wide lens openings, such as f/4.5, have less depth-of-field. Not as much is in focus.
The book is more in focus in the right photograph. The small lens opening, f/22, has more depth-of-field.
66 Think Before You Press! Learn to ask yourself if you want the background in focus or not. A good way to ensure that you consider depth-of-field is to use aperture-priority exposure mode. If you have to set the lens opening, you'll think about depth-of-field. Frustration You can't always use the lens opening that you would like to use. Sometimes there's too little, or too much, light. If this occurs, Lo or Hi will blink in your viewfinder, letting you know that you have to adjust the lens opening. Let's look at another factor that determines depth-of-field. If you're more than, say, fifteen feet from your subject, different lens openings will have about the same amounts of depth-of-field. As you get closer to the subject, depth-of-field becomes more evident. As you get closer and closer, the depth-of-filed decreases. In the left photograph below, very little is in focus because of the wide lens opening, f/4.5. And, the camera is close to the marigolds. In the right photograph, much more is in focus. That's because the small lens opening, f/22, produced more depth-of-field. If you're close to your subject, consider using a small lens opening, such as f/22.
3 Distance from the Subject

Depth-of-field also depends on how close you are to the subject.
f/4.5
f/22
4 Sensor Size
In addition to lens opening and how close you are to your subject, the
size of the sensor affects depth-offield.
67 Most digital cameras have more depth-of-field than 35mm film cameras. Digital SLRs Most digital SLR cameras have sensors that are smaller than 35mm film. Therefore, they have more depth-offield than film cameras. When using f/8 with a digital SLR, there's more depth-of-field than when you use f/8 with a 35mm film camera. Disadvantage You can't blur backgrounds as much with digital SLRs. Advantage But more is in focus when doing close-up (macro) photography. Point-and-shoot Cameras If you use a point-and-shoot camera, you can ignore the discussion about depth-of-field. Your camera has a sensor that's very small. Therefore, your camera has lots of depth-of-fieldeven at wide lens openings. Having lots of depth-of-field is both good and bad. The Good The #1 complaint of photographers is unsharp photographs. With lots of depth-of-field, your photographs will be sharp. This is especially useful when doing close-up (macro) photography, where there is less depth-of-field because you're close to the subject. The Bad You're less able to blur the background behind the subject.
5 How to Get Less

Too Much? As described above, there's more depth-of-field in photography now due to sensor size. There's also more depth-of-field because we're genrally using lenses that go only to f/4, instead of f/1.4. What do you do if you want less depth-of-field? Solution Use a 50mm film lens on your digital SLR camera. The lens becomes about a 75mm lens on most digital SLR cameras. If you use a 50mm lens that has a lens opening of f/1.4, you'll have three stops less depth-of-field than your zoom lens. You can blur backgrounds more completely. In the right photograph of the grape leaf below, taken at f/1.4, note how only the leaf is in focus. There's much more depth-of-field in the left photograph, because it was taken at f/4.
68
f/4
f/1.4
Caveat When using a wide aperture like f/1.4, be sure to focus carefully.
The aperture may be at f/4.5, for example. Yet, when you press the shutter release, the lens opening may be different. If it's a sunny day, the photograph may be taken at f/22. The background will be much sharper in the photograph than what you saw in the viewfinder. For example, the left photograph below is what was seen in the viewfinder. The right photograph is the image that was saved to the memory card. Because it was a sunny day, the camera chose f/22 for the lens opening. Therefore, far more was in focus than what was seen in the viewfinder.
6 A Reason for Poor Backgrounds

One reason for poor backgrounds is the fact that when you're looking through your camera, the background is apt to be out-offocus. So, you don't pay much attention to the background. Why is the background out-of-focus? When you're looking through your viewfinder, the lens opening is wide open. The lens opening stays wide open, until you press the shutter release. With the lens wide open, you can see what you're photographing easily.
69
f/4.5
f/22
What Was Seen Through the Viewfinder
The Actual Photograph
Solutions Depth-of-field Preview Button Many cameras have a depth-of-field preview button. When you press the button, the lens opening moves from wide-open, say f/4.5, to where it will be when the shutter is released. This feature is handy for judging depth-of-field. When you press the button, the viewfinder may become quite dark. You may not be able to see your subject clearly, but you can see the outline of the subject. Press the button and release it, back and forth, to compare the depth-offield. DEP on Canon Cameras Canon cameras have a feature called DEP which allows you to more easily adjust the aperture for more depthof-field.
7 A Myth
There's a rule for depth-of-field that's set in stone. The depth-of-field zone is 1/3 in front of the subjectand 2/3 behind the subject. It's correct at only a few settings, however. Don't use the myth.
8 Diffraction
When photographers first learn about depth-of-field, they often become small-lens-opening enthusiasts. They use the smallest possible lens openingall of the time. Their photographs may, unexpectedly, not be sharp. While small lens openings have more depth-of-field, they also have more diffraction.
70 Diffraction degrades the sharpness of the photograph. What's Diffraction? Let's say you're photographing an apple. Light reflects off of the apple, goes through the lens opening, and strikes the sensor. However, some of the light waves also hit the edge of the lens opening. These light waves reflect off in new directions. The light waves coming directly from the apple are degraded by the waves that are coming from the edge of the lens opening. The two sets of waves interact with each other, reinforcing and canceling each other. This interaction degrades sharpness. At large lens openings, the amount of the diffracted light is a small portion of the total amount of light reaching the sensor. At small lens openings, the percentage of diffracted light increases. How to Avoid Diffraction For photographs that will be enlarged greatly, avoid using lens openings smaller than the focal length of the lens divided by four. For example, let's say youre using a 50mm focal length. 50mm / 4 = 12.5 The closest lens opening to 12.5 is f/11. Do not go smaller than f/11 when using a 50mm focal length, for optimum results. Point-and-shoot Cameras Point-and-shoot cameras often have f/8 as the smallest lens opening. At a focal length of 6mm, the physical size of the lens opening at f/8 is .75mm. .75mm is a tiny lens opening. If the camera had smaller lens openings, such as f/11 and f/16, diffraction would become evident at these smaller lens openings.
Focal Length
Table of Contents
1 MMs
Lenses have two types of MMs: diameter and focal length. Let's look at each one. MMS & Diameter The front of a lens has a diameter, such as 67mm.
You need to know the diameter of the lens if you're buying a filter. The easiest way to determine the diameter is to look at the inside surface of the lens cap. The diameter is usually printed there.
71 MMS & Focal Length Technically, focal length is the optical distance from the front of the lens to the sensor. Practically, focal length is how much you can see of a scene. Wide Angle A wide-angle lens "sees" a lot from side-to-side. 18mm is a wide-angle focal length. The number is below 50mm, the arbitrary point between wide and telephoto focal lengths. Telephoto A telephoto lens magnifies a distant part of a scene and brings it closer. 100mm is a wide-angle focal length. The number is larger than 50mm. Fixed Focal Length v. Zooms Some lenses have only a single focal length, a fixed focal length. Many photographers have a 50mm lens because the lens lets in lots of light, and has less depth-of-field. The lens only has one focal length, 50mm. In contrast, zoom lenses have many focal lengths. For example, an 18mm to 200mm zoom lens has all of the focal lengths between 18mm to 200mm.
18mm
50mm
70mm
72
450mm
2 Odds & Ends

Cleaning Lens cleaning is described in the Camera section. Clear Filters Clear filters are described in the Filters section.
On Canon digital SLRs, lenses are 1.6 times more telephoto, compared to a film camera. 1.5 and 1.6 are the lens factors. You multiply the focal length of your film lens by one of these lens factors to get the focal length of the lens on most digital SLRs. Full Frame Cameras A few cameras have full-frame sensors. They're the same size as 35mm film. Therefore, the focal length of a film lens is the same of these full-frame cameras.
3 Lens Factor
Let's say you're looking at the Brooklyn Bridge through a 35mm film SLR camera. You can see the entire bridge through the viewfinder. Then, you take the lens from the 35mm film camera and place it on your digital SLR camera. You look at the bridge through your digital SLR. Now, you can't see the entire bridge. Why? The sensor is smaller in the digital camera, than the frame of film in the film camera. Because the sensor is smaller, it "sees" less. The lens appears to be more telephoto. On Nikon digital SLRs, lenses are 1.5 times more telephoto, compared to a film camera.
4 Flare
In your viewfinder, flare may be: A whitish haze. Geometric shapes.
Flare is created when you aim your camera toward a bright light source, such as the sun. The light enters the lens and bounces around inside. This causes the haze and geometric shapes. Good Flare Flare can be good for a photograph if it adds romanticism, impressionism, fantasy, and so forth.
73 Flare is often used when doing a portrait. Bad Flare If flare doesn't add anything to your photograph, use a lens hood or use your hand to cast a shadow of the light source on your lens. The following techniques will reduce flare, but less noticeably than the above methods. 1) Remove filters from the lens. 2) Use a fixed focal length lens instead of a zoom. A zoom generally has more glass surfaces, which may cause more flare, than a fixed focal length lens. 5) Use a smaller lens opening. 6) Make sure your lens is clean. Optimum Flare Reduction Use an adjustable lens hood, also known as a matte box, for optimum reduction of flare. You can adjust the bellows depending on the focal length of your lens. Be sure to press the depth-of-field preview button on your camera to make sure the matte box is not appearing in the viewfinder.
Lee Filters
5 Volume & Background

