06 Unit 3

INSTRUCTION SET, MACHINE CODES AND ADDRESSSING MODE
UNIT 3: INSTRUCTION SET, MACHINE CODE AND ADDRESSING MODE
INTRODUCTION:
This module introduces the instruction set, software and the microcomputer program, encoding of instructions in assembly language and machine language, and addressing mode. .The following topics are covered here :
1. Mnemonics, opcodes and assembler language 2. Assembler programming language
LEARNING OBJECTIVES:
The objectives of this topic are to:
1. Describe what is addressing modes 2. introduce layout for assembly language
LEARNING OUTCOMES:
After completed this module trainees should be able to :
1. Explain the operation of each of addressing mode. 2. Use the addressing modes to perform assembly language statement. 3. Understand the layout for writing a machine language program. 4. Understand an used DOS and debug command.
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3.1 MNEMONICS, OPCODES AND ASSEMBLER LANGUAGES

3.1.1 The Instruction Set Of The 8088/8086
Internal architecture of the 8088/86 microprocessors, Memory address space and data organization, Data types, Segment registers and memory segmentation Pointer and index register, Status and flag register, The Stack, Addressing Modes.
The instruction set of a microprocessor defines the basic operations that a programmer can specify to the device to perform.
The 8088 and 8086 have the same instruction set.
This instructions are organized into 6 groups of functionally related instruction : -
1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6)
Data transfer instruction Arithmetic Instruction Logic instruction String manipulation instruction Control transfer instruction Processor control instruction
ex: MOV instruction ex: ADD instruction ex: RCL instruction ex: CMPS instruction ex: INT instruction ex: HLT instruction
Data transfer : transfers data between memory and registers within the microprocessor or between internal registers. This is usually the largest group. Arithmetic and logic group : performs addition, subtraction,compare and other
mathematical operations,also performs logic instructions including AND,OR ansd EXOR instructions. This group uses the accumulator(AX) and the ALU(Arithmetic Logic Unit). String manipulation : for all this instruction the memory source is DS:DI and the memory destination is ES:DI.Offset memory pointer,SI and DI are automatically incremented or decremented depending on the state DF-by 1 for bytes or by 2 for words.
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Control transfer: Decision making group where a decision depends on a previous result such as a mathematical outcome. These instructions allow program execution to branch into another section of the program. Processor control : Used to control the operation of the processor and set or clear the status indicators.
3.1.2 Software
A microcomputer does not know how to process data, it must be told exactly what to do, where to get data what to do with the data and where to put the result when it is done. These job are those of software in a microcomputer system.
Software refers to wide variety of programs that can be run by a microcomputer.
The sequence of commands used to tell a microcomputer what to do is called a program.
Each command in a program is an instruction.
Programs must always be coded in machine language before 8088 processors can run it.
An instruction can be divide into two parts, that is :-
1. Op-code Identifies the operation that is to be performed. 2. Operand The data that are to be processed.
Programs written in assembly language also known as source code.
A program written in machine language is often referred to as machine code or object code.
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In 8088 assembly language, each of the base operations that can be performed by the 8088 microprocessor is described with alphanumeric symbols instead of with 0s and 1s.
Benefits derived from writing programs in assembly language :-
1. The machine code program produced take up less memory space than the compiled version of the program. 2. It executes much faster than compiled version of the program.
A machine language program is usually written to conform with the layout produced by an assembler. An assembler is a computer program that allows you to enter the mnemonic rather than the op-code for each instruction. The assembler then does all the work of substituting the op-codes. In this module you will write machine language programs,which means you need to find the op-codes yourself.
The suggested layout for writing a machine language program is shown below. Each heading is called a field.
Address
Location of Code and operand
Op-code and Operand

hex code for instruction and related hex data
label
reference point in the program
mnemonic
comments
;comment to
manufacturers mnemonic for the instruction
;help ;understand ;the program
The following describes the headings in the program listing:
address location of the op-code and related data. When more than one location is required, only the first location is shown. The next line of the listing therefore uses the next free address.
Op-code and operand hex values only
Label a reference point given a name to help relate the program to a flow chart and also to identify points where a program branch to.
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Mnemonic manufacturers mnemonic for that instruction. If data or an address is also required the data can be written in hex.If a branching instruction,the label where branching goes to is also written here.
Comments anything to help understand how the program works. The semicolon identifies the start of a comment.
3.1.3
Addressing Modes Of 8088/8086

When data is being transferred, the data comes from a source and goes to a destination. These can be either register, a memory location, an input(source) or an output(destination)port.
The term addressing mode is used to describe the way a particular instruction lets the microprocessor know where the source or destination is located.
Most instruction sets have a variety of addressing modes, and it is common for the one instruction to have several addressing mode.
The choice of an addressing mode depends on the application but the best addressing mode is one that :
Uses the least amount of memory space- that is the instruction has the least number of bytes.
Operates quickly (has the least number of machine cycle) Allows the program to be changed easily, or to be relocated in memory without the need for major changes.
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1. 2. 3. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.
An addressing mode is a method of specifying an operand. The addressing modes are categorized into three types :Register operand addressing Immediate operand addressing Memory operand addressing
Five memory operand addressing mode :Direct addressing mode Register indirect addressing mode Based addressing mode Indexed addressing mode Based-indexed addressing mode.
There are significant differences in the types and number of addressing modes between microprocessors.However there are several addressing modes common to most microprocessors. This summary describes these types only:
Register addressing
Register addressing (or inherent,implied etc) is an addressing mode where the source and the destination are both register.
This is the simplest type of addressing and only applies to data transfer within the microprocessor.
Ex: MOV Immediate addressing

Immediate addressing is the addressing mode where the required data(operand) is part of the instruction.
DS,AX
;copy AX into DS
Instruction using this mode are usually two bytes long (one for the op-code and the second for the data).
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This is a simple way of loading 8-bit data into a single register. The data byte follows the op-code in memory, that is the data is in the address following the address containing the op-code.
Although a register is required, this addressing mode should not be confused with register addressing.
Ex: MOV Direct addressing

