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Received 30 December 2009 Accepted 31 December 2009

Investigation into the effects of solid lubricant on the surface characteristics of some metals during orthogonal machining
Sunday J. Ojolo, Olatunde Damisa and Oluwatoyin Iyekolo
Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Lagos, Lagos, Nigeria
Abstract
Purpose The main purpose of this paper is to explore the use of solid lubricant during orthogonal machining of carbon steels. This is a pioneer work in Nigeria. Most works have been on oblique cutting using conventional oil as lubricants. Design/methodology/approach Different steels (low, medium and high carbon) were machined at different cutting conditions and tool geometries to determine the effects on surface characteristics while applying solid lubricant. Findings The results showed considerable improvement in the surface nish with the use of solid lubricant. There was also a decrease in surface roughness values as compared to wet machining. Research limitations/implications Further works on solid lubricants effects on cutting force and residual stress could be done. Practical implications From the ndings of this work, solid lubricant use can be advocated as a better alternative to conventional cutting uid. It is easily recoverable from the chips after machining. Originality/value So far, in Nigeria, solid lubricant has not been exploited as coolant during machining. This paper will be a platform for other researches on solid lubricants as coolant during cutting/machining in Nigeria. Keywords Graphite, Machining, Surface roughness, Surface properties of materials, Nigeria Paper type Research paper

Journal of Engineering, Design and Technology Vol. 9 No. 2, 2011 pp. 130-142 q Emerald Group Publishing Limited 1726-0531 DOI 10.1108/17260531111151023

1. Introduction In orthogonal cutting, a surface layer of constant thickness is removed by the relative movement of the tool and workpiece. During a machining process, a substantial part of the energy is converted into heat through the friction generated between the tool and the workpiece and the plastic deformation of the work material in the machining zone that is heat is generated at the primary deformation zone, secondary deformation zone, but the temperature becomes maximum at the tool/chip interface (Diniz and Micaroni, 2002). The rapidly accumulated heat causes the temperature of the tool and workpiece contact zone to rise at a fast rate, directly affecting the surface nish of the products. So, heat produced in machining is critical in terms of workpiece surface quality. Therefore, machining leads to high friction between tool and workpiece and can result
The authors manifest their gratefulness to the technical staff of the Machining Unit, Central Workshop, Faculty of Engineering, University of Lagos, Lagos, Nigeria for their material support and assistance in carrying out the turning operations of the current research work.

in high temperatures, impairing the dimensional accuracy and the surface quality of the products. The conventional choice of dealing with this problem is to use cutting uids. The introduction of cutting uids in the machining zone improves the tribological characteristics of machining processes and also dissipates the heat generated at the work/tool interface. The use of conventional cutting uids creates some environmental problems such as environmental pollution, interaction with the operators, water pollution, etc. (Reddy and Rao, 2006). Cutting uids also forms a substancial part of the total manufacturing cost (Lahres et al., 1997). Governmental policies on environmental pollution prevention and increasing consumer consciousness on the environmentally friendly products are forcing industries to minimize the use of cutting uids (Tan et al., 2002). Singh and Rao (2008) reported that cutting uid can pose serious problems, majority of these are those related to the preservation of the environment, improvement of workers health, etc. Hence, using cutting uids needs to be eliminated and new machining methods that will abate these problems are to be investigated. Researches made have investigated the use of solid lubricants to reduce the heat generated at the tool/workpiece interface (Sreejith and Ngoi, 2000; Gopal and Rao, 2004). The effective role of solid lubricants like graphite was evident from the overall, therefore there was an improvement in the process with the use of solid lubricants. The most commonly used solid additives are the inorganic compounds like graphite, molybdenum disulphide (MoS2) and the polymer material, polytetrauoroethylene (PTFE). Orthogonal machining is used extensively in many industries such as automobile, textile and other manufacturing industries. It is a two-dimensional type of cutting in which the cutting edge is perpendicular to the cut (Reddy and Rao, 2005). In the recent past, there has been a greater demand for increasing surface quality in orthogonal machining and all other machining processes. During the machining of metals, plastic deformation and friction lead to the generation of heat in the workpiece which results in thermo-mechanically coupled deformation (Vernaza, 2002). Shaji and Radhakrishman (2003) investigated the use of solid lubricant (graphite) as coolant to reduce the heat generated at the grinding zone in surface grinding with a trendy experimental setup. Their study included the effect of process parameters such as speed, feed and mode of adjustment on the force components and surface nish produced on the basis of Taguchis experimental design. Solid lubricants ll a very important inch in the world of tribology by providing low-friction surfaces under harsh operating conditions such as high or very low temperature and high vacuum. The successful use of solid lubricants in most applications relies on controlling the chemical interactions occurring at several interfaces, and the use of surface science techniques to study and understand these chemical interactions has become increasingly more important in recent years (Singh and Rao, 2008). Graphite and MoS2 are the predominant materials used as solid lubricant. In the form of dry powder, these materials are effective lubricant additives due to their lamellar structure. The lamellas orient parallel to the surface in the direction of motion. Even between highly loaded stationary surfaces, the lamellar structure is able to prevent contact. In the direction of motion, the lamellas easily shear over each other resulting in a low friction. Large particles best perform on relative rough surfaces at low speed, ner particle on relative smooth surface and higher speeds (Zechel, 2001). Other components

