Polynomials II: Vegetables

Any field. Roots and coefficients in any field: 1. Given polynomials P and D (if D isnt the zero polynomial) we can write P = QD + S where Q is some polynomial (quotient) and S (remainder) has degree less than D. 2. r is a root of P (x-r) divides P(x). 3. root r has multiplicity k (x-r)k divides P(x), but (x-r)k+1 doesnt r is a root of P, DP, D2P, , Dk-1P, but not of DkP 4. P is irreducible if we cant factor P(x) = Q(x) D(x) with Q and D both having smaller degree than P. 5. P factors uniquely as a product of irreducibles (except for multiplication by constants) 6. If P has degree n, then P has at most n roots (even counting by multiplicity) Complex numbers. Roots and coefficients in : 1. Any polynomial with degree 1 has a root in . 2. Irreducible = linear 3. Every polynomial splits into linear factors. 4. We can count the roots using winding numbers. 5. If the coefficients are real, then the non-real roots come in conjugate pairs. Any polynomial that splits into linear factors: 1. Can write P(x) as an ( x r1 )( x r2 )L ( x rn ) . (Another way to write polynomials!) 2. Coefficients are symmetric functions of roots. Real numbers. Roots and coefficients in : 1. Irreducible = All linear, some quadratics (the ones without real roots) 2. P factors into linear and quadratic factors, nothing worse 3. Between any two real roots of P there is a real root of DP 4. If P splits into linear factors (has all real roots) then so does DP. (Harder complex analog: If all the roots of P are in a convex polygon, so are all roots of DP) 5. Rule of signs and better root-counting tricks Rationals. Roots and coefficients in or : 1. There are irreducibles of all degrees. 2. Monic, coefficients in all the rational roots are really integers. 3. If P and D have integer coefficients, and if D is monic, we can write P = QD + S where Q and S also have integer coefficients, and S has lower degree than D. (We need for D to be monic to make up for the fact that is not a field.) 4. If P has integer coefficients, then r is a root P(x) = (x-r) Q(x), where Q also has integer coefficients. Quadratic Equations: 1. When a is small, the usual formula for the roots of ax2+bx+c is numerically dangerous. So, try: 2c x= . b b 2 4ac 1

Polynomial Problems
Problem A. Show that if P and D have coefficients in , and if D is monic, then P can be written as P = QD + S where S has smaller degree than D and both Q and S have coefficients in . Conclude that if P has coefficients in and an integer n is a root of P, then P(x) = (x-n) Q(x) where Q also has coefficients in . Problem B. Suppose that P has coefficients in , and P(a) = P(b) = P(c) = P(d) = 12 for four distinct integers a, b, c, d. Is it possible that P(k) = 25 for some integer k? Problem C (USAMO 1983). Suppose that P ( x ) = x 5 + ax 4 + bx 3 + cx 2 + dx + e and that 2a 2 < 5b. Show that P does not have 5 real roots. Problem D (USAMO 1984). Suppose that P ( x ) = x 4 18 x3 + kx 2 + 200 x 1984 and that the product of two of the roots of P is -32. What is k? Hint for D and E: If the roots are a, b, c, d, then note the special roles of ab, cd, a+b, and c+d. Give them names; say s=ab, t=cd, p=a+b, q=c+d. Problem E (USAMO?). If a and b are roots of x 4 + x 3 1 = 0, show that ab is a root of x 6 + x 4 + x 3 x 2 1 = 0. Problem F. Left and Right play a game. In the polynomial equation, x3 + x2 + x+ =0 first Left fills in a blank with a real number, then Right fills in a blank with a real number, then Left fills in a blank with a real number. Left wins if the equation has three distinct real roots. Can Left always win? Problem G (Bogdan). (A) Can one obtain the polynomial x by starting with f(x) = x2+x, g(x) = x2-2, and combining them using only additions, subtractions, and multiplications? (B) What if f(x) = x2+x and g(x) = x2+2 ?

More Problems !
Problem H. Suppose that three of the roots of x 4 px 3 + qx 2 rx + s = 0 are tan A, tan B, and tan C where A, B, C are the angles of a plane triangle. Lets just call the fourth root x. Write x in terms of p, q, r, s.

Problem I. Solve exactly:

2 x 4 + 5 x3 + x 2 + 5 x + 2 = 0 .

Problem J. Show that

x 6 + x 4 + x3 x 2 1 = 0

can be solved exactly in radicals.

Problem K (1994 Putnam Exam). For which real numbers c is there a straight line that intersects the curve y = x 4 + 9 x 3 + cx 2 + 9 x + 4 in four distinct points?

Problem L (MOSP). Show that none of the equations x 6 + ax 4 + bx 2 + c = y 3 with a { 3, 4,5} , b { 4,5,K ,12} , c { 1, 2,K ,8} have solutions in integers x, y. Problem M (MOSP). Find all polynomials p(x) such that for all x, ( x 16) p (2 x) = 16( x 1) p( x) . Problem N (Galperin). If x, y, z are positive real numbers and x 2 + xy + y 2 = 16 3 y 2 + z 2 = 27 3 x 2 + z 2 + 3 xz = 75, then what is xz + 2 yz + 3 xy ?