Direct (absolute, extended etc) is an addressing mode where the operand specifies the source or the destination.
AX,1000H
;load AX with 1000H
This is the simplest type of addressing for accessing a memory location, but is usually the least efficient.
Direct addressing instructions that access a memory location are three bytes long and when operand is being programmed, the address is written in LOW-HIGH format. Ex: The instructionload the accumulator with the contents of address 1234 is written <op-code><34><12>)
Indirect addressing Direct addressing has a number of disadvantages, such as:
Requires at least three bytes
Requires three fetch cycle reducing the speed of execution
Inflexible, prevents program from running in another section of memory without modification.
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The indirect addressing modes solve this problem by storing the memory address in a pointer or index register (SP,BP,SI,or DI). In addition , a 2s complement displacement can be added to the pointer or index to offset the location pointed at.
Ex: MOV [SI],00FFH ; Load data 00FF into address that stored in SI
3.2 ASSEMBLER PROGRAMMING LANGUAGE

Fig. 3.2 shows the names of the programs and typical file names with extensions used as inputs and outputs during this process.
For example, the EDIT program is an editor used to create and correct assembly language source files.
The program that results is shown to have the name PROG1.ASM. This stands for program 1 assembly source code.
Figure 3.2
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To use an editor first we must open DOS(Disk Operating System)
MASM, which stands for macroassembler, is a program that can be used to assemble source files into object modules. This assembler converts the contents of the source input file PROG1.ASM into two output files called PROG1.OBJ and PROG1.LST and PROG1.CRF.
The .OBJ file is the hexadecimal object file, the .LST file is the listing file, and the .CRF file is cross-reference file.The listing file contains both the source and object versions of the program that is assembled. The cross-reference file lists all labels and pertinent information for cross referencing.
The file PROG1.OBJ contains the object code module. The PROG1.LST file provide additional information useful for debugging the application program.
Object module PROG1.OBJ can be linked to other object modules with the LINK program. For instance,programs that are available as object modules in a math library could be linked with another program to implement math operations.
A library is a collection of prewritten, assembled, and tested programs. Note that this program produces a run module in file PROG1.EXE and a map file called PROG1.MAP as outputs.
The executable object module, PROG1.EXE is run with the debugger program, called DEBUG.
Map file PROG1.MAP is supplied as support for the debugging operation by providing additional information such as where the program will be located when loaded into the microcomputers memory.
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Example 3.2-1
In example 3.2-1 MASM is typed at the DOS pompt C:\ZAHARI>. Notice that the assembler responds and asks first for the name of the source file. Once the name of this file is typed, it asks the name of the object file. Notice that it already suggests that the name is key1-1.OBJ. If you wish to accept this name , just type enter.
Optionally this name can be change. In all cases notice that no extension is required when the file name is entered; In this example a listing file and a cross reference file are requested. If these are not needed, type a return as an answer and none will be created.
To see the translated program in machine code, we can open the .LST file. LST file is a file that consist of two type of language that is Assembly language and machine language. The command is as below:
C:\ZAHARI>edit key1-1.lst <ENTER>
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Example 3.2-2
Once the program is assembled without errors, it must be linked before it can be executed by the computer. The linker converts the object file into an executable file for the computer.
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Example 3.2-3
The linker is invoked in much the same manner as the assembler by typing the sequence listed in example 3.2-3
In this example the object file linked is key1-1. If more than one object file exists, all are entered and separated by commas on this line.
Next the linker asked for the name of the Run File. Hit the enter key if the suggested name is correct. A .MAP file can be generated that shows the length and placement of the object modules and segments.
A library files may be used, it is contains a grouping subroutines(procedures) that are used with the object modules.
Once a program is assembled and linked, it can be executed by typing the name of the execution file(.EXE) at the DOS prompt.
The edit, assemble, link and debug parts of the general program-development cycle in fig. 3.2-4 are performed on the PC
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This executable file or run file (.exe file)can be download from microcomputer to RAM or EPROM in BGC8088 trainer or can be upload from BGC trainer to microcomputer by using PCV3.com.
First the .exe (run file) file must be converted to the .bin file(binary file) by using EXE2BIN. The command is as below..
Execute the PCV3.com software by typing this command.
C:\BGC8088>cd pcv3 <ENTER> C:\BGC8088\pcv3>pcv3 <ENTER>
Select the communication port either com1 or com2.
Ex: 1 for Com 1
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Select the process, upload or download
Ex: 1 Download from PC to BGC8088
Now key in the binary file (.Bin file)
Ex : Key1-1.bin <ENTER>
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Connect RS232C cable from PC to BGC8088 and press
L at BGC8088
(Command L is used to store the data transmitted from IBM PC into the memory address, if address is omitted, the default address is 0100:0000).
Press any key on the PC keyboard and <CR> on BGC8088 keyboard the completing the download process.
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Given problem
Describe problem
Plan steps of solution Flowchart
Implement flowchart using

Hand written source program Enter/edit source
program using
Assembler source program file
Assemble the program using

Yes
Syntax No error?
Object module Link the program
using LINK
Executable run module
Execute and debug using
Yes
Logic error?
No
Solution to problem
Figure 3.2-4
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Fig. 3.2-5 Figure 3.2-5 shows file that have been created after the assemble and link process. 1. KEY1-1.OBJ 2. KEY1-1.LST 3. KEY1-1.CRF 4. KEY1-1.EXE 5. KEY1-1.MAP
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3.2.1 Basic Flowchart Symbol

Basic Flow Chart Symbols Symbol Symbol Name Description Flow Connections
The terminal symbol will have either one exit if it is at the top of your flow chart, or one entrance if it is at the bottom of the flow chart. An The terminal symbol is used to entrance indicates flow into mark the beginning and the end the symbol, and an exit of every flow chart. The word indicates flow out of the Terminal terminal comes from the Latin symbol. Since the terminal word terminus which means end. symbol is at both the This symbol goes on both ends beginning and end of the of the flowchart. flow chart, it's entrance or exit will vary depending on which one you are dealing with. Entrance and exits are marked by flow lines. The preparation symbol is used whenever we want to show Flow lines connect in and areas in our program that get the out of this symbol, so it has Preparation computer ready (prepare) to do a single entrance and a something. Initializing variables single exit. (setting their first value) is considered preparation. The process symbol is used whenever we want to show an Flow lines connect in and action involving the cpu (central out of this symbol, so it has Process processing unit). If your program a single entrance and a is performing a calculation, you single exit. would use this symbol. The I/O symbol is used whenever we want to show input Flow lines connect in and into the computer, or output from out of this symbol, so it has I/O the computer. Printing something a single entrance and a on the screen would cause us to single exit. use the I/O symbol in our flow chart.
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The decision symbol is used to change the flow of the program based upon the logical conclusion of a comparison made by the computer. In other Decision words, the computer checks to see if something is true, if it is, the flow of the program will go one way, if it isn't true, the flow of the program will go a different way. This symbol is used to break off and continue the flow chart at a On-Page different location on the page, or Connector to act as a coming together point for more than one flow line. This symbol is used to break off Off-Page and continue the flow chart on a Connector different page. This is the symbol used to make the flow connections. They can be horizontal or vertical. A flow Flow Line line should only have one arrowhead on it, and the arrow head is placed at the end of the line.
Flow lines connect in and out of this symbol, however, since a decision can change the direction of the flow, there is a single entrance and two exits from this symbol. One exit for a true conclusion and one exit for a false conclusion. Flow lines connect in and out of this symbol, so it has a single entrance and a single exit. Flow lines only connect into this symbol, so it has a single entrance and no exit.
Not applicable.
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3.2.2 Using the DOS Command-line