Most photographers use focal length in only one way: They zoom back-and-forth to compose their photographs. That's great. But, you can use focal length in two other ways. You can change the volume of the subject. And, you can move the background further away and closer. Volume In the first pair of photographs, compare how the leaves in the lower left corner, and the broken branch in the middle, look in each photograph.
74
18mm
70mm
Note how the leaves and branch seem to be sticking out more, in the left photograph. This is because a wide-angle focal length was used. In the right photograph, using a telephoto focal length, the leaves and branch are closer together. The photograph is flatter.
Background Below, the same fallen tree was photographed from the side. In the left photograph, the road is further away. This is because a wide-angle focal length was used. In the right photograph, the road is closer because a telephoto focal length was used.
18mm
70mm
75
6 Portraits
When photographing someone from the neck up, a head shot, use a medium focal length. If you're using a digital SLR, use a 70mm focal length, or thereabouts. If youre using a point-and-shoot camera, move the zoom to a middle position, and see if the result is pleasing. By using the above settings, the volume of the person's face will be more natural looking. If you use a wide-angle focal length, the face will appear to be bulging.
Similarly, if you use a focal length that's too telephoto, the person's face will appear to be flattened. This advice also applies when you're photographing anything up close. For example, if you're photographing a Tiffany lamp to sell on eBay, a wide-angle focal length will distort to lamp. A telephoto focal length beyond those suggested below, will make the lamp appear to be less round. Use these focal lengths when doing a head shot, or when photographing an object up close.
Filters
Table of Contents
1 Introduction
This section will describe the most useful filters. First, we'll cover some basics. Filter Diameter You need to find out what size filters to buy. Lenses have a diameter measured in millimeters (mm). Look on the inside surface of your lens cap. The diameter is usually found there. Do You Have More Than One Lens? If you have more than one lens, you can buy filters to fit the lens with the largest diameter. Then, use a step-up ring to fit the filters onto your small diameter lenses.
For example, let's say your smaller lens has a diameter of 67mm, and your largest lens has a diameter of 77mm. To fit a 77mm diameter filter onto the 67mm diameter lens, purchase a 67mm to 77mm step-up ring. Caution #1 Do not screw filters on tightly. If you do, you may not be able to remove them. That's because when you grip the filter, the pressure distorts the circular filter into a slightly oval shape, that can't be revolved. If can't remove a filter, gently press the lens with the stuck filter down onto a mouse pad while revolving the camera.
76 Or, purchase a filter removal wrench. Caution #2 Only use one filter at a time, especially if you're using a wideangle focal length. Two or more filters may block light from reaching the corners of your photographs, causing dark corners. Filter manufacturers make thin versions of Polarizing filters. You may be able to use a thin Polarizing filter with a second filter. Convenience If you have more than one filter, purchase filter stack caps or end caps. Screw your filters together, and then screw the caps onto the stack of filters. Haze and skylight filters may have a light pink tint for removing the blue color of the atmosphere. Be sure to remove the clear filter when using another filter. If you don't, the filters may block the light, darkening the corners of your photographs. Some will chide you for having a $20 filter on your $200 lens. They'll rant about how the quality of your lens is being degraded by the filter. It's not.
3 Polarizing
Polarizing filters were discussed above in the Lighting Contrast section.
4 More About Polarizing Filters

As mentioned, you can use Polarizing filters to reduce reflections and glare on water and other surfaces, such as foliage.
2 Clear
UV, haze, and skylight filters are useful for protecting the lens. Because lenses already have UV filters inside, UV filters don't block any more UV light than what is already blocked by the lens.
5 Graduated Neutral Density

Graduated neutral density filters were discussed above in the Lighting Contrast section.
White Balance
Table of Contents
1 Introduction
The Problem Most beginning photographers have little awareness of the color of the light they're using when photographing.
The main reason for this is called chromatic adaptation. Our eyes adapt to the color of the illumination. For example, florescent lights, unless they're full spectrum, produce green light.
77 However, we perceive the light as being white. Setting White Balance Set the white balance to correct for different colors of light.
Icon Use
These are the common settings for this feature:
Automatic (AWB) Averages the color
Tungsten
Removes orange from light bulbs
Fluorescent
Removes green produced by fluorescent tubes (except fullspectrum tubes)
Cloudy
Removes blue from overcast weather
Shade
Use on a sunny day, to remove cyan, in the shade
Custom/Preset
See below
Custom (Preset) White Balance A custom or preset white balance is one that you create with your camera. Your camera measures the color of the light, and creates a corrective setting. Do so in the following situations. Different Colored Light Sources If different colored light sources are illuminating the subject, such as a mixture of tungsten and fluorescent lighting in a kitchen, create a custom white balance setting. More Precise Color If you want more precise color than that provided by the above white balance icons, create a custom white balance setting.
For example, tungsten lighting varies according to the type of bulb and wattage. The tungsten white balance icon uses an average tungsten setting. You can get a more precise white balance setting by using the camera to measure the color of the light in the scene.
2 Is AWB the Best?