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that are useful solid lubricants include boron nitride, PTFE, talc, calcium uoride, cesium uoride and tungsten disulde. Krishna and Rao (2008) observed that with the application of solid lubricant (such as graphite), the tangential force and surface roughness are lower and normal force is higher compared to those in conventional machining. Their work also revealed that the use of solid lubricants in machining improves the process performance. Reddy and Rao (2006) carried out experimental investigation to study the effect of solid lubricants on cutting forces and surface quality in end milling. They also investigate the effect of graphite and MoS2 as solid lubricants at the contact surface between tool/workpiece and tool/chip during machining thereby comparing the performance analysis of graphite and MoS2 assisted machining with wet machining using AISI 1045 steel. They concluded that the use of solid lubricants has been successful in reducing cutting forces, specic energy, surface nish, chip size while machining AISI 1045 steel with solid coated carbide end mill cutters. Thier ndings revealed also that the friction generated between tool and workpiece has been signicantly reduced in MoS2-assisted machining. Dry machining is ecologically desirable and it will be considered as a necessity for manufacturing enterprises in the near future. Industries will be compelled to consider dry machining to enforce environmental protection laws for occupational safety and health regulations. The advantages of dry machining include: non-pollution of the atmosphere (or water); no residue on the swarf which will be reected in reduced disposal and cleaning costs; no danger to health; and it is non-injurious to skin and is allergy free. Moreover, it offers cost reduction in machining (Halil Bil, 2005). In the work, it was concluded that environmental laws are closing on machining coolants. Coolants give rise to environmental problems related to waste disposal. As the costs for waste disposal increase, industries will be forced to implement strategies to reduce the amount of coolants they use. The objective of this work is to investigate the effect of graphite as a solid lubricant on the surface characteristics of the product in machining mild steel, medium carbon steel and high carbon steel by a high-speed steel (HSS) tool of different tool geometry (radial rake angle and nose radius) under different cutting speeds and feeds. Also, to compare the performance of graphite-assisted machining with wet machining in order to identify the best solution for reducing surface roughness to give good surface nish. 2. Materials and methods The major parameters considered are the cutting conditions and tool geometry which include the following: cutting speed, cutting feed rate, rake angle and nose radius in which the feed rate is the most dominant parameter of all the considered parameters for representing surface roughness. 2.1 Work and tool materials The experiment was limited to only carbon steels which need lubrication at the machining zone. The solid lubricant used in this present work is graphite because it is readily available in the Nigerian market and can be used readily under normal room condition. The steel rods were obtained from Owode market while the grahite was obtained from Alaba International market both in Lagos. Table I shows the parameters/conditions obtainable in this work.