Today, most of computers communicate using a Graphic User Interface (GUI) such as Microsoft Windows, instead of by using a Command Line Interface (CLI). As a programmer, however, you'll find that there are some things that are difficult to do from a GUI. In this lesson, you'll get a quick introduction to DOS, the CLI that underlies MS Windows. The goal will be to teach you enough to get through the semester, not to make you into a master of DOS .
The Working Directory

DOS commands are typed into a DOS window, which you can launch by clicking Start, clicking Programs, and then clicking MS DOS Prompt as shown here:
If you are using Windows ME or Windows 2000, the MS DOS prompt has been renamed as the Command Window, which is accessed via the Accessories menu or go to start, click Run and type cmd and click ok. When the DOS window first appears, it shows the name of the current, or working directory (folder). The name of the directory includes the drive letter, followed by a colon, followed by a backslash and a directory name, followed by a prompt symbol (>) like this:
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In this example, the current directory is the WINDOWS directory of your C: drive. If you see a longer directory name like:
C:\WINDOWS\SYSTEM>
it means that the current directory is the SYSTEM directory, which is a subdirectory of the WINDOWS directory stored on the C: drive. A series of directories like this, joined together using backslash characters, is known as a path. (This is just like the path used in a URL, except that URL paths follow the UNIX convention of a forward slash instead of a backslash.)
Changing the Working Directory

You move from one directory to the other by using the cd command, which can also be written chdir. If your working directory is C:\WINDOWS, you can move to the root [highest-level] directory by typing cd \ like this:
You an type the command in either upper or lower case. When you press ENTER, DOS will carry out the command, and give you a new prompt that shows you have successfully changed to a different working directory. Here's another example. Suppose you want to move to the C:\WINDOWS\SYSTEM directory. You simply type the full path name of the desired destination:
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When you're in a subdirectory, you can move to the directory that holds it (called the parent directory) by using two dots for the directory name like this:
cd ..
For example, if you are in the C:\WINDOWS\SYSTEM directory typing this command
will take you to the C:\WINDOWS directory. If you want to move to a subdirectory of your current directory (a child directory, in other words), you can just type the directory name, rather than the complete path. If you are in the C:\WINDOWS directory and you want to move to the C:\WINDOWS\SYSTEM directory. You can simply type
cd SYSTEM
rather than
cd C:\WINDOWS\SYSTEM
In Windows, many folder names, such as "My Documents" and "Program Files" contain spaces, unlike the original version of DOS, where file and folder names were limited to eight characters and a three-character extension. To handle a pathname that contains spaces, put quotes around the name, like this:
cd "C:\My Documents\MyWebPages\"
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To change from one drive to another, you don't use the cd command. Instead, you just type the name of the drive followed by a colon like this:
Directory Listings
Once you've navigated to the directory you intend to use, you can use the dir command to see the names of the files (and subdirectories) that it contains. Here is a directory listing from one of the directories on my C: drive.
The listing shows contents of the current directory. Each file or subdirectory is shown on a separate line. Each entry actually has two names. The first name [the left-hand column] is the short "DOS" file name. This name is created by Windows; for our purposes you can just ignore it. The far right column contains the file's "real" name; note that the real name can contain both upper and lowercase characters, and does not have a limit to its length. There are some other parts of the directory listing that you might find of interest:
The second column contains the word <DIR> if the entry is a subdirectory, and the size of the file in bytes if the entry is a regular file.
The first two entries, each of which is a subdirectory, have rather peculiar names. You can ignore these entries if you like: They refer to the current directory (.) and its parent directory (..).
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The last two lines are a summary of the files in the directory. The of these shows that 18 files are listed (subdirectories and the two special entries are counted as files) and the files occupy a total of 49,057 bytes. The final line shows that over 1,843 MB of free space is available on the drive.
You can list the contents of a directory other than the current directory by specifying the name of the directory as an argument. For example, the command
dir C:\WINDOWS
lists the contents of the C:\WINDOWS directory. If you attempt this, you'll find that there are too many lines to fit in the DOS window, and so the files will scroll off the top of the window. To prevent this, add the /p flag to the end of the dir command:
dir C:\WINDOWS /p
This causes the listing to stop each time the window fills up. You can read the listing and then press Enter to view the next page.
Deleting, Copying, and Moving Files

You can remove unwanted files by using the del command, which can also be written erase. For example, to delete the README.TXT file, just type
del README.TXT
When using the command-line, deleted files are not placed in the "Recycle Bin", and there is no friendly prompt asking "Are you sure?": the file is instantly and silently deleted from your drive.
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WildCards
Sometimes, you'll want to delete several files at once: all of the .class or .tmp files in a directory, for instance. To do this, the delete command allows you to use the asterisk (*) as a wildcard character. You can delete all the files in the current directory with a file extension of .class by typing
del *.class
In the same way, you can delete all the files in the current directory by simply typing
del *.*
Obviously, this is very powerful, so be extra-careful when you use wildcards. If you accidentally type del *.java, when you meant to type del *.class, all of your .java files in the current directory will be erased; you will not be able to get them back.
Copying Files
You can make a copy of an existing file by using the copy command. For example, to copy the file index.html to the C:\TEMP directory, just type
copy index.html C:\TEMP\
Just like with del, you can use wildcards with the copy command. To copy all the HTML files the current directory to your A: drive, you would type
copy *.html A:\
You can use the copy command to rename or move a file. To rename MyApplet.java to
MyFirstApplet.java,
you
could
type
the
following
two
commands:
copy MyApplet.java MyFirstApplet.java del MyApplet.java
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This is relatively inefficien there must be room on the drive for both the original file and the new file. A better approach is to use the ren command, which can also be written rename. For example, you could accomplish the same thing as the previous example by typing
ren MyApplet.java MyFirstApplet.java
Because the ren command doesn't actually move the bytes of the file, both the original file and the new file must be in the same directory.
Creating and Removing Directories

