Psychology Factsheets

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This Factsheet summarises: the process of learning languages (stages of language development); explanations of language acquisition, including nativist, learning and interactionist theories.

Number 10

Learning language: stages and explanations of language acquisition

Stages of language development
Child learning language
Step 1: phonology (the sounds of a language) Step 2: semantics (the meanings of words) Step 3: syntax (the grammatical rules about how words can be put together into sentences) Step 4: pragmatics (how to change language to fit a situation, e.g. speaking to a young child in a simpler way). All children learn (acquire) language through these stages, in the same order, regardless of the language. This order is universal.

Introduction
A newborn baby can only communicate by crying yet by 17 years old we have an average vocabulary of 80,000 words. A child learns about nine new words a day from 18 months old to five years old. How do we learn to speak our native language? Is the ability to speak something we are born with or something we learn?

Fig 1 Stages and research evidence for these stages

Crying (newborn) Is a reaction to an internal state, e.g. hunger A cry usually gets attention from parent/care-giver One-word stage (1 year to 18 months) Babbling gives way to one-word utterances and child speaks first real words, e.g. ball Words are mainly for people and objects around them. This is the holophrastic period (McNeill, 1970). Holophrases are one-word sentences, e.g. ball, which can mean I want the ball! Or this is a ball. Actions and tone of voice suggest the meaning. Over-extension is a common mistake in speech in this stage. It is when one word is used for many things, e.g. all men are dad. Under-extension is also a common mistake. It is when a word is used too specifically, e.g. cereal means only one kind of cereal. Vocabulary increases from 13 to 18 months and by 2 years is about 270 words (Brown, 1973). Nelson (1973) categorised the first 50 words spoken by infants. The largest category was object words (e.g. cat), followed by specific objects (e.g. Mummy), then action words (e.g. go), then modifiers (e.g. mine), social words (e.g. please) and then function words (e.g. where).

Cooing (3 to 5 weeks) Babies start to coo (vowel-like sounds made repetitively, e.g. ooh).

Babbling (4 to 6 months) Babbling is combinations of vowels and consonants (phonemes), e.g. ba-da-ba. Infant shows turn-taking with another person. During the first stage of babbling, infants use all basic speech sounds that occur in all languages in the world. At 8 months, infants babbling focuses on phonemes common to native language. Echolalia occurs, which is a form of babbling where they repeat the same phonemes (e.g. dadada) Levitt and Wang (1991) found that the babbling of French-speaking infants sounds like French and the babbling of English-speaking infants sounds like English. Petitto and Marastette (1991) found that deaf children babble manually, signing phonemes with their hands. Very young children have an innate mechanism that allows them to differentiate phonemes in any language (Eimas, 1985) but at the end of their first year there is a reduced ability to discriminate phonemes (Kuhl and colleagues, 1992). Subsequent developments (2 to 5 years) Sentence length increases and more complex sentences are used. Learn grammatical morphemes, such as prepositions (e.g. on) and the plural s. Develop understanding of pragmatics. Over-regularisation is a common mistake in this stage. It is the rigid and inappropriate use of grammatical rules, e.g. I catched instead of I caught. Children learn grammatical morphemes in the same order (although the rate varies) from simple (e.g. in, on) to more complex (e.g. reducing they are to theyre) (Maratsos, 1983) Shatz and Gelman (1973) found that 4 year olds used complex sentences when talking with an adult and short sentences when talking with a young child.

Two-word stage and telegraphic speech (begins at about 18 months) Speech is generally limited to two-word utterances which communicate a wide range of meanings, e.g., mummy drink could mean mummy get a drink. Suggest meanings by intonation and gestures. Speech shows understanding of syntax. Telegraphic speech (Brown, 1972) occurs when children leave out parts of a sentence (e.g., miss plurals and tenses). For example, Daddy eat sweet. Speech in this stage consists of two types of words pivot words and open words (Braine, 1963). Most telegraphic speech has one of each (pivot word followed by open word). E.g. "all gone", "all clean". Brown (1973) identified that telegraphic speech follows a rigid word order. A sentence always has agent + action + object + location (e.g., Daddy eat dinner home).
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10 Learning language: stages and explanations of language acquisition

Theories of language acquisition
Nativist theories (important terms are underlined)
Basic principles: Nativist theories propose that we are born with a knowledge of the structure of language (i.e., it is innate). They suggest that humans learn language because they are biologically equipped for it and that learning to speak is the same as learning to walk (it depends on biological maturation and is innate). Chomsky (1965) proposed that the brain is hard-wired to acquire language in a language acquisition device (LAD). The LAD is an innate mechanism that makes language acquisition possible. It enables children to understand grammatical rules, create their own sentences and make sense of what they hear. When exposed to a linguistic input, the LAD transforms the linguistic input into language. Chomsky later replaced the LAD with universal grammar, which is the linguistic rules found in every language (e.g., subject + verb + object word order). Chomsky distinguished between the surface structure and deep structure of a sentence. The surface structure is the actual phrase used and the deep structure is the actual meaning of the phrase. For example, the girl ate the dinner and the dinner was eaten by the girl have different surface structures but the same deep structure. He proposed that an important part of the LAD, known as transformational grammar, enables children to extract the same meaning (deep structure) from different word orders (surface structure). Stephen Pinker proposes that language is innate and that we all have an inner language called mentalese. Mentalese is the same for everybody regardless of which language we speak. When we learn a language, we translate the inner mentalese into the cultural dialect to which we are exposed. Lennebergs biolinguistic theory (1967) proposes that language development depends on biological maturation in much the same way as physical and motor development. Nativist theories propose that it is easier to learn languages early on in life before the learning device loses its flexibility. This is the critical period hypothesis. It is why it is easier to learn our own language than learning a second language later in life.