Variable Machine tool Cutter tool Cutter diameter Overall length Tool geometry Rake angle 28,48,68,88,108 Cutting conditions Cutting speed 10 and 15 m/min Feed rate 0.15 and 0.25 mm/rev Nose radius 0.4 and 0.8 mm Environment Wet (SAE 40) Dry (graphite) Density 2.2 g/cm8 Hardness (Mohs) 1 Melting point 3,8008C Particle size 2 mm Workpieces Low carbon steel Medium carbon steel High carbon steel

Conditions NL 25 lathe machine HSS 20 mm 80 mm

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Table I. Material properties and machining conditions

2.2 Experimental setup and procedure The experiments were carried out using a NL 25 center lathe machine (Figure 1) in which turning operations were carefully carried out on the chosen metal, i.e. high carbon steel, medium carbon steel and mild steel, respectively, under the following machining variables namely the cutting speed (s), cutting feed (f), varying tool geometries like nose radius (r) and rake angle (a). The chosen carbon steel were used differently each having length of 1-50 mm diameter. The solid lubricant powder feeder is a form of cone-shaped container in which the ne solid lubricant powder, with 2 mm average particle size was loaded into. The solid lubricant powder was fed through the hole at the base of the cone-shaped feeder into the machining zone. The hole at the base of the container was large enough (B25 mm) for the powder to ow continuously onto the workpiece. The feeder was held by the operator. In order to ensure smooth ow of the solid lubricant powder at the machining zone, the operator has to shake the feeder continuously. After ensuring the setup for proper lubrication, the experiments were carried out. The solid lubricant powder was recovered though not effectively by placing
Work piece Hopper (Graphite)

Tool holder Tool Lathe machine

Figure 1. The experimental setup

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a at plat under the machining zone. After collection, the solid lubricant powder was separated from the chips produced during machining by using sieve, therefore the powder was re-used. A total number of 120 experiments in wet machining were performed; 40 experiments were carried out in graphite-assisted machining on each of the three chosen workpiece (metal). This resulted in a total of 120 experiments in graphite-assisted machining. The parameter of interest was the surface roughness at varying feeds while keeping constant the cutting speeds and nose radii for each set of experiments. Orthogonal turning operations were carried out on each 50-mm diameter steel rods with graphite as the lubricant at different cutting feeds, rake angles and nose radii. Varying rake angles of 2, 4, 6, 8 and 108 were investigated at a constant speed of 10 m/min and 0.4 mm nose radius. Also, varying rake angles of 2, 4, 6, 8 and 108 were investigated at a constant speed of 15 m/min and 0.8 mm nose radius Varying feed rate was equally investigated at constant speed of 10 m/min and 0.4 mm nose radius. Thereafter, the cutting speed and the nose radius were varied to 15 m/min and 0.8 mm, respectively, whilst the feed rates were between 0.15 and 0.25 mm/rev. Each metal rod was rigidly positioned on the lathe machine before the turning operations were performed. The workpieces were rmly held in position by a three-jaw chuck of a standard center lathe. The cutting tests were carried out using a HSS tool having the afore-mentioned tool geometry. At each situation of process variables-rake angle, feed rate and cutting speed during the turning process the surface roughness reading obtained on the workpieces were read from surface roughness gauge. The results generated were estimated from equation (1) based on the principle of arithmetic mean deviation (Bhattacharya, 1984): Ra mm where: v L vertical magnication. sampling length. sum of areas above and below center 103 v L 1

The cutting speed (m/min) were obtained as follows (Machine Shop 3, 2009): rpm:F Cs 4 where: rpm is the spindle speed. F is the tool diameter.