The final DOS skill you'll find useful is the ability to create and remove directories. To create a directory, you use the md command, which can also be written mkdir. For example, to create a subdirectory named MyJavaFiles, you type
md MyJavaFiles
The directory is created as a subdirectory of the current directory. If you like, you can create the directory as a subdirectory elsewhere by typing the full path name of the directory you want to create. For example, to create a directory named MyJavaFiles that is a subdirectory of C:\My Documents, you can type
md "C:\My Documents\MyJavaFiles"
Notice that we've used quotes around the directory name because the parent directory, (My Documents) has a space in it. In Windows 95 and 98, the parent directory must already exist. Windows NT and 2K will create the necessary parent directories. To delete a directory, you use the rd command, which can also be written rmdir. The directory must be empty; that is, it must not contain any files or subdirectories. It must also not be the current working directory of any DOS window or running program. To delete a
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directory named C:\MUD, type
rd C:\MUD
The directory is instantly and silently deleted. If you're in a hurry, you can delete a directory and all the files and subdirectories it contains by using the /s flag. Typing
rd C:\MUD /s
will delete the C:\MUD directory and all it contains. But, DOS will politely ask you if you're sure before completing the irreversible deletion.
Running Programs
DOS programs are run by typing the program name, and any arguments you want to pass to the program, from the command prompt. [You can also start Windows programs this way.] To start the MS-DOS editor program, for instance, you would type in the command edit like this, and then press ENTER:
C:\MyFiles> edit
When the Edit program starts up, it will use the entire MS-DOS window like this:
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Notice that the title-bar of the DOS window changes to let you know you are running the EDIT program. When you exit the program, you'll be placed back at the plain MS-DOS prompt. With MS-DOS program, you have the option of running the program in a window, as shown here, or full-screen. You can switch between the two modes by holding the ALT key down while pressing ENTER.
3.2.3 The DEBUG, a Software Development Program for the PC Introduction

In this chapter, we begin our study of the software development environment provided for the 8088/8086 microprocessor with the PC-compatible microcomputer. Here we examine the DEBUG program, which is a program-execution/debug tool that operates in the IBMcompatible PC's disk operating system (DOS) environment. The topics discussed in this chapter are as follows:
1. The PC and Its DEBUG Program 2. Examining and Modifying the Contents of Memory 3. Input and Output of Data 4. Hexadecimal Addition and Subtraction 5. Loading, Verifying, and Saving Machine Language Programs 6. Assembling Instructions with the Assemble Command 7. Executing Instructions and Programs with the TRACE and GO Commands 8. Debugging a Program
The PC and its Debug Program

In this section you will study how to load the DEBUG program from DOS, how to use it to examine or modify the contents of the MPU's internal registers, and how to return back to DOS from DEBUG. Using DEBUG, the programmer can issue commands to the microcomputer in the PC. Assuming that the DOS has already been loaded and that a disk that contains the DEBUG program is in drive A, DEBUG is loaded by simply issuing the command C:\DOS>a:debug ()
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To initiate the DEBUG program from the keyboard of the PC C: \>DEBUG () prompt (-) is then displayed. All we need to do is type in the command and then depress the enter () key. These debug commands are the tools a programmer needs to enter, execute, and debug programs. When the command entry sequence is completed, the DEBUG program decodes the entry to determine which operation is to be performed, verifies that it is a valid command. If it is valid-passes control to a routine that performs the operation. At at the completion of the operation, results are displayed on the screen and the DEBUG prom () is redisplayed. . The PC waits in this state for a new entry. Types of Information that can be typically entered as part of a command are: a command letter an address a register name a file name a drive name, and data. The entire command set of DEBUG is shown in Figure below.
Command Register Quit Dump Enter Fill Move Compare Search Input Output Hex Add/Subtra ct Unassembl e Name Write Load Assemble Trace Go Syntax R [REGISTER NAME] Q D [ADDRESS] E ADDRESS [LIST] F STARTING ADDRESS ENDING ADDRESS LIST M STARTING ADDRESS ENDING ADDRESS DESTINATION ADDRESS C STARTING ADDRESS ENDING ADDRESS DESTINATION ADDRESS S STARTING ADDRESS ENDING ADDRESS LIST I ADDRESS O ADDRESS, BYTE H NUMI,NUM2 Function Examine or modify the contents of an internal register End use of the DEBUG program Dump the contents of memory to the display Examine or modify the contents of memory Fill a block in memory with the data in list Move a block of data from a source location in memory to a destination location Compare two blocks of data in memory and display the locations that contain different data Search through a block of data in memory and display all locations that match the data in list Read the input port Write the byte to the output port Generate hexadecimal sum and difference of the two numbers Unassemble the machine code into its equivalent assembler instructions Assign the filename to the data to be written to the disk Save the contents of memory in a file on a diskette Load memory with the contents of a file on a diskette Assemble the instruction into machine code and store in memory Trace the execution of the specified number of instructions Execute the instructions down through the breakpoint address
U [STARTING ADDRESS [ENDING ADDRESS]] N FILE NAME W [STARTING ADDRESS [DRIVE STARTING SECTOR NUMBER OF SECTORS]] L [STARTING ADDRESS [DRIVE STARTING SECTOR NUMBER OF SECTORS]] A [STARTING ADDRESS] T [=ADDRESS] [NUMBER] G (=STARTING ADDRESS [BREAKPOINT ADDRESS ]]
Table 1(name for each command its function, and its general syntax)
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With the loading of DEBUG, the state of the microprocessor is initialized. The initial state depends on the DOS version and system configuration at the time the DEBUG command is issued. We can use the register command to verify this initial state.
Syntax for the REGISTER (R) command
R [REGISTER NAME]
This command allows us to examine or modify the contents of internal registers of the MPU. R is the command letter and Register name is optional. An example of the command entry needed to examine or modify the value in register AX is
R AX ()
which causes the current value in AX to be displayed as
AX 0000 :_
if AX contains 0000 16 . We can now either depress () to complete the command, leaving the register contents unchanged, or enter a new value for AX following the colon and then depress (). To load a new value of 00AA16 , we type 00AA 16 and then depress()
:00AA R ()
()
To examine the contents of the registers, we just type R and then depress()
Figure 1
The last line displays the machine code and assembly language statement of the instruction pointed to by the current values in CS and IP (CS:IP). To modify the flags use the command
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R F ()
which displays the flag settings as : NV UP EI PL NZ NA PO NC to set the carry and parity flags, NV UP EI PL NZ NA PO NCCY PE ()
The Register command is very important for debugging programs. For instance, it can be used to check the contents of a register or flag prior to and again just after execution of an instruction. In this way, we can tell whether or not the instruction correctly performed the required operation. It displays an error message when the command that was entered is identified as being invalid. Suppose we had entered the uppercase letter O instead of zeros when we wanted to load AX with 00AA, it displays an error message, and the symbol ^ is used to mark the starting location of the error in the command.
R AX () AX 0000 :O0AA ^ Error Examining and modifying the contents of Memory