Many photographers use the automatic white balance (AWB) setting all of the time. The AWB setting averages the color in a scene. It's easy to use AWB. But averaging the color doesn't work well when the color in a scene isn't average.
78 Two Examples Red Barns Lets' say you're photographing something that's all one color, such as a red barn. If you use AWB, the red of the barn will be muted in the photograph. Use the sun icon if you're in the sun, the cloudy icon on a cloudy day, and the shade icon if you're in the shade. Sunsets If you photograph a sunset using the AWB setting, the camera will decrease the intensity of the oranges and reds in the photograph. Set the white balance on the sun icon to retain the color of sunsets.
Composition
Table of Contents
1 Introduction
Don't Worry About It Many of my beginning students are overly concerned about their composition skills. I've found that most photographers have an innate sense of composition. However, Do Learn More Those who learn to identify the available compositional toolswhen they're behind the camerawill do even better. Definition Composition is the arrangement of the visual elements of the photograph. What You're Arranging 1) Geometric elements, such as lines, shapes, and curves 2) Contrasts of tone, color, light, infocus/out-of-focus areas, and geometric elements
3) Repetitions of tone, color, light, in-focus/out-of-focus areas, and geometric elements 4) Being in-balance or out-of-kilter, between tones, colors, light, infocus/out-of-focus areas, and the geometric elements 5) Subjects Location - Edges & Corners If any of the above are near the edge of the photograph, or are in a corner, they will attract more attention from the viewer. A photograph can, occasionally, imply something that's outside the frame. Location - Planes The photograph can have more depth if items are placed in the foreground, middle ground, and background planes. Goal of Composition The goal of composition is to convey to the viewer what you want them to see and feel.
79 Everything in the frame should be making a contribution. When the composition works, all of the elements have a tension with each other, which relaxes the viewer's eye. He or she can absorb the photograph without distraction. How to Learn about Composition Study your pictures. Self-criticism is often easier when the pictures are not fresh. Objectivity increases with time. Study the composition of other photographers also. Edges & Corners What you place on, near, or just outside the edges and corners is very important. These areas are very visible to the viewer, but difficult to see when taking the picture. Bulls-eye Pictures Because the focusing area is often located in the middle of your viewfinder, you may place your subject in the middle all the time. Rule of Thirds Divide your viewfinder into thirds, sort of like tick-tack-toe grid. Place subjects of interest along the lines of the grid, or at points where the lines intersect.
2 Guidelines
The guidelines below are not rules. The only rule in composition is that everything in the frame should be adding to what you're trying to communicate. Your style of composition is valid as long as you're communicating what you want. The guidelines are divided into three areas: 1) The frame 2) Planes 3) Other
Again, this is called a rule, but it's only a guideline.
4 Planes
Backgrounds The background can help or hinder your picture.
3 The Frame
"Horizontalitus" Because your camera is easier to hold horizontally, you may tend to take all your pictures this way. Some photographs call for a vertical composition.
However, it's very hard to pay attention to what is happening back there. Check the background and do the following. Vantage Point If it's not good, change your vantage point.
80 Focal Length Push the background further away by using a wide-angle focal length. Or, bring it close by using a more telephoto focal length. Depth-of-field Use a wide lens opening, such as f/1.4 on a 50mm lens, to blur the background. Use a smaller lens opening, such as f/16, to have the background sharper. Mergers Things in the background may merge with the subject. The classic example is a telephone pole behind a person's head. Also, make sure the horizon line does not line up with a person's eyes. Foregrounds The foreground is often not used well. If your photograph is not being improved by an empty foreground, then do the following. Change your vantage point. Zoom in. Place something in the foreground, such as shooting through the cattails on the edge of a pond. Framing Use something in the foreground or background to frame your subject. For example, place a tree on one side of the picture. Or, place your subject in front of an out of focus arch of a rose arbor. Depth Close one eye to judge how a scene will look as a photograph. You can add to the feeling of depth in the following ways. Lines Use receding or converging lines in the picture. The lines could be a road, for example. Separation Add depth by having lots of separation between the subject and background. There are three ways to do this. 1) Make the background out-offocus by using less depth-of-field. 2) Make the background lighter or darker, or a different color, than the subject. Blue tends to recede, as do lighter colors. 3) Use backlighting or side lighting. The bright edge on the subject will give a feeling of separation from the background. Haze Haze in the background is a cue to our brain that the scene has depth. Scale If you add something of known size to your photograph, the viewer will be cued as to the size or distance of the subject. The small person in the distance, with a much larger person near the
81 camera, is a strong depth cue, for example. Removing Depth You may wish to remove depth. Do the reverse of the above. For example, let's say you can't get an entire bridge in your viewfinder. If you take the picture, the bridge will have support on one side of the picture but not the other. However, if you take the photograph when a sailboat is under the unsupported part of the bridge, the boat will lend visual support to the bridge. Visual support can be provide by less tangible factors, such as a darkening at the bottom of a photograph. Words & Faces Words and faces in your pictures may distract from the image. Cropping Some photographers take pride in never cropping. Other photographers don't pay attention to any such strictures. Cropping People Avoid cropping people at their joints. Cropping tops of heads is a matter of taste. Some photographers don't, while others do.
5 Other Factors
Color Think of the colors in your viewfinder as if they're objects. The colors can have forms. Number of Elements The visual elements are the lines, shapes, tones, colors, objects, and subjects in your image. Odd numbers of visual elements tend to be more pleasing than even numbers. Physical Support Things need physical support in a picture. Avoid cropping a leg of a table, for example. Otherwise, it will look like it is about to tip over. Visual Support You may need to use visual support.
Flash
Table of Contents
1 Pros & Cons of Using Flash

Any source of light has pros and cons. Flash, unlike other light sources, has vociferous critics.
That's because flash can be so ugly if it's used carelessly. However, flash need not be ugly.
2 Pros
There are two advantages.
82 Adds Light Flash allows you to photograph in dim lighting. The dim light may be everywhere, such as in a living room. Or, the dim light may only be the shadow on someone's face thats in the sun. Acts Like a Fast Shutter Speed Flash can act like a fast shutter speed. The blink, or duration of the light from a pop-up flash, may be as little as 1/30,000th of a second. You can stop action. 4) Flashes can produce distracting reflections on eyeglasses, and on objects and surfaces behind the subject. How to Eliminate the Four "Ugly" Reasons Ugly #1: Hotspots Use the device below to make the flash larger. By doing so, the hot spots will not be as pronounced.
3 Cons
There are two disadvantages to using flash. Distracting A flash may be obtrusive to your subject. Ugly There are four reasons for the ugliness of light from flashes. 1) Because the flash is usually tiny, ugly hotspots are created on faces and objects. 2) Like any light source, indoors, the light from a flash diminishes rapidly with distance. The background will be dark. 3) Because the flash is on the camera, the light is almost shadowless. Without shadows, volume and texture are not made evident.
LumiQuest Soft Screen (LQ-051D)
Ugly #2: Dark Backgrounds

Pop-up Flash
Try using the night portrait setting. It's an icon of a figure with a star or moon on your exposure mode dial. The flash will illuminate the foreground, and the shutter will stay open to gather light from the background. If there's movement in the scene, it may show due to the slow shutter speed.
Separate Flash
83 If you want the light from the flash to reach further, you can aim a separate flash at the ceiling. This is called bouncing the light. The sun-like flash on your camera, when aimed at the ceiling, becomes more like cloudy day lighting. The entire space will be more evenly illuminated. Ugly #3: Little Volume or Texture If you use a separate flash with an extension cord, you can move it around to create shadows. For example, for pleasant shadows on a face, use the flash high and to the side. To camouflage wrinkles, use the flash nearer the camera. Ugly #4: Distracting Reflections Use a separate flash. Bounce the flash off of the ceiling. Or, use the flash with an extension cord. You can move the flash around to avoid producing reflections. Let's look at how you can use flash to brighten shadows when you're doing a portrait on a sunny day.
4 Fill Flash
You're used to using flash when there's not enough lightsuch as indoors. You can also use your flash when photographing in the sun for the same reasonwhen there's not enough light. Question: When is there not enough light in the sun? Answer: The shadows
No Flash
Flash
In the left, no flash was used. You can tell because the shadow is dark, and there's no tell-tale hotspot from the flash. What wrong with the photograph?
1) The pumpkin doesn't look very orange, because it's in shadow. 2) The sky and the porch railing are washed out.
84 The photograph on the right was made with flash. The flash has brightened the shadow, and allowed the sky and railing to be darker. The hotspot from the flash isn't pleasing. A reflector would have brightened the shadow without the hotspot. But how often do you have someone who can hold a reflector for you? When to Use Fill Flash Use your flash when photographing in the sun and there are shadows. For example, use your flash when photographing . . . 1) Someone wearing a hat with a brim that is casting a shadow on his or her face. 2) Someone with sunlight on one side of his or her face. 3) A still life, such as a 1940s Bakelite radio at an outdoor flea market. 4) A valley that's half in shadow from a mountain, and half in the sun. No, unfortunately, you can't do #4. That's because the flash on your camera will only reach about ten or so feet. So, if your subject is farther away than about ten feet, fill flash will not be useful. White Balance & Fill Flash When using fill flash, the color of the light produced by a flash often appears to be too blue. If so, try the flash white balance setting. Or, filter the flash with a warming filter.
5 Flash Exposure Compensation