3. Results 3.1 Results The results of the experiments are shown in Figures 1-12. 3.2 Discussion The result of the experiments carried out on different metals to investigate for the effects of solid lubricant on the surface characteristics of the metals during orthogonal

0.9 Surface roughness (micron/m) 0.8 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0 2 4 6 Rake angle (degree) 8 10

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Figure 2. Effects of solid lubricant on surface characteristics of mild steel at constant cutting speed s 10 m/min and nose radius 0.4 mm

Wet machining, f = 0.15 Graphite machining, f = 0.15

Wet machining, f = 0.25 Graphite machining, f = 0.25

0.80 0.75 0.70 0.65 0.60 0.55 0.50 0.45 0.40 0.35 0.30 0 2 4 6 Rake angle(degree) 8 10

Surface roughness (micron/m)

Wet machining, f = 0.15 Graphite machining, f = 0.15

Wet machining, f = 0.25 Graphite machining, f = 0.25

Figure 3. Effects of solid lubricant on surface characteristics of mild steel at constant cutting speed s 15 m/min and nose radius r 0.4 mm

machining is shown in Figures 1-12. The gures also show the control experiment (wet machining) in which the surface roughness of metal is far higher compared to the one carried out using solid lubricant, this is because there is always friction established between the workpiece and the tool. The higher the coefcient of friction, the higher the degree of surface roughness. In the case of the use of solid lubricant, the friction is greatly reduced because solid lubricants have better lubricating properties and chemical structures that enable low value of friction to be obtained under certain conditions (Kumar and Rao, 2008). Figures 1-4 show the relationship obtained between the rake angle and surface roughness of mild steel at varying cutting feeds (0.15-0.25 mm), cutting speeds (10-15 m/min) and nose radii (0.4-0.8 mm). From the result, it is observed that the higher the cutting speed the lower the surface roughness this is expected because from literature (Shaji and Radhakrishman, 2003), it is obsrved that increase in cutting speed decreases the coefcient of friction while working with some biological oil as compared

Surface roughness (micron/m)

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0.8 0.75 0.7 0.65 0.6 0.55 0.5 0.45 0.4 0.35 0.3 0 2 4 6 Rake angle (degree) 8 10

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Figure 4. Effects of solid lubricant on surface characteristics of mild steel at constant cutting speed s 10 m/min and nose radius r 0.8 mm

Wet machining, f = 0.15 Graphite machining, f = 0.15 0.75 0.7 0.65 0.6 0.55 0.5 0.45 0.4 0.35 0.3 0.25 0 2

Wet machining, f = 0.25 Graphite machining, f = 0.25

Figure 5. Effects of solid lubricant on surface characteristics of mild steel at constant cutting speed s 15 m/min and nose radius r 0.8 mm

Surface roughness (micron/m)

4 6 Rake angle (degree)

10

Wet machining, f = 0.15 Graphite machining, f = 0.15

Wet machining, f = 0.25 Graphite machining, f = 0.25

with petroleum-based cutting uids (Ojolo et al., 2008). Therefore, decreasing surface roughness and increasing the quality of the surface produced during machining. Surface roughness values decreased from 0.52 to 0.42 mm as the rake angle increased from 2 to 108 when the cutting speed is maintained at 10 m/min and feed of 0.15 mm/rev. At constant cutting speed of 15 m/min, the surface roughness values also decreased from 0.43 to 0.38 mm at the same feed and nose radius 4 mm (Figures 2 and 3). It is expected that as the cutting speed increases, the surface roughness values should reduce. This agrees with the result obtained by Varadarajan et al. (2002) for hard turning using minimal cutting uid application. Similar trend was observed when the nose radius increased to 0.8 mm using cutting speeds of 10 and 15 m/min at feed of 0.25 mm/rev (Figures 4 and 5). At this feed, the values of surface roughness obtained were slightly lower (0.50-0.52 mm). As the value of the nose radius increased to 0.8 mm, the surface roughness coefcient values reduced from 0.83 to 0.73 mm at the same cutting speed

1 Surface roughness (micron/m) 0.9 0.8 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4 0 2 4 6 Rake angle (degree) 8 10

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Figure 6. Effects of solid lubricant on surface characteristics of medium carbon steel at constant cutting speed s 10 m/min and nose radius r 0.4 mm