The value at an address in memory can be examined just before and, just after the execution of an instruction that affects this memory location. Thus, we can verify if the instruction performs the operation correctly. This type of command also can he used to load a program into the microcomputer's memory. The complete command set of DEBUG was shown in Table 1. Six of these commands, Dump, Enter, Fill, Move, Compare, and Search, are provided for use in examining or
modifying the contents of storage locations in memory. In this section, we discuss each in detail. Dump command: The DUMP (D) command allows us to examine the contents of a memory location or a block of consecutive memory locations. Syntax:
D [ADDRESS]
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If a segment register is not specified, the value of ADDRESS entered is automatically referenced to the current value in the data segment (DS) register. Dump can also be issued without ADDRESS, like D () Execution of this form of the command causes the 128 consecutive bytes starting at offset 0100 16 from the current value in DS to be displayed. If DS is initialized with 1234 16 when DEBUG is started, issuing this command gives the memory dump.
Figure 2 12340 16 + 0100 16 = 12440 16 h The address of the first location in the first line is denoted as 1234:0100. This corresponds to the physical address. For all memory dumps, an ASCII version of the memory data is also displayed. It is displayed to the right of the hexadecimal data. We can even enter the current value of DS as
D 1111:0100()
Figure 3
Another way of entering dump command using the value of DS instead of its own value with offset is
D DS:100 ()
The same can be written as
D 100 ()
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If we repeat the command D after the above command execution shown in figure 3, the contents of the next 128 consecutive bytes of memory are dumped to the display.
Figure 4
To just examine the just a few bytes or a specific-sized block we enter two addresses. The first address defines the starting point of the block and the second address identifies the end of the block. For instance, if we want to examine the two bytes of data that are at offsets equal to 200 16 and 201 16 in the current data segment, the command is
D DS:200 201 ()
The figure 5 shows the output
Figure 5 Enter Command:
To enter information into the memory, we use the load command. Syntax:
E ADDRESS [LIST]
The DS register is assumed if no segment is included with the offset. To write a command that loads five consecutive byte wide memory locations starting at address DS: 100 with the value AA 16 we use the command as follows:
E DS:100 AA AA AA AA AA ()
We use the following command and verify using the Dump command as shown in figure 6.
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Figure 6
If we issue the command with an address but no data, the contents of the addressed storage location are displayed. For instance, the command
E DS:100 () causes the value at this address to be displayed as follows: 1234:0100 AA._
The value at address 1234:0100 is AA 16
Now there are several possibilities:
If the return key is depressed now, the command is terminated without changing the value of the displayed memory location and the debug prompt appears. If a space bar is depressed, then it causes the contents of the next consecutive memory address to be displayed. A third type of entry that could be made is to enter a new value of data and then depress the space bar or return key. The enter command can also be used to enter ASCII data. This is done by simply enclosing the data entered in quotation marks. Either a single- or double-quote marks can be used. For example
E DS:200 "ASCII" ()
This command causes the ASCII data for letters A, S, C, I, and I to be stored in memory at addresses DS:200, DS:201, DS:202, DS:203, and DS:204, respectively.
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data.
Fill Command:
This command is used to fill a block of consecutive memory locations all with the same Syntax:
F STARTING ADDRESS ENDING ADDRESS LIST

Here the starting address and ending address specify the block of storage locations in memory. They are followed by a list of data. Execution of the following command
F 100 11F 22 ()
causes the 32 byte locations in the range 1234:100 through 1342:11 F to be loaded with 22 16 .
Move command:
The MOVE (M) command allows us to copy a block of data from one part of memory to another part. Using this command, a 32-byte block of data that resides in memory from address DS:100 to DS:11F can be copied to the address range DS:200 through DS:21F with a single operation. Syntax:
STARTING ADDRESS
ENDING ADDRESS
DESTINATION ADDRESS
It is initiated by depressing the M key and then entering three addresses. The first two addresses are the starting address and ending address of the source block of data, that is, the block of data that is to be copied. The third address is the destination starting address, that is, the starting address of the section of memory to which the block of data is to be copied. For example, the command which copies a 32-byte block of data located at address DS: 100 through DS: 11F to the block of memory starting at address DS:200, is
M 100 11F 200()
Compare command:
We sometimes need to compare the contents of two blocks of data to determine if they are or are not the same. This operation can be done with the COMPARE (C) command of the DEBUG program. Syntax:
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C STARTING ADDRESS ENDING ADDRESS DESTINATION ADDRESS

For example, to compare a block of data located from address DS: 100 through DS: I 1F to an equal-size block of data starting at address DS: 160, we issue the command
C 100 11F 160()

The contents of corresponding address locations in each block to be compared to each other. That is, the contents of address DS: 100 are compared to those at address DS:160, the contents at address DS:101 are compared to those at address DS:161, and so on. Each time unequal elements are found, the address and contents of that byte in both blocks are displayed.
Search command:
The SEARCH (S) command can be used to scan through a block of data in memory to determine whether or not it contains specific data. Syntax:
S STARTING ADDRESS ENDING ADDRESS LIST