Exposure compensation is the feature with which you can adjust the exposure. You can make the exposure lighter or darker. Your camera probably also has flash exposure compensation. Flash exposure compensation allows you to adjust the brightness of the shadows when using fill flash. Below, flash was used to brighten the pumpkin in shadow. The flash was dimmed by a half stop in the middle photograph, and a full stop in the right photograph.
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Fill Flash 0.0 (Normal)
Fill Flash -0.5
Fill Flash -1.0
6 Red Eye
Red eye is produced when the flash is near the camera, as it is most often. The light from the flash bounces off of the retina in the back of the subject's eyes, back to the camera, creating red eye. Reduce Red Eye Increase the ambient light by turning on all of the available light sources. This will make the subject's pupils smaller, thereby making the red-eye dots smaller. Avoid photographing the subject with a mug-shot-type pose. Eliminate Red Eye Use a flash that mounts on top of the camera, and bounce the flash off the ceiling. Or, use a separate flash with an extension cord so the flash can be held away from the camera.
Retouch Red Eye Many programs that download photographs from memory cards to your computer retouch red eye. You can also retouch photographs individually, with editing programs such as Photoshop Elements. Cats & Dogs Why do the eyes of cats and dogs reflect back yellow or green, and not red? They, and many other animals that are active at night, have a membrane in front of the retina called the tapetum lucidum. Light hits the retina, and some of the light is reflected back out to the tapetum. This reflected light is then reflected back to the retina, improving night vision. When photographed, the light from the flash is reflected off and colored by the tapetum.
7 Catch Lights
Catch lights add vitality to a portrait.
86 Catch lights are the reflections of light sources on the surface of the eyes. If you're using fill flash to brighten shadows, the flash will create catch lights. If there's no need for fill flash, you can create catch lights by setting the flash exposure compensation from between about -2.0 to -3.0. Pop up the flash manually, and experiment, to determine the best setting. You don't want the flash to be bright enough to be visible on the face of the subject.
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Assignments
Table of Contents
Introduction
Orientation Assignments #1 & #2 The first two assignments are about seeing. This gives you time to learn about depth-of-field and shutter speed before you have to use them. Assignments #3 & #4 Then, you'll use depth-of-field and shutter speed in the next two assignments to make your photography more creative. Assignments #5 & #6 Next youll do two assignments within two genres of photography: portraiture and interior photography. Self-assignments The final assignments are selfassignments. If you develop the habit of giving yourself self-assignments or projects, you'll retain what you learned in class. You'll continue to grow as a photographer. You may bring non-assignment photographs to class. Prints If you want to show prints, use the lab you normally use, or find a Lab. Go to the For Jim's Students menu on my website.
There, look for Labs. Files You can also transfer your photographs for class to a CD or DVD, memory media (card, stick, etc.), or USB flash drive, for display on the class computer. Flash drives are the most convenient. If youre unfamiliar with transferring photographs from: Your camera to your computer, go to the For Jim's Students menu on my website. There, look for Moving Photographs > How to Move Photographs from Camera to Computer: Downloading. A folder on your computer to one of the above media, go to the For Jim's Students menu on my website. There, look for Moving Photographs > How to Bring Your Photographs to Class and How to Move Photographs to a Flash Drive. Five Photographs Please edit your photographs down to about five. Getting Started If you don't see anything to photograph, take a photograph of anything.
88 This will often get you going. Take more than one photograph of the same scene. Often, you make a change in the second or third photograph. Doing a little "sketching" with your camera will improve your photography. About Creating Creativity is a combination of intellect, feelings, and intuition. The latter includes previous experiences that have become built-in, and are put to use while making photographs. You'll move between the above modes. In the arts, learning often comes after creating. In many other endeavors, one learns first, and then puts the learning to work. For example, if you read the section on light, you'll gain only some sensitivity to light. In contrast, doing the first assignment will teach you much more. Creativity can be unpleasant. There's ambiguity and uncertainty in creativity. There's confrontation. One has to have the gumption to go out and take photographs, even when: 1) You're not sure. 2) You don't really know how. 3) You don't know why. Mistakes Are Good Finally, and most importantly, please make mistakes. That's how you learn best.
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Assignment #1 Transform a Mundane Object with Light & Color

Every assignment begins with an explanation of why you're doing the assignment.
Why Are You Doing this Assignment? Light, color, and tone, are the basic tools of photography. You'll use them to transform an object. This is a basic "magic" that is part of photography. When you make a photograph, you transform the world into something else. You take a part of the world and placed it in a two dimensional rectangle. You interact with this frame of the world differently than you can with the world. This frame can be held, displayed in a book, on a monitor, or on a wall. A portion of time is stopped in the frame. You can return to this frame over and over.
Look for Found Lighting Design

Look for, or make, interesting light sources. Play with the light sources. Filter them with __________. Reflect them off a __________ onto your object. Move it around to change were the shadows fall. Change its color with a __________.
Tips
Don't spend a lot of time choosing an object. The object, the subject, is unimportant. Do spend a lot of time looking for good places to put your object, and looking for good light. Whats a good location? Whats good light? Take photographs and experiment. Youll find out. Minimize the number of elements in your picture. Composition becomes harder as the number of elements increases. By using very few elements, you can concentrate on the setting, the light, color, tone, and so forth.
Do the Following
Look around your home or work place for a mundane object. For example, use a Poland Spring bottle but not a crystal decanter. The object shouldn't be so small that it is hard to do a close-up, nor so big you can't take it to work. Transform the mundane object into an objet d'art using light, color, and tone.
Look for Stage Sets

Place your mundane object in "stage sets" that you encounter. Look for colors in the "sets" that will interact with your mundane object.
90 Photograph outside only, if you're a beginner. Use your flash only if you're familiar with its operation. Please make sure the object is mundane.
91
Assignment #2 Contrasts
Why Are You Doing this Assignment? Contrast is a basic tool in photography. You can make a photograph in which the sole subject is contrast. You can use contrast to add to the idea or emotion that you're communicating in your photograph. An equally valuable tool in photography is the repetition of colors, tones, shapes, and so forth. If you wish, you can look for repetitions for this assignment.
Spatial Contrast Photograph something close, and something else that is far away, in the same composition. For example, photograph a peony in bloom, with the conservatory of a botanical garden in the background. Often, a wide-angle lens is useful for this situation. Conceptual Contrasts Working/ broken Wealth/ poverty Purity/ sin Old/ new Clean/ dirty Construction/ decay Passage of Time Photograph Grand Central at 5pm and at 10pm. Weather Photograph a park on a wet day and on a sunny day Abstract, Formal, Ideas Smooth/ rough Geometry
Photograph contrasts. The contrasts can be in the same photograph, or in two separate ones. Photograph in close, as well as broad scenes. It'll be easier to photograph outdoors. Some examples are listed below. You don't have to do any or all of these. Light Contrast Photograph the shadows on a brownstone from the sidelight of a sunrise. Contrast this light with the shadowless light of the brownstone in the shade or on an overcast sky. Color Contrast Photograph the large, red, "nine" on 57th St., with blue truck in the background. Photograph a sliver of warm colored sunlight piercing the deep blue of shade.
Repetition
An equally valuable tool in photography is the repetition of colors, tones, shapes, and so forth. Photographs can use only contrasts, only repetitions, and a mixture of the two as well.
92 If you wish, you can look for repetitions for this assignment instead of contrasts.
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Assignment #3 Shutter Speed

Why Are You Doing this Assignment? Shutter speed is a valuable tool for showing time and motion in your photography.
In 1880, he projected these images on a screen in quick succession, making an early motion picture.
Do the Following
1) Set your exposure-mode dial to shutter-priority exposure mode (S or Tv). 2) Look for motion. 3) Photograph it using two shutter speeds: slow and fast. Use 1/8th for a slow shutter speed. Use 1/1,000th for the fast shutter speed.
A Little History
Freezing motion, or showing motion as blurs, has been done by photographers from the early days to the present. The French inventor Nipce succeeded in fixing a photographic image as early as 1817. His earliest existing picture was taken in 1827 using an eight-hour exposure. By 1859, faster shutters, and more sensitive films, enabled photographers to freeze the motion of pedestrians. The writer and physician, Oliver Wendell Holmes (his son became a Supreme Court judge), used photographs of people walking to design better artificial limbs for Civil War veterans. Eadweard Muybridge created a sensation in 1879 when he photographed a trotting horse with twelve cameras. The shutters were tripped by wires across the track. He discovered that horses have all four legs up in the air at one point in their stride, but the legs are tucked under the belly. The legs never extend out like a hobbyhorse.
Blinking Hi
If you're using a slow shutter speed, and there's too much light, Hi will blink in your viewfinder. Your camera may not operate. The slow shutter speed is letting lots of light into the camera. Your camera blocks this abundance of light by making the lens opening smaller. When your camera is blinking Hi, the lens opening has to be f/32, f/64, or f/128. But, the lens opening can't go any smaller than about f/29. Your camera doesn't have such miniscule lens openings, so, it blinks Hi. You can: Lower the ISO.
94 Photograph in the shade or at twilight. Point-and-shoot cameras dont have small lens openings, due to diffraction. The smallest lens opening is often f/8. Therefore, when using slow shutter speeds with a point-and-shoot camera, the light must be dim.
Blinking Lo
If you're using a fast shutter speed, Lo will blink in your viewfinder, if there's too little light. When the light is dim, your camera makes the lens opening larger. In dim light, the lens opening has to be f/2.8 or f/1.4. But, the lens opening can't become larger than about f/3.5 or f/4. You can: Increase the ISO. Photograph in brighter light.
More Tips
Motion that is moving left to right will be more evident than motion that is coming toward you. There's a delay between when you press the shutter, and the shutter actually opens. Therefore, for action photography, you have to take the picture a little before you think you should. Flags are difficult to photograph with slow shutter speeds. You need a very windy day, with quickly changing wind gusts. If youre a beginning student, stop here.
Tips
Don't confuse 8" with 1/8th. Most cameras denote fullsecond shutter speeds with quote marks. Thus, 8 represents an exposure of 1/8th of a second. Whereas, 8" represents an eight second exposure. Don't set your camera to do eight second exposures when you want to do exposures of 1/8th of a second. Set your camera on, say, a newspaper box, when using slow shutter speeds. If you're using slow shutter speeds in bright light, set the ISO to the lowest value, such as 100.
For More Experienced Students