Wet machining, f = 0.15 Graphite machining, f = 0.15

Wet machining, f = 0.25 Graphite machining, f = 0.25

0.95 Surface roughness (micron/m) 0.85 0.75 0.65 0.55 0.45 0.35 0.25 0 2 4 6 Rake angle (degree) 8 10

Wet machining, f = 0.15 Graphite machining, f = 0.15

Wet machining, f = 0.25 Graphite machining, f = 0.25

Figure 7. Effects of solid lubricant on surface characteristics of medium carbon steel at constant cutting speed s 15 m/min and nose radius r 0.4 mm

of 15 m/min and 0.25 mm/rev feed (Figures 3 and 4). This agrees with the results obtained by Alauddin et al. (1995) for milling steel. Also, from the result, it is observed that increasing rake angle produced decrease in surface roughness and the higher the nose radius the lower the surface roughness. This shows that, as the feed increased, more material will be removed from the workpiece, the cutting force will increase leading to high temperature, hence the increase in surface roughness values. This is in accordance with the result obtained by Singh and Rao (2008). It was also observed that as the nose radius increased, the surface roughness values reduced sharply from 0.32 to 0.28 mm. This signies the need to include tool geometry in experiments involving surface roughness. So, also the higher the cutting feeds the higher the surface roughness. Therefore, the lower the feed the lower the surface roughness of the metal and thereby the tool life is increased. Figures 6-9 show the relationship obtained between the rake angles and surface roughness of medium carbon steel also at varying cutting feeds (0.15-0.25 mm),

Surface roughness (um)

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0.90 0.80 0.70 0.60 0.50 0.40 0.30 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Rake angle (degree) 8 9 10

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Figure 8. Effects of solid lubricant on surface characteristics of medium carbon steel at constant cutting speed s 10 m/min and nose radius r 0.8 mm

Wet machining, f = 0.15 Graphite machining, f = 0.15 0.75 0.70 0.65 0.60 0.55 0.50 0.45 0.40 0.35 0.30 0.25 1 2 3

Wet machining, f = 0.25 Graphite machining, f = 0.25

Figure 9. Effects of solid lubricant on surface characteristics of medium carbon steel at constant cutting speed s 15 m/min and nose radius r 0.8 mm

Surface roughness (um)

4 5 6 7 Rake angle (degree)

10

Wet machining, f = 0.15 Graphite machining, f = 0.15

Wet machining, f = 0.25 Graphite machining, f = 0.25

cutting speeds (10-15 m/min) and nose radii (0.4-0.8 mm). It is seen that variation of surface roughness is similar in trend in medium carbon steel as in the case of mild steel. The major difference is that under the same conditions, the values obtained in the use of medium carbon steel is higher than for mild steel because of the higher percentage of carbon in the medium carbon steel compared to mild steel. This implies that more force will be required for cutting resulting in increased energy and temperature. This will probably increase the surface roughness values. This agrees with the work of Bhattacharya (1984). The values of surface roughness decreased from 0.52 to 0.43 mm as the rake angle incresed from 2 to 108 when the cutting speed is maintained at 10 m/min and feed of 0.15 mm/rev. At constant cutting speed of 15 m/min, the surface roughness values also decreased from 0.42 to 0.32 mm at the same feed and nose radius 4 mm (Figures 6 and 7). It is expected that as the cutting speed increases, the surface roughness values should reduce. This agrees with the result obtained by Nakamura et al. (2000) for behaviour of solid lubricants for upsetting process. Similar trend was observed when the nose radius increased to 0.8 mm using cutting speeds of 10 and 15 m/min at feed

1.10 Surface roughness (um) 1.00 0.90 0.80 0.70 0.60 0.50 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Rake angle (degree) 8 9 10

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Figure 10. Effects of solid lubricant on surface characteristics of high carbon steel at constant cutting speed s 10 m/min and nose radius r 0.4 mm

Wet machining, f = 0.15 Graphite machining, f = 0.15

Wet machining, f = 0.25 Graphite machining, f = 0.25

1.10 Surface roughness (um) 1.00 0.90 0.80 0.70 0.60 0.50 0.40 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Rake angle (degree) 8 9 10