Here the contents of each storage location in the block of memory between the starting address and the ending address are compared to the data in list. When the match is found, the address for each memory location is displayed. For example lets perform a search of the block of data from address DS:100 through DS:17F to determine which memory locations contain 33 16 . The search command that must be issued is
S 100 17F 33 ()
The output shows all addresses in the range 1234:100 through 1234:17F that contain this value of data.
Input and Output of Data
To access data at input/output ports, we use the input (I) and output (O) commands. These commands can be used to input or output data for any of the 64K byte-wide ports in the 8088's I/O address space.
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The general format of the input command is
I ADDRESS
Here ADDRESS identifies the byte-wide 1/O port to be accessed. When the command is executed, the data is read from the port and displayed. For example, if the command
I 61 ()
is issued, and if the result displayed on the screen is 4D the contents of the port at 1/O address 0061 16 are 4D 16 . The general format of the output command is
O ADDRESS BYTE
Here both the address of the output port and the byte of data that is to be written to the port must be specified. For example
O 61 4A ()
This command causes the value 4A 16 to be written into the byte-wide output port at address 0061 16 .
Hexadecimal Addition And Subtraction:
The DEBUG program also provides the ability to add and subtract hexadecimal numbers. Both operations are performed with a single command known as the hexadecimal (H) command. Syntax :
H NUM1 NUM2
When executed, both the sum and difference of NUM1 and NUM2 are formed. These results are displayed as follows
NUM1 + NUM2
NUM I - NUM2
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Both numbers and the results are limited to four hexadecimal digits. An example of' a use of the H command is the calculation of' the physical address of an instruction or data in memory. For instance, if the current value in the code segment
register is OABC 16 and that in the instruction pointer is OFFF 16 , the physical address is found with the command
H ABC0 0FFF ()
BBBF 9BC1
the sum of' these two hexadecimal numbers is BBBF16 and their difference is 9BC1,6. The sum BBBF16 is the value of the physical address CS:IP. The negative of a hexadecimal number can be found by subtracting it from 0.
Loading, Verifying, And Saving Machine Language Programs:
Here we will see how we can load machine code instructions and programs into the memory of the PC. We know that the Enter command can be used to load either a single or a group of memory locations with data, such as the machine code for instructions. As an example, let us load the machine code 88C3 16 for the instruction MOV BL,AL. This instruction is loaded into memory starting at address CS: 100 with the Enter command
E CS:100 88 C3 ()
We can verify that it has been loaded correctly with the DUMP command
D CS:100 101 ()
This command displays the data
1234:0100 88 C3 Unassemble command:
By unassemble we mean the process of converting machine code instructions to their equivalent assembly language source statements. The U command lets us specify a range in memory, and execution of the command causes the source statements for the memory data in this range to be displayed on the screen. Syntax
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U [STARTING ADDRESS [ENDING ADDRESS]]

We can use this command to verify that the machine code entered for an instruction is correct. To do this for our earlier example, we use the command
U CS:100 101 ()
This command results in the display of the starting address for the instruction followed by both the machine code and assembly forms of the instruction. This gives
1234:0100 88C3 MOV BL,AL WRITE (W) command and LOAD (L) command:
These commands give the ability to save data stored in memory on a diskette and to reload memory from a diskette, respectively. We can load the machine code of a program into memory with the E command the first time we use it and then save it on a diskette. In this way, the next time the program is needed it can be simply reloaded from the diskette. Syntax:
W [STARTING ADDRESS [DRIVE STARTING SECTOR NUMBER OF SECTORS]] L [STARTING ADDRESS [DRIVE STARTING SECTOR NUMBER OF SECTORS]]
To save the ADD instruction we can just load at address CS:200 by the command
-E CS:200 03 04 -D CS:200 201 1234:0200 03 04 -U Cs:200 201 1234:0200 0304 ADD AX,[SI]
To save the ADD instruction we just loaded at address CS:200 in the above example, we can issue the write command
W CS:200 1 10 1 ()
we have selected 1 (drive B) for the disk drive specification, 10 as an arbitrary starting sector on the diskette, and an arbitrary length of 1 sector. Before the command is issued, a formatted data diskette must be inserted into drive B. Then issuing the command causes one sector of data starting at address CS:200 to be read from memory and written into sector 10 on the diskette in drive B. Unlike the earlier commands we have studied, the W command automatically references the CS register instead of the DS register. For this reason, the command
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W 200 1 10 1 ()
will perform the same operation.
The Load command can be used to reload a file of data stored on a diskette anywhere in memory. As an example, let us load the instruction that we just saved on a diskette with a W command at a new address (CS:300). This is done with the L command
L 300 1 10 1()
The reloading of the instruction can be verified by issuing the U command
U CS:300 301 ()
This command causes the display
1234:300 301 ADD AX,[SI]

We now look at how a program can be saved using a file name, instead of a file specification. By using the NAME (N) command along with the write command, a program can be saved on the diskette under a file name. Syntax:
N FILE NAME
where FILE NAME has the form NAME.EXT Here the name of the file can be up to eight characters. On the other hand, the extension (EXT) is from zero to three characters. Neither EXE nor COM is valid extension. As part of the process of using the file name command, the BX and CX registers must be updated to identify the size of the program that is to be saved in the file. The size of the program in bytes is given as
(BX CX) = number of bytes
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Together CX and BX specify an 8-digit hexadecimal number that identifies the number of bytes in the file. After the name command has been issued and the CX and BX registers have been initialized, the write command is used to save the program on a diskette. The write command form is
W [STARTING ADDRESS]
To reload the program into memory, we begin by naming the file and then simply issue a load command with the address at which it is to start. To do this the command sequence is
N FILE NAME L [STARTING ADDRESS]

Lets see how the name command is set up to save the machine program used in the previous example in a file called abc.1 on a diskette in drive A. First, the name command
N A:abc.1 ()
is entered. The program is stored in memory from address CS: 100 to CS: 117. This gives a program size of 18 16 bytes. Therefore, CX and BX are initialized as
R CX CX XXXX :18 () R BX () BX XXXX :0 ()

Now the program is saved on the diskette with the command
W CS:100 ()
To reload the program into memory, we simply perform the command sequence
N A:abc.1 () L CS:100 ()
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The program can be loaded starting at another address by just specifying that address in the Load command. Once saved on a diskette, the file extension can be changed to indicate an executable DOS file (that is, a file with the extension .EXE) by using the DOS rename (REN) command. To do this we must first return to DOS with the command
Q ()
and then issue the command
C:\DOS>REN A:abc.1 abc.exe ()

Programs that are in an executable file can be directly loaded when the DEBUG program is brought up. For our example, the program command is
C:\DOS>DEBUG A:abc.exe ()
Execution of this command loads the program at address CS:100 and then displays the DEBUG prompt. After loading, other DEBUG commands can be used to run the program.
Executable files can also be run directly in the DOS environment. This is done by entering the file name following the DOS prompt and then depressing the return key. Therefore, making the following entry runs program abc.exe
C:\DOS>A:abc.exe ()
Assembling Instructions with the Assemble Command:
The DEBUG program has a command that lets us automatically assemble the instructions of a program, one after the other, and store them in memory. It is called the ASSEMBLE (A) command.
Syntax: A [STARTING ADDRESS]