If you know your way around your camera, try some of the suggestions below.
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A Bungee Jumper Frozen In Mid-Fall Panic

Use a Camera Is Subject Is Result
Fast shutter speed
Steady
Moving
Frozen subject
Autumn Leaves Floating Down As Stream as Streaks of Yellow

Slow shutter speed
Steady
Moving
Blurred subject
City Lights as Streaks, Jiggles, & Swirls

Slow shutter speed
Moved, panned, swirled, etc.
Moving
Lights leave streaks
Zooming During the Exposure

Slow shutter speed
Steady or moving
Steady or moving
Goingwarpspeed-style streaks
Zoom in or out on a neon deli sign, a blinking Don't Walk sign, or ?. Use 1/4th of a second, or thereabouts. Start zooming, and then press the shutter release
Beechers Handouts by Jim Beecher (http://www.photokaboom.com/) This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivs License. To view a copy of this license, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/bync-nd/2.0/ or send a letter to Creative Commons, 559 Nathan Abbott Way, Stanford, CA 94305, U.S.A.
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Panning
Slow shutter speed
Moving
Moving
Background is blurred left-toright.
Panning is a film/video technique. You pan, or move, the camera along with the subject. Tips Use 1/8th and 1/15th of a second Use a zoom lens at its most telephoto setting, such as 200mm. Set the switch on or near your lens to manual focus. Manually focus where the subject will be in front of you. Plan on continuing the motion of your camera past the time the picture is taken, like the followthrough when you swing a tennis racket or golf club. If your camera or lens has image stabilization, turn this feature off , if you can. A few cameras will sense that you're panning, and will turn of the horizontal image stabilization automatically.
Beechers Handouts by Jim Beecher (http://www.photokaboom.com/) This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivs License. To view a copy of this license, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/bync-nd/2.0/ or send a letter to Creative Commons, 559 Nathan Abbott Way, Stanford, CA 94305, U.S.A.
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Assignment #4 Depth-of-field
Why Are You Doing this Assignment? Depth-of-field is one of the major composition tools.
Object #1 is the closest to the camera, object #2 is further away, and object #3 is the furthest. Figure Out How Your Lens Does Close-ups You would expect to be close when doing a close up. However, most lenses do close ups when they're at telephoto focal lengths. Test your lens to see where it does close ups, at wide-angle focal lengths, or more likely, at telephoto focal lengths. Zoom your lens to a wide-angle focal length. See how close you can get to your still life. Then, zoom your lens to a telephoto focal length. Again, see how close you can get to your still life. Then, use the focal length that's best for close-up photography. A or Av Use the aperture priority exposure mode, A or Av. You'll select the lens openings. The camera will set the shutter speed. Focus Focus on the middle object in every photograph. If your camera chooses where to focus, make sure its focusing on the middle object.
Point-and-shoot Camera Users

Do the Following If you're using a point-and-shoot camera, do close-up photography. Photograph something up close that we havent seen before.
Digital SLR Camera Users

Do the Following Photograph a still life using different lens openings. Avoid Camera Shake Set your camera on a table. Why? You won't get blur from camera shake. You'll be using physically small lens openings. There'll be little light coming through the lens opening. So, the camera will select a long shutter speed in order to let more light reach the sensor. Setting your camera on a table will allow you to use slow shutter speeds. Composition Set up the still life on the table. Use three objects. Space them about a six inches apart.
98 If it isn't, replace the middle object with a taller object. If the camera still chooses to focus on one of the other objects, switch to manual focus. There's a switch on or near the lens labeled AF/M. Switch it to M. To focus, turn a ring on the lens barrel until the middle object is sharp. Try Different Lens Openings Photograph your still life using different lens openings.
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Assignment #5 Portrait Sitting

Why Are You Doing this Assignment? In the first four assignments you experimented with the major photographic tools: 1) Light and color 2) Contrast 3) Depth-of-field 4) Shutter speed Now, you'll explore two photographic genres in the next two assignments: portraiture and interiors.
What do you wish to communicate about the person? Exposure How will you set the exposure? Aperture priority exposure mode or shutter priority mode? Is there strong light from behind the person that will affect the exposure? Depth-of-field Do you want the background and foreground in or out of focus? Location Where will the model the most comfortable? Where is the best background and lighting? Use only one or two locations, unless you, or your model, get a great idea during the sitting. Lighting Is the light casting shadows or is it diffuse? Shadows will appear darker on your photographs. Maybe you'll have to "fill in" the shadows with another light source. White cardboard, newspaper, flash, and a white wall, can be used to reflect light into the shadows.
Do the Following
Make a portrait.
Planned
It should be a planned sitting, not a spur of the moment event. This will allow you to think about the portrait ahead of time.
Your Goal
The goal of the model may be to have a flattering portrait made by you. This may be a difficult challenge for a beginner. Instead, I suggest that the goal of your portrait should be to communicate something about the person.
Tips
The lighting will be easier if you're outdoors. Previsualize some of the emotional details. What is it about the person that interests you?
100 Light coming from the direction of the camera will tend to flatten the model, and conceal skin flaws. Light from the side will give the model more volume and texture. Skin imperfections will be more evident, though. Backlighting will make the subject stand out from the background. Color What color is the light, and the location? Sunset light is very warm. If your subject is wearing a red sweater, they will stand out even more if you put them against a blue sky. An orange pot on a table may be distracting. Composition Does everything in the viewfinder contribute to the portrait? I've noticed that many portraits done by students would be better if the subject filled more of the frame. Avoid centering your subject all the time. Keep an eye on the edges and corners of you viewfinder. Use the foreground as well as the background. Place something between the model and the lens, such as an archway or flowers. Lens choice Use a focal length from about 50mm to 70mm for headshots, which are photographs of the subjects face. Please avoid using an employee as your model.
The Most Important Tip

Be open to changing your expectations during the session. You've done lots of planning and previsualization, but be open to new ideas. A portrait session is a collaboration. That said, remain in charge. You're the director.
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Assignment #6 Interiors
Why Are You Doing this Assignment? When photographing an interior, youll encounter issues like lighting contrast and color temperature of the light sources.
Set the white balance to match the light source. If there are different colored light sources, set a custom (preset) white balance. You can take some close ups of the interior, as well as photographs of the entire space. You can concentrate on one aspect of the interior, rather than everything. If you have a tripod, or can set the camera on a surface, you'll be able to use slow shutter speeds. A plastic bag filled with dried beans, uncooked rice, or Styrofoam packing pellets, enables you to aim your camera. Use the self-timer or a remote shutter release to trip the shutter.
Photograph an interior. You can interpret interior narrowly, to be an architectural space, or more broadly, such as a metaphor.
Tips
Don't photograph inside government and commercial buildings with first asking for permission. If theres a difference in the intensity of light in the interior, it will be difficult to photograph. The bright shadows that you see with your eyes will be much darker in your photographs. You can crop the dark areas, or you can add light, such as using bounce flash if you have a separate flash.
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Assignment #7 Night Photography Excursion

Why Are You Doing this Assignment? The assignment models risking taking. Night photography is challenging.
2) Aim your camera at lights, and then move the camera during the exposure. 3) Pan a moving subject, such as a car. 4) Zoom the lens. 5) Photograph shop windows. 6) Photograph passersby.
Weather permitting, we'll go out for about an hour to do night photography. Daytime classes, of course, wont do night photography.
Preparation
Dress for the weather. Bring your camera with a fullycharged battery. Dont bring a tripod, as it slows down everyone else.
Tips
Use the program exposure mode. Use a high ISO setting, such as ISO 1600.
Do the Following
1) Photograph moving cars, food delivery bikers, and pedestrians.
If you use slow shutter speeds, brace the camera against a lamppost, or set it on a newspaper box.
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Assignment #8 Your Own Assignments or a Mini Project