Wet machining, f = 0.15 Graphite machining, f = 0.15

Wet machining, f = 0.25 Graphite machining, f = 0.25

Figure 11. Effects of solid lubricant on surface characteristics of high carbon steel at constant cutting speed s 15 m/min and nose radius r 0.4 mm

of 0.25 mm/rev (Figures 8 and 9). At this feed, the values of surface roughness obtained were slightly higher (0.70-0.67 mm). Also, Figures 10-13 show the relationship obtained between the rake angles and surface roughness of high carbon steel at varying cutting feeds (0.15-0.25 mm), cutting speeds (10-15 m/min) and nose radii (0.4-0.8 mm). It is also seen that variation of surface roughness is similar in trend in high carbon steel as in the case of the other classes of carbon steel. The important observation is that the values of the surface roughness obtained using high carbon steel are higher than the other classes of steels because it has the highest percentage of carbon content. Surface roughness values decreased from 0.64 to 0.60 mm as the rake angle incresed from 28 to 108 when the cutting speed is maintained at 10 m/min and feed of 0.15 mm/rev. At constant cutting speed of 15 m/min, the surface roughness values also decreased from 0.59 to 0.52 mm at the same feed and nose radius 4 mm (Figures 10 and 11).

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Figure 12. Effects of solid lubricant on surface characteristics of high carbon steel at constant cutting speed s 10 m/min and nose radius r 0.8 mm

Wet machining, f = 0.15 Graphite machining, f = 0.15

Wet machining, f = 0.25 Graphite machining, f = 0.25

0.90 Surface roughness (um) 0.80 0.70 0.60 0.50 0.40 0.30 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Rake angle (degree) 8 9 10

Figure 13. Effects of solid lubricant on surface characteristics of high carbon steel at constant cutting speed s 15 m/min and nose radius r 0.8 mm

Wet machining, f = 0.15 Graphite machining, f = 0.15

Wet machining, f = 0.25 Graphite machining, f = 0.25

It is expected that as the cutting speed increases, the surface roughness values should reduce. This agrees with the result obtained by Diniz and Micaroni (2002). Similar trend was observed when the nose radius increased to 8 mm using cutting speeds of 10-15 m/min at feed of 0.25 mm/rev (Figures 12 and 13). At this feed, the values of surface roughness obtained were slightly higher (0.72-0.61 mm). In all the experiments, the surface roughness values obtained for wet machining were very high as compared with those for graphite machining for example, using high carbon steel, the values decreased from 1.00 to 0.90 mm at a constant speed of 15 m/min and feed of 0.15 mm/rev. This value is lower than 1.50 to 0.5 mm obtained by Krishna and Rao (2008) for a mixture of boric acid and graphite while machining EN 8 steel. In this present work, it has been realized that the relative contributions of each factor on the surface nish in all types of metal were close to each other and that feed rate is the most dominant factor of all the considered factors for representing surface roughness. Alauddin et al. (1995) also states that theoretically, surface roughness