Here STARTING ADDRESS is the address at which the machine code of the first instruction of the program is to be stored.
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Say if we need to assemble the instruction ADD [BX+SI+1234H], AX and store its machine code in memory starting at address CS: 100, we start with the command
A CS:100 ()
The response to this command input is the display of the starting address in the form
1234:0100_
After typing the instruction to be assembled in following this address, the tile () key is depressed, and the instruction is assembled into machine code; it is stored in memory; and the starting address of the next instruction is displayed. For our example, we have
1234:0100 ADD[BX + SI+1234],AX () 1234:0104_

Now either the next instruction is entered or the () key is depressed to terminate the assemble command. We can view the machine code that was produced for the instruction by issuing a DUMP command. Notice that the address displayed as the starting point of the next instruction is
1234:0104. Therefore, the machine code for the ADD instruction took up 4 bytes of memory, CS: 100, CS: 101, CS: 102, and CS: 103. The command needed to display
this machine code is D CS: 100 103()

To save the machine code on a diskette in file INST.1, we issue the commands
N A:INST.1 () R C X () :4 () R BX () :0 () W CS:100 ()
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Let us look into how a complete program can be assembled with the A command. We will begin by assuming that the program is to be stored in memory starting at address CS:100. For this reason, the line-by-line assembler is invoked with the command
A CS:100 ()
This gives the response
1234:0100
Now we type in instructions of the program as follows:
1234:0100 MOV AX,2000 () 1234:0103 MOV DS,AX 1234:0105 MOV SI,100 . . . . . . . . . . . . 1234:0117 NOP 1234:0118 () . . .
()
() ()
To see if the complete program has been assembled correctly, we use the Unassemble command
U CS:200 217()
The results produced with this command can be compared with the instructions to those entered and confirm that the program has been assembled correctly.
Executing Instructions and Programs with the Trace and Go Commands:
The DEBUG program allows us to execute the entire program with one GO (G) command or to execute the program in several segments of instructions by using breakpoints in the Go command. Moreover, by using the TRACE (T) command, the program can be stepped through by executing one or more instructions at a time.
133 KKTMPJ
Trace provides the programmer with the ability to execute one instruction at a time. Also known as single-stepping the program; it is very useful during early phases of program debugging. This is because the contents of registers or memory can be viewed both before and after the execution of each instruction to determine whether or not the correct operation was performed.
Syntax: T [=STARTING ADDRESS] [NUMBER]

The starting address is the address of the instruction at which execution is to begin. It is followed by a number that tells how many instructions are to be executed. The use of the equal sign before the starting address is very important. If it is left out, the microcomputer usually hangs up and will have to be restarted with a power on reset. If an instruction count is not specified in the command, just one instruction is executed. For instance, the command
T =CS:100 ()
causes the instruction starting at address CS: 100 to be executed. At the end of the instruction's execution, the complete state of the MPU's internal registers is automatically displayed. At this point, other DEBUG commands can be issued. This Trace command can also be issued as
T ()
In this case the instruction pointed to by the current values of CS and IP (CS:IP) is executed. This is the form of the Trace command that is used to execute the next instruction.
If we want to step through several instructions, the Trace command must include the number of instructions to be executed. This number is included after the address. For example, to trace through three instructions, the command is issued as
T =CS:100 3 ()
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The internal state of the MPU is displayed after each instruction is executed.
GO command:
The Go command is typically used to run programs that are already working or to execute programs in the latter stages of debugging. The Go command can be used to execute beginning part of a program which is already operating and then stop execution at a point in the program where additional debugging is to begin. Syntax:
G [=STARTING ADDRESS [BREAKPOINT ADDRESS LIST]]

The first address is the starting address of the segment of the program that is to be executed, that is, the address of the instruction at which execution is to begin. The second address, the breakpoint address, is the address of the end of the program segment, that is, the address of the instruction at which execution is to stop. The breakpoint address that is specified must correspond to the first byte of an instruction. A list of up to 10 breakpoint addresses can be supplied with the command.
An example of the Go command is
G =CS:200 217()
This command loads the IP register with 0200 16 , sets a breakpoint at address CS:217, and then begins program execution at address CS:200. The instruction execution proceeds until address CS:217 is accessed. When the breakpoint address is reached, program execution is terminated, the complete internal status of the MPU is displayed, and control is returned to DEBUG. We can also execute a program without using a breakpoint with the Go command. For instance, to execute a program that starts at offset 100 16 in the current CS, we can issue the Go command without a breakpoint address as follows
G =CS:100 ()
This command will cause the program to run to completion provided there are appropriate instructions in the program to initiate a normal termination, such as those needed to return
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to DEBUG. In the case of a program where CS and IP are already initialized with the correct values, we can just enter
G ()
However, it is recommended that tile Go command always include a breakpoint address. When issued without a breakpoint address and the values of' CS and IP are not already set up or tile program is not correctly prepared for normal termination, the microcomputer can lock up.
Debugging A Program:
Until now, we did not determine if the program when run performed the operation for which it was written. It is common to have errors in a program and even a single error can render the program useless. For instance, if the address to which a "jump" instruction passes control is wrong, the program may get hung up. Errors in a program are also referred to as hugs; the process of removing them is called debugging. There are two types of errors that can be made by a programmer: the syntax error and the execution error. A syntax error is an error caused by not following the rules for coding or entering an instruction. These types of errors are typically identified by the microcomputer and signaled to the user with an error message. For this reason, they are usually easy to find and correct. For example, if a Dump command was keyed in as
D DS:100120 () an error condition exists. This is because the space between the starting and ending address is left out. This incorrect entry is signaled by the warning "Error" in the display; the spot where the error begins, in this case, the 1 in 120, is marked with the symbol "^" to identify the position of the error.
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An execution error is an error in the logic behind the development of the program. That is, the program is correctly coded and entered, but it still does not perform the operation for which it was written. This type of error can be identified by entering the program into the microcomputer and observing its operation. Even when an execution error has been identified, it is usually not easy to find the exact cause of the problem. Our ability to debug execution errors in a program is aided by the commands of the DEBUG program. For instance, the Trace command allows us to step through the program by executing just one instruction at a time. We can use the display of the internal register state produced by Trace and the memory dump command to determine the state of the MPU and memory prior to execution of an instruction and again after its execution. This information will tell us whether the instruction has performed the operation planned for it. If an error is found, its cause can be identified and corrected.
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Exercise For Topic 3