Why Are You Doing this Assignment? You have invested a great deal of time and money into this class. To retain what you have learned, and to add to your skills, I suggest that you do your own assignments or a project. This models what you need to do when the class ends, keep taking lots of pictures, if youre going to progress as a photographer.
Your assignments may be related to the tools of photography, such as lighting. Or, they could be relates to a photographic interest, such as genre of photography. You may have a new photographic interest that you have discovered in your class work, the work of your classmates, or the work of other photographers shown during the class.
A class provides structure and feedback. When the class ends, you wont be getting assignments. You wont be getting the reward of showing your work to the class. So, many photographers go back to only photographing family events and trips. What they've learned evaporates without exercise. I suggest that you give yourself assignments that can be done while you go about your day-to-day life. To encourage exercising one's photography skills after the class ends, everyone does their own assignments or projects during the last couple of weeks of the class.
Project
Or, you can do a project. For example, a project could be doing three portraits to be framed together.
Ideas
Go to the Tips menu on my website. There, look for Grow as a Photographer: Self-assignments. The other tips on the menu may give you ideas as well.
Also
Please bring photographs to each class. Dont wait until the last class to show your work.
Your Own Assignments

Experiment with an assignment each week, devised with the help of your teacher and your classmates.
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Instruction Manual Assignments

Camera instruction manuals have gone from being short with lots of white spaceto being long and dense. They've gone from being like a Dr. Seuss book to being like War and Peace. However, the hieroglyphics and gibberish of most manuals will become clear quickly. Jump in with these assignments. The wateryour instruction manualisn't as cold as it seems. #3 - PDF Version Your camera manufacturer may offer a PDF version of the instruction manual. It may be easier to read, with more space for notes. Use search instead of the index, which are often poor. Print it out on 3-hole paper and put it in a notebook. #4 - Don't Skip Ahead Learn how your camera changes its settings. Don't dip into the manual in the middle, until you've gained an overview of how changes are made with your camera. Look for the section describing how to change the camera's settings. Here's a brief description of how settings are changed.
Four Tips
#1 - Read Up The assignments assume you have a rudimentary understanding of the topics. If not, read the appropriate sections in Beecher's Handouts. #2 - Enlarge Enlarge the schematics (drawings) of your camera, located at the beginning of the manual, with a photocopier. The schematics will be easier to read. And, youll have space to jot down notes about the knobs and buttons. You may want to do the same with the drawings of your camera's menus. Pack these enlargements in your camera bag.
Changing the Settings

There are three methods for changing settings. 1 - Exposure Mode Dial
Exposure Mode Dial
Cameras often have an exposure mode dial for changing exposure related settings.
108 Look for a dial that has the letters P, A, S, M (Nikon and others) or P, Av, Tv, M (Canon). The knobs also have icons that set the camera for different situations. 2 - Buttons There may be buttons for changing settings. Commons buttons include flash, ISO, white balance (WB), and exposure compensation (+/-). For example, press and hold the ISO button, and turn a knob to change this setting. 3 - Menus Cameras also have menus for settings that are changed less often.
Instruction Manual Assignment #1 Flash

1 - Introduction
To get more out of your flash, read your instruction manual, and experiment with the following four situations. First, let's look at how your flash is probably set to operate on your camera.
3 - Turn the Flash Off

Dont use the flash when the existing light is better than the light from your flash. For example, the glow of birthday cake candles on a child's face is probably better than the glare of a flash. Digital SLRs Use P, A or Av, or S or Tv. The flash will not pop up unless you push the button to make it pop up. Some DSLRs have a No Flash exposure mode icon called. You can use this setting, but the camera will preset everything else for you. Point-and-Shoot Cameras To turn the flash off, press the flash icon (lightning bolt) repeatedly until you see a lightning bolt icon with a line through it on the LCD screen. Remember to restore the flash to automatic operation.
2 - Default Flash Settings

Does your flash pop up automatically? DSLRs The flash will probably pop up automatically if youre using any of the following exposure modes: 1) Auto setting (green camera or green box) 2) Portrait (head), Freeze Motion (jogger), and the other icons When using the exposure modes A or Av, S or Tv, or P, you have to push a button near the flash to pop it up. Point-and-shoot Cameras The flash will probably pop up automatically.
109 Exercise Then, find an indoor scene that has light that's better than the light from your flash, and do the following. 1) Take a photograph of the scene using the flash. 2) Take a photograph of the scene without the flash. You may have to place the camera on a surface to prevent camera shake, because the shutter speed may be long. 2) Photograph the person or object, again, with the flash on. Because on-camera flashes only reach about ten feet, use fill-in flash only when the subject is close to you.
5 - Use the Night (Twilight) Portrait Setting
4 - Turn the Flash On in the Sun

If you're photographing someone with a shadow on their facefrom the brim of a hat, from sidelighting, or from backlightinguse your flash to brighten the shadow. Digital SLR Cameras Use A or Av, S or Tv, or P. Then press the flash button to pop it up. Point-and-shoot Cameras The flash won't pop up in the sun. To turn the flash on in the sun, press the flash icon (lightning bolt) repeatedly until you see a lightning bolt icon accompanied by the word On on the LCD screen. Remember to restore the flash to automatic operation. Exercise Go outside on a sunny day and do the following. 1) Take a photograph of someone, or an object, that has a shadow, without the flash. Most cameras have a setting called Night Portrait or Twilight portrait. Often, the icon for this setting is a person with a crescent moon or star. When you use this feature, your camera will use two light sources: the flash and the existing light in the background. An Example Let's say you're photographing your friends at night. They're sitting at a cafe in Paris, and there's a fountain nearby. If you use the flash only, your friends will be well-exposed, but the fountain will be too dark. If you use the Night Portrait setting, the flash will illuminate your friends, and the shutter will stay open long enough to gather light from the background. You'll be able to see your friends because of the flash, and the fountain, because of a long shutter speed.
110 Do the Following 1) Look in the camera instruction manual for how to turn on the Night Portrait setting. 2) Using flash, photograph a scene at night where the subject is close to the camera, and there's a background that's important to the photograph. 3) Photograph the same scene using the Night Portrait setting.
6 - Frozen with a Blurred Image

You can also use the Night Portrait setting to photograph movement that's both sharp and blurred. The movement is frozen by the quick blink of the flash. And, the movement is blurred from the long shutter speed. Exercise Try photographing someone blowing his or her long hair around with a blow dryer, or someone jumping, or someone splashing water, or ?
Instruction Manual Assignment #2 ISO

To learn more out of ISO, do the following exercise.
Exercise
1) Find a subject that has: Broad expanses of color, such as a fruit and vegetables at a farmer's market. Shadows or gray areas
The high-ISO photograph has specs of inappropriate brightness levels, in the shadows or gray areas. Inappropriate brightness levels are specs that are too light or too dark.
Reduce Noise
Use a low ISO to reduce noise. You can also reduce noise by using noise reduction feature of Photoshop and Photoshop Elements, as well as other noise reduction software. Newer cameras have less noise than older cameras. Digital SLR cameras have less noise than point-and-shoot cameras.
2) Photograph the scene at the lowest ISO setting, and at the highest. 3) Compare the two photographs by enlarging them. Look if: The color is more accurate on the low-ISO photograph. The high-ISO photograph has specs of inappropriate color, in the evenly-colored areas.
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Instruction Manual Assignment #3 Shutter Speed

The #1 complaint of most photographers is: My photographs aren't sharp! So, cameras are designed to use fast shutter speeds to make sure every photograph is sharp. But, you're not every photographer. You can make some photographs great by using a slow shutter speed to create motion blur. Read your instruction manual to find out how to change the shutter speed. Look for the three methods below. Blur Icon Some Canon cameras have a blur icon. The icon is a circle with trailing speed lines (like in a cartoon). If you set the exposure mode dial to this icon, motion will be blurred. That's because the camera will choose a slow shutter speed, such as 1/8th of a second.
2 - S or Tv
1 - Jogger & Blur Icons

Many cameras have a shutterpriority mode setting, which is S (Nikon) or Tv (Canon). With the shutter-priority exposure mode, you select the shutter speed, and the camera selects the aperture. By choosing the shutter speed, you can determine the optimum setting. Start with 1/8th of a second to blur motion, and shutter speeds higher than 1/100th of a second to freeze motion.
The easiest way to use shutter speed more creatively is to employ the jogger icon (on many cameras), and the blur icon (on some Canon cameras). Jogger Icon If you set the exposure mode dial to the jogger icon, motion will be frozen. That's because the camera will select a fast shutter speed, such as 1/1000th of a second.
3 - Scene Modes
Many point-and-shoot cameras have scene modes. These modes are used in special situations.
112 Look in your instruction manual, and read the descriptions of the scene modes. You may want to photocopy the descriptions, and carry them with your camera. Look for a scene mode that will freeze motion. For example, many cameras have a scene mode called Pets & Kids. This mode will probably freeze motion. Scene modes that will blur motion may be less common. If the scene is dark, try the scene mode called Fireworks.
Instruction Manual Assignment #4 Lens Opening