is primarily a function of the feed for a given nose radius and varies as the square of the feed rate. Also, according to Reddy and Rao (2006), it has been established that further analysis of F-values shows that the radial rake angle is another important factor along with nose radius. The solid lubricant effectiveness in reducing the frictional effects at the tool and workpiece interaction as used in the solid lubricant-assisted machining is evident from the reduced surface roughness compared to that of the conventional cutting uid-assisted machining. Graphite is known to be a good solid lubricant because of the low-friction behaviour, which could have contributed to the reduction of the surface roughness (Diniz and Micaroni, 2002; Bhattacharya, 1984). The key to this performance of graphite as a solid lubricant lies in its layer-lattice structure. The atomic structure consists of layers of atoms or molecules, and the structure is called layer-lattice structure. The surface roughness values are lowest in the experiment using mild steel amidst other types of steel because of its low carbon content. Therefore, the higher the carbon content of a metal, the lower the machinability of such metal and therefore the higher the quality of the surface produced. 4. Conclusion It can be concluded from the experimental results that the use of solid lubricants in conjunction with cutting conditions (cutting feed and speed) and tool geometry (rake angle and nose radius) successfully reduced the surface roughness of steels during orthogonal machining thereby giving a good surface nish. Surface roughness values were the least for mild steel because of their lowest carbon contents amongst the three materials machined. At lower feed rate (0.4 mm/rev), the surface roughness values were low for all the materials; this in turn improved greatly the tool life when using solid lubricants as compared to when conventional uid is used. At increased nose radius, the surface roughness values for the three materials decreased at the same cutting conditions for lower nose radius. The lubricating property of graphite helps retain the tool sharpness thereby increasing the tool life. The use of solid lubricant also makes the machining environmentally friendly to the operator thereby preserving the life of the operator because there is no air pollution involved. It can also be concluded that the machinability and surface nish is a function of the metal hardness.
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Halil Bil, M.S. (2005), Chip formation simulation during orthogonal machining operations by nite element analysis, Journal of Materials Processing Technology, Vol. 182 Nos 1-3, pp. 167-73. Krishna, P.V. and Rao, D.N. (2008), Performance evaluation of solid lubricants in terms of machining parameters in turning, International Journal of Machine Tools & Manufacture, Vol. 48 No. 10, pp. 1131-7. Kumar, N.S. and Rao, P.V. (2008), Selection of optimum tool geometry and cutting conditions using a surface roughness prediction model for end milling, International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology, Vol. 28, pp. 529-35. Lahres, M., Muller-Hummel, P. and Doerfel, O. (1997), Applicability of different hand coatings in dry milling of aluminium alloys, Surface and Coatings Technology, Vol. 9, pp. 16-121. Machine Shop 3 (2009), Cutting Speeds and RPM Calculations, available at: www.its.fvtc.edu/ MachShop3/SpeedCalc/SpeedRPM.htm (accessed October 2009). Nakamura, T., Tanaka, S., Hayakawa, K. and Fukai, Y. (2000), A study of the lubrication behaviour of solid lubricants in the upsetting process, Journal of Tribology, Vol. 122, pp. 803-8. Ojolo, S.J., Amuda, M.O.H., Ogunmola, O.Y. and Ononiwu, C.U. (2008), Experimental determination of the effect of some straight biological oils on cutting force during cylindrical turning, Revista Materia, Vol. 13 No. 4, pp. 650-63. Reddy, N.S. and Rao, P.V. (2005), A genetic algorithmic approach for optimization of surface roughness prediction model in dry milling, Machining Science and Technology: An International Journal, Vol. 9 No. 1, pp. 63-84. Reddy, N.S. and Rao, P.V. (2006), Experimental investigation to study the effect of solid lubricants on cutting forces and surface quality in end milling, International Journal of Machine Tools & Manufacture, Vol. 46, pp. 189-98. Shaji, S. and Radhakrishman, V. (2003), An investigation on solid lubricant moulded grinding wheels, International Journal of Machine Tools & Manufacture, Vol. 43, pp. 965-72. Singh, D. and Rao, P.V. (2008), Performance improvement of hard turning with solid lubricants, International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology, Vol. 38, pp. 529-35. Sreejith, P.S. and Ngoi, B.K.A. (2000), Dry machining: machining of the future, Journal of Materials Processing Technology, Vol. 101, pp. 287-91. Tan, X.C., Liu, F., Cao, H.J. and Zhang, H. (2002), A decision making framework model of cutting uid selection for green manufacturing: a case study, International Journal of Machine Tools & Manufacture, Vol. 129, pp. 467-70. Varadarajan, A.S., Philip, P.K. and Ramamoorthy, B. (2002), Investigations on hard turning with minimal cutting uid application (HTMF) and its comparison with dry and wet turning, International Journal of Machine Tools & Manufacture, Vol. 42 No. 2, pp. 193-200. Vernaza, M.K. (2002), Experimental study of the temperature eld generated during orthogonal machining of an aluminium alloy, A report at the Department of Aerospace and Mechanical Engineering, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, IN, September 13. Zechel, R. (2001), Dry Lubrication: Properties, Possibilities, Applications, Kluber Lubrication Munchen KG, Munich. Corresponding author Sunday J. Ojolo can be contacted at: ojolosunday@yahoo.com To purchase reprints of this article please e-mail: reprints@emeraldinsight.com Or visit our web site for further details: www.emeraldinsight.com/reprints