1. List six group of instructions in 8088/8086 instruction set. 2. What tells microprocessor what to do , where to get data, how to process the data and where to put the result when done? 3. What is the name given to a sequence of instructions that is used to guide a computer through a task? 4. What is the native language of the 8088? 5. How does machine language differ from assembly language? 6. What is operand ? give two types. 7. What is source code?, what is object code? 8. What is mean by addressing mode? 9. Make a list of addressing mode available on the 8088 10. Name the five memory operand addressing modes. 11. Identify the addressing mode used for the source and the destination operands in the instructions that follows: (a) MOV AL,BL (b) MOV AX,0FFFH (c) MOV [DI],AX (d) MOV DI,[SI] (e) MOV [0100H],AX (f) MOV AX[0100] (g) MOV [BX]+0120H,CX (h) MOV [DI]+0100,AH (i) MOV [BX] [DI]+0400H,AL
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SUMMARY
In this unit we have studied :
1. The instruction set of a microprocessor defines the basic operations that a programmer
can specify to the device to perform.
2. This instructions are organized into 6 groups of functionally related instruction.There are Data transfer instruction, Arithmetic Instruction, Logic instruction ,String manipulation instruction, Control transfer instruction and Processor control instruction.
3. Software refers to wide variety of programs that can be run by a microcomputer.
4. Programs must always be coded in machine language before 8088 processors can run it.
5. The term addressing mode is used to describe the way a particular instruction lets the microprocessor know where the source or destination is located.
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ANSWERS Exercise For Topic 3

1. Data transfer instruction , arithmetic instruction , logic instruction , string manipulation instruction , control transfer instruction , and processor control.
2. Software
3. Program
4. Machine code / machine language
5. Instructions encoded in machine language are coded in 0s and 1s , while assembly language instructions are written with alphanumeric symbol such as MOV , ADD or SUB.
6. The data that is to be processed during execution of an instruction ; source operand and destination operand.
7. Source code : programs written in assembly language , object code : programs written in machine language.
8. An addressing mode means the method by which an operand can be specified in a register or a memory location.
9. Register operand addressing , Immediate operand addressing and Memory operand addressing.
10. Direct addressing mode , Register indirect addressing , Based addressing mode , Indexed addressing mode , and Based indexed addressing mode.
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11.
Instruction
Destination
Source
a b c d e f g h i
Register Register Register indirect Register Register direct Register Base Index Based-indexed
Register Immediate Register Register indirect Register Register direct Register Register Register
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INSTRUCTION SET, MACHINE CODES AND ADDRESSSING MODE

UNIT 3: INSTRUCTION SET, MACHINE CODE AND ADDRESSING MODE

1. Mnemonics, opcodes and assembler language 2. Assembler programming language

1. Describe what is addressing modes 2. introduce layout for assembly language

INSTRUCTION SET, MACHINE CODES AND ADDRESSSING MODE

3.1 MNEMONICS, OPCODES AND ASSEMBLER LANGUAGES

The 8088 and 8086 have the same instruction set.

This instructions are organized into 6 groups of functionally related instruction : -

INSTRUCTION SET, MACHINE CODES AND ADDRESSSING MODE

Software refers to wide variety of programs that can be run by a microcomputer.

The sequence of commands used to tell a microcomputer what to do is called a program.

Each command in a program is an instruction.

An instruction can be divide into two parts, that is :-

Programs written in assembly language also known as source code.

INSTRUCTION SET, MACHINE CODES AND ADDRESSSING MODE

Benefits derived from writing programs in assembly language :-

Op-code and Operand

manufacturers mnemonic for the instruction

;help ;understand ;the program

The following describes the headings in the program listing:

Op-code and operand hex values only

INSTRUCTION SET, MACHINE CODES AND ADDRESSSING MODE

Addressing Modes Of 8088/8086

INSTRUCTION SET, MACHINE CODES AND ADDRESSSING MODE

Ex: MOV Immediate addressing

INSTRUCTION SET, MACHINE CODES AND ADDRESSSING MODE

Ex: MOV Direct addressing

;load AX with 1000H

Indirect addressing Direct addressing has a number of disadvantages, such as:

Requires at least three bytes

Requires three fetch cycle reducing the speed of execution

INSTRUCTION SET, MACHINE CODES AND ADDRESSSING MODE

3.2 ASSEMBLER PROGRAMMING LANGUAGE

INSTRUCTION SET, MACHINE CODES AND ADDRESSSING MODE

To use an editor first we must open DOS(Disk Operating System)

INSTRUCTION SET, MACHINE CODES AND ADDRESSSING MODE

C:\ZAHARI>edit key1-1.lst <ENTER>

INSTRUCTION SET, MACHINE CODES AND ADDRESSSING MODE

INSTRUCTION SET, MACHINE CODES AND ADDRESSSING MODE

INSTRUCTION SET, MACHINE CODES AND ADDRESSSING MODE

Execute the PCV3.com software by typing this command.

C:\BGC8088>cd pcv3 <ENTER> C:\BGC8088\pcv3>pcv3 <ENTER>

Select the communication port either com1 or com2.

Ex: 1 for Com 1

INSTRUCTION SET, MACHINE CODES AND ADDRESSSING MODE

Select the process, upload or download

Ex: 1 Download from PC to BGC8088

Now key in the binary file (.Bin file)

INSTRUCTION SET, MACHINE CODES AND ADDRESSSING MODE

Connect RS232C cable from PC to BGC8088 and press

INSTRUCTION SET, MACHINE CODES AND ADDRESSSING MODE

Plan steps of solution Flowchart

Implement flowchart using

Assemble the program using

Object module Link the program

Execute and debug using

INSTRUCTION SET, MACHINE CODES AND ADDRESSSING MODE

INSTRUCTION SET, MACHINE CODES AND ADDRESSSING MODE

3.2.1 Basic Flowchart Symbol

INSTRUCTION SET, MACHINE CODES AND ADDRESSSING MODE

INSTRUCTION SET, MACHINE CODES AND ADDRESSSING MODE

3.2.2 Using the DOS Command-line

The Working Directory

INSTRUCTION SET, MACHINE CODES AND ADDRESSSING MODE