As mentioned in the last assignment, the #1 complaint of most photographers is: My photographs aren't sharp! So, cameras are designed to use small lens openings, such as f/16, to make sure every photograph is sharp. The camera focuses on the subject, so it's in focus. But, because of the small lens opening, such as f/16, there's more depth-of-field. There's more that's acceptably sharp in front of, and behind, the subject. You can make some photographs great by using a slow shutter speed to create motion blur. Read your instruction manual to find out how to change the lens opening. Look for the four methods below. Most digital SLR cameras are unable to blur the background as much as film cameras. Argh! Point-and-shoot cameras have even more difficulty blurring backgrounds. Everything is always in focus Argh!
1 - Flower & Face Icons

Flower Icon If your camera has a flower icon on the exposure mode dial, the camera will use the smallest possible lens opening. Use the flower icon when doing: A close-up A portrait in which you want the background to be more in focus. Face Icon
Note
Digital photography is great, but it's not 100% great. With film cameras, one was able to blur the background easily.
113 If your camera has a face icon on the exposure mode dial, the camera will use the largest possible lens opening. Use the face icon when doing: A still life in which you want the background to be more out-of-focus A portrait in which you want the background to be more out-of-focus. Digital SLRs Set the lens opening to f/4 on your lens for little depth-of-field. If you're doing lots of portraits, and you want to blur the backgrounds even more, use a 50mm f/1.4 or a 50mm f1.8 lens. If there's enough light, set the lens opening to f/22 or f/29 for the most depth-of-field. Point-and-Shoot Cameras The lens opening on your camera goes from about f/2.0 to about f/5.6. Unfortunately, even at f/2.0, there's a lot of depth-of-field. Your camera doesn't have smaller lens openings, such as f/11, f/16, and f/22. That's because the diffraction would be too great with these small lens openings.
2 - A or Av
Digital SLR cameras, and some point-and-shoot cameras, have a aperture-priority mode setting (A or Av). With the aperture-priority exposure mode, you select the lens opening, and the camera selects the shutter speed. By choosing the lens opening, you can determine the optimum setting.
3 - Scene Modes
As mentioned in the last assignment, many point-and-shoot cameras have scene modes. There may be scene modes for close-ups and for portraits.
Instruction Manual Assignment #5 White Balance

White balance is one of the super things about digital photography. With film photography, you had to recognize that the color of the light wasn't equivalent to daylight. Then, you had to screw a colored filter onto the lens to adjust the color balance. Your camera is set by default to the Automatic White Balance (A or AWB) setting. With this setting, your camera measures the color of the light in a scene, and adjusts the color balance of a scene to sunlight at around noon.
114 The AWB setting is acceptable for beginners. However, for the most accurate color, you should switch the camera from the AWB setting, to one of the white balance icons described below. Read your instruction manual to find out how to change from AWB to one of the white balance icons. Then, experiment with AWB and the white balance icons. Florescent Tube Icon This icon adds magenta to reduce the green light of most florescent lights. Some cameras may have a choice of two florescent icons. Often, one icon is for warm florescent tubes and the second icon is for cool florescent tubes. If the florescent lights are fullspectrum, their light is close to the color of daylight. Use the sun icon. Scenes with One Color Occasionally, you may be photographing a scene that has one color, such as a red barn. If you use the AWB setting, the camera will mute the color of the barn. Instead, use the white balance icon that's close to the existing light in the scene. If it's a sunny day, use the sun icon. If the sky is cloudy, use the cloud icon.
White Balance Icons

Sun Icon Use the sun icon if you're photographing in the sun. Cloud Icon Use this white balance icon if you want to remove the blue light of a cloudy day. If you want to keep the blue color balance, use the sun icon. Shade Icon Shade is illuminated by the blue/green or cyan sky. If you want a warmer color balance, use the shade icon. If you want to keep the cyan color balance, use the sun icon. Light Bulb Icon Incandescent lights, which include light bulbs and halogen lamps, produce orange light. The light produced by these light sources is called tungsten light in photography Use the light bulb icon to remove the orange color.
Custom (Preset) White Balance

Many cameras allow you to set the white balance even more precisely. This is called a custom or preset white balance setting. You have to measure the color in the scene using a gray card or a sheet of white paper. Follow the procedure in your camera instruction manual.
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Instruction Manual Assignment #6 Autoexposure Lock

You can use the autoexposure lock to lock in an exposure setting. Look for the AEL button (Nikon and other camera) or the star button (Canon). Here are some examples of using the autoexposure lock. Recreate the examples to learn more about using the autoexposure lock button. Your friends will be in silhouette against the sky. Instead, walk up to your friends, and fill the frame with their faces. Press and hold the autoexposure lock button. The exposure is now set for your friend, not the sky. While keeping the autoexposure lock depressed, walk back and focus, and press the shutter release.
Example #1
If you're at the Grand Canyon, point your camera down at the canyon. Press and hold the autoexposure lock button. The exposure is now set for the canyon, and not the bright sky. With the autoexposure lock button still depressed, point your camera at the sky and canyon, and press the shutter release.
Spot Metering
You can set your light meter to see only a tiny area in the middle of the frame. This is called spot metering. In example #2 above, you could measure the light on your friend's faces without having to walk up close. Just set your light meter to spot metering, center a friend's face in the middle of the frame, and press and hold the autoexposure lock button. The exposure is now set for the face. Look in the camera instruction manual to learn how to switch to spot metering.
Example #2
Let's say you're photographing some friends standing on the edge of the canyon, with a bright sky behind them. If you don't use the autoexposure lock button, the camera may set the exposure for the bright sky.
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Instruction Manual Assignment #7 Exposure Compensation

You can use the exposure compensation feature to vary the exposure. -2 . . -1 . . 0 . . +1 . . +2 There'll be a black or green dot under the numbers. Move a knob, or press on a rocker switch, to move the dot back-andforth. If you want to add light, overexpose, move the dot to the plus side of the number line. If you want to subtract light, underexpose, move the dot to the minus side of the number line.
Richer Color
You can make colors richer (less light, underexposure) For example, you may want to underexpose a sunset to make the oranges and reds darker.
Tricky Exposure Situations

You can correct for light meter mistakes. For example, if you photograph snow, or other light colored or toned subjects, in the sun, they'll be too dark. You have to overexpose them using the exposure compensation feature. See the Light Meters Are Stupid section.
Caution
Be sure to return the dot under the number line to a position under the 0. You don't want to over- or underexpose every photograph. To remind you that you're using exposure compensation, an icon of a +/- will appear in the viewfinder and on the LCD screen. When you turn your camera on, you may want to always check to make sure the icon is not present.
Setting Exposure Compensation

Look in your instruction manual for exposure compensation. When you use this feature, a number line will appear.
Instruction Manual Assignment #8 Focal Length

Most photographers are not aware of what they could be doing with different focal lengths. They use focal length to crop their photographs. They simply zoom back-and-forth. That's useful, but they could be doing more. Are they stupid? No.
117 They're not aware of focal length because it's hard to know what focal length youre using, these days. Before the advent of the great zoom lenses we use today, a photographer would reach for, say, a 24mm lens or a 100mm lens. He or she would, obviously, know what focal length was being used. Later, looking at the results, the photographer would see the differences between the same scene photographed with a 24mm focal length versus a 100mm focal length. Today, were less aware of the focal length.
Experiment
Do a headshot (face only) with the following three focal lengths. Have something in the background, that's visible in the frame. 1 - Wide-angle Focal Length The person's face will be distorted. On a digital SLR cameras, a common wide-angel focal length is 18mm. On a point-and-shoot camera, zoom the lens to the point at which it's most wide angle, such as 8mm. 2 - Medium Focal Length A medium focal length is best for headshots. On digital SLR cameras, use a focal length of 55mm, 75mm, or 85mm, or thereabouts. On a point-and-shoot camera, zoom the lens back-and-forth, to gain a sense of when the zoom is in the middle of its range. 3 - Telephoto Focal Length The person's face will be flattened. On digital SLR cameras, use a focal length of 200mm, or thereabouts, if you have a zoom lens that goes that far. On a point-and-shoot camera, zoom the lens until its at the most telephoto position. Tips As you go from wide-angle to telephoto focal lengths, you'll have to move further from your subject. Try to place the model in the frame in the same way, even though the
Simple Use of Focal Length

As mentioned, zoom lenses are great for selecting what's in the frame. You can zoom in to bring something closer. You can zoom out to see more of the entire scene.
More Creative Use of Focal Length

But, you can also play with volume and space. Wide-angle focal lengths: 1) Show volume. 2) Push backgrounds far away. Telephoto focal lengths: 1) Flatten subjects 2) Bring foregrounds, subjects, and background, closer together.
118 focal lengths are changing dramatically. Results Compare your three photographs side-by-side.
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Final Exam Review

Table of Contents
The purpose of this review is to: Give everyone the opportunity to refine and solidify what theyve learned. Ask questions! Show how much has been learned over the course of the class. Often students dont realize how much theyve learned, and are now starting to put to use. For more review, go to Great Ingredients = Great Photographs on my website.
Share your work. Theres a tip about framing and matting. Also, go to Show Your Work, on my website in the Explore section, for more possibilities.
Youre backing up your files right?
2 Light
Light is the most important ingredient. There are four ways to evaluate light. 1) The direction determines volume and texture: Light from the camera is shadowless, which decreases volume (flattens) and texture. Sidelighting creates shadows, which increase volume and texture. Backlighting highlights the shape and edge of the subject. Caution: Flare, if present and not wanted, can be reduced by using a lens hood, and by shading the lens with your hand. 2) The size of the light determines the contrast: A small light source, relative to the subject, is like sunny-day light.
1 Wisdom
Photography is harder than it appears to be in the camera ads. As you learn more, photography can get harder. Youre looking at photographs in new ways. Youre taking visual notes. Youre not going to wait to photograph until a trip or family event.
Devise assignments and projects. Replace the structure and feedback that you got in class. Go to Connect with Others on my website in the Explore section.
120 The shadows are dark, and their edges are sharp. A large light source, relative to the subject, is like cloudy-day light. The shadows, if any, are bright, with fuzzier edges. Monitors have a wider range of contrast and color.
4 Language of Stop
Remember, this way of explaining how light is quantified in photography is my invention. Other teachers and photographers wont know what youre talking about if you use the phrase Language of Stop. A stop of light is a quantity of light. When you add one stop of light, the amount of light has doubled. When you subtract one stop of light, the amount of light is halved. The language of stop is spoken by the three countries on your camera, so they can trade stops correctly.
3) Color and quality 4) Distance from subject If you havent already, do some of the Light Sensitivity exercises in the Light section.
3 WYSINWYG
What you see is not what you get in photography. WYSINWYG occurs in many ways. Here are the most problematic. The primary example is the increase in contrast. This can be beneficial, but is most often detrimental. Be sure to learn the techniques in the Lighting Contrast section. Another instance of WYSINWYG is depth-of-field.
5 Exposure Mode Dial

Dont use the green camera (or green square) setting ever again. Use aperture priority (A or Av) when depth-of-field is important. Use shutter priority (S or Tv) when you want to freeze or blur motion, and when using telephoto focal lengths (faster shutter speeds required). The icons, and scene modes, are handy.
Use the depth-of-field preview button to see the actual depth-offield. A third case of WYSINWYG is how color temperature variations, such as the orange light from light bulbs (tungsten light), are not seen by our eyes. Another example of WYSINWYG is how a print will never look as good as the same photograph displayed on your monitor.
Photocopy their descriptions, and carry it with you.
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6 Depth-of-field
You can change how much of a scene is acceptably sharp by varying the aperture. Exceptions: 1) Point-and-shoot digital cameras have lots of depth-offield. 2) If everything in a scene is further away than about fifteen feet, therell be no difference in depth-of-field with different apertures. As you get closer to a subject, the depth-of-field decreases.
1) Use a medium focal length for headshots, and the like, to prevent distortion. 2) When using a wide-angle focal length, hold the camera carefully to keep horizons level, and to keep walls and buildings from leaning and keystoning unevenly. 3) When using telephoto focal lengths, you must use faster shutter speeds to prevent camera shake.
8 Filters
There are two must have filters: Polarizing and graduated ND (neutral density). Use the Polarizing filter to darken blue skies, and to reduce glare on surfaces such as water and leaves. Cautions: 1) If you have a clear filter on your lens, remove it before using the polarizing filter, to prevent vignetting. 2) Remove the Polarizing filter when indoors. A graduated ND filter is used to darken bright skies.
Use a small lens opening, such as f/22, or use the Flower icon. Point-and-shoot cameras excel at close-ups, because their small sensors increase the amount of the available depthof-field. Use the depth-of-field preview button to see the actual depthof-field.
7 Focal Length
You can use focal length, of course, to change the composition. You can also use it to change the volume and space in a photograph. Use a wide-angle focal length to show volume, and to push space backwards. Use a telephoto focal length to flatten space, and to puul the background closer. Cautions:
9 White Balance
Automatic white balance is great for adjusting the color. Use the icons for the best color. When photographing something that doesnt have an average color, such as a
122 sunset or a red barn, use the icon that matches the lighting. For example, if youre photographing a red barn, use the cloudy icon if the day is overcast, or the sun icon, if its sunny. Use the custom or preset settings when the light sources have different colors. black Labrador, you may need to underexpose. Use your Autoexposure Lock (AEL or *) button, to measure the light from something thats more average than snow or a black dog. Or, use the exposure compensation feature. Backlighted subjects, such as a person. You should use fill-in flash, or a reflector, to brighten the subject.
10 Light Meters Are Stupid

Be careful when photographing: Dark or light subjects that are in the sun. You must overexpose snow in the sun, for example. Or, when doing a close-up of a
11 And Lastly, the Hard Part . . .

. . . is to use all of the above to communicate something via a photograph.

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TOC

Class Overview .................................................................................... 2

How to Get the Most Out of the Class ..................................................... 2

Visual Notes ........................................................................................ 4

Lighting Contrast ................................................................................ 30

8 Polarizing Filter ................................................................................................34 9 Graduated Neutral Density Filter ........................................................................35

An Advanced Light Topic ...................................................................... 36

Light Summary ................................................................................... 38 Exposure Introduction ......................................................................... 38

Lens Opening ..................................................................................... 40

Shutter Speed .................................................................................... 40

Setting Exposure ................................................................................ 43

Light Meters Are Stupid ....................................................................... 60

Focal Length ...................................................................................... 70

White Balance .................................................................................... 76

Assignment #1 Transform a Mundane Object with Light & Color ............ 89

Assignment #3 Shutter Speed ........................................................... 93

Assignment #4 Depth-of-field ............................................................ 97

Assignment #5 Portrait Sitting ........................................................... 99

Assignment #6 Interiors ................................................................. 101

Instruction Manual Assignments ......................................................... 107

Instruction Manual Assignment #1 Flash ........................................... 108

Instruction Manual Assignment #2 ISO ............................................. 110

Instruction Manual Assignment #3 Shutter Speed .............................. 111

3 - Scene Modes .................................................................................................. 111

Instruction Manual Assignment #4 Lens Opening ............................... 112

Instruction Manual Assignment #5 White Balance .............................. 113

Instruction Manual Assignment #6 Autoexposure Lock ....................... 115

Instruction Manual Assignment #7 Exposure Compensation ................ 116

Instruction Manual Assignment #8 Focal Length ................................ 116

Final Exam Review ............................................................................ 119

International Center of Photography: 212-857-0000 92nd St. Y: 212-415-5562

3 Missed Assignments & Classes

How to Get the Most Out of the Class

You're photography will benefit if you do the following.

7 Photography Isn't Easy or Quick

5 Personality & Identity

8 Mistakes Are Good . . .

8 Limit Your Variables

2 Must Have Items

5 But, you'll readily click through twenty or so visual notes.

1 Camera Feature Terms

2 Digital Data Terms

Many cameras have a burst mode to facilitate this activity.

A slower lens has a smaller lens opening, such as f/4.

A wide lens is a lens that "sees" a wide angle of view.

10 Opening Up & Closing Down the Lens Opening

1 The #1 Reason for Bad . . .

where the subject will be when the shutter opens.

6 Two Viewfinder Problems

7 Select the File Format

Normal 1:8 Basic 1:16

10 Lens & Sensor Cleaning

1 Download Your Photographs

And, each folder is full of unlabeled photographs.

4 Backup on the Road

5 Take Pictures Out Your Window

7 Play with Light

6 Take Pictures of a Newspaper

Direction of the Light

8 Watch an Old B&W Movie

Size of the Light Source

From the side

Will show texture and volume