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Evaluation: Chomskys theory accounts for the fact that language acquisition is universal. Children throughout the world develop language in the same stages, in a fixed order and at the same time (e.g., babbling at 4-6 months). It explains how deaf children exposed to sign language from birth develop in the same stages as hearing children (Meier, 1991). Evidence supports the concept of a universal grammar. Greenberg (1963) found that the most popular word order is subject-object-verb (in 44% of languages) followed by subjectverb-object, as in English (35% of languages). There is support for the critical period hypothesis: (a) there is better recovery after brain damage to the language system if it occurs before 5 years old than after puberty; (b) deprived children who are not exposed to language early in life have only a limited ability to learn language (see box A); (c) deaf children acquire language and develop grammatical rules (see box B). Chomskys theory can be criticised for emphasising correct language use rather than everyday speech that often includes non-grammatical sentences. The LAD concept is vague; it is not clear how it works or how it is structured in the brain. Nativist theories do not take into account that we learn language in a social environment or that experience must influence language development in some way. For example, parents from lower socioeconomic classes talk to their children less and expose them to less diverse vocabulary (Walker et al., 1994). This disadvantage slows language development (Hart and Risley, 1992).
Exam Hint : In essays about language acquisition, you could also write about language in non-humans if the question does not specifically state that it should be about humans.

BOX A Genie was isolated by her father in one room in a house until she was 13 years old. She was punished if she made a sound. Once rescued, it was found that Genie had learnt some vocabulary but had a poor understanding of grammatical rules (Curtiss, 1977). It is proposed that missing the critical period for language acquisition caused Genies poor understanding of the grammatical rules of language.

BOX B A reformed government in Nicaragua set up a sign system for deaf children. The sign system had a vocabulary but no grammatical rules. However, when young deaf children (about 4 years old) were exposed to this sign system, they developed a more fluid signing system that was grammatical.

Exam Hint: You could also write about language acquisition from a biological/neurological view, as long as you clearly show that it relates to explanations of language acquisition.

Exam Hint: Be careful that you write about the number of theories or the right approach that the question asks for. Outlining the wrong number of theories or the wrong approach will automatically reduce your marks.

10 Learning language: stages and explanations of language acquisition

Theories of language acquisition
Learning theory
Basic principles: This approach is also known as the behaviourist or environmental approach. It takes the opposite view to the nativist theories, proposing that we learn language just as we learn any other behaviour. Bandura (1977) proposed that we learn language through imitation. Skinner (1957) proposed that the processes of reinforcement and reward shape language. That is, we learn language through operant conditioning. Skinner proposed that we acquire language in three main ways: tact, mand and echoic response (see box C). BOX C Tact is where a child imitates others. The child receives a reward for producing a sound close to a correct sound. The child is more likely to repeat the sound in future. Mand is where a child is reinforced by something they want (e.g., child says sweet and is rewarded with a sweet). The child learns by association. The child acquires words because they have significance for them. Echoic response

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Learning theory proposes that shaping of the childs speech gradually occurs as parents criticise incorrect speech and reinforce correct speech through praise, attention and approval. Behaviourists also propose that children learn syntax through imitation; the parents provide reinforcement by responding appropriately to questions and statements made by children.

is a verbal behaviour reinforced by the parents. The child acquires words through imitating adult speech and is rewarded (e.g., with smiles, approval).

Evaluation: Learning theory takes into account that we learn language in a social environment and not just how we acquire it psychologically. Evidence suggests that the social environment is important. Babies reared in institutions, where there are less smiling adults around to reinforce them, babble like family-reared children but take longer to begin talking (Brown, 1958). It accounts for the social interaction between the child and parent/ caregiver. Most parents adapt their speech when talking to their child. This is known as motherese. It uses very short, simple questions that gradually become longer and more complex as the childs speech develops (Shatz and Gelman, 1973). Mothers teach language by typically using slightly longer and more complex sentences than those used by their children (Bohannon and Warren-Leubecker, 1989). Evidence shows that the mothers speech relates to language development. Harris et al. (1986) examined the speech of the mothers of young children (16 months) who had poor language development. They found that only 49% of the mothers speech referred to objects of the childs attention compared to 78% in the mothers speech of children with normal language development.

Learning theory does not explain how children can learn language so rapidly and accurately. Learning by imitation or reinforcement alone would take much longer. In addition, it does not explain how children can use language in an original way (e.g., creating sentences that they have not heard before). Also, telegraphic speech does not closely resemble utterances of other people. Skinner focused on how we learn specific responses (e.g. saying a word) by reinforcement. However, much of childrens knowledge of language is not of specific responses (e.g. grammatical rules). Also, it is not clear how children could be imitating parents when they produce systematic errors, such as over-regularisation. It is not clear how much social interaction is necessary. Some cultures talk to their children as if they are adults and their language still develops normally (e.g. Kaluli of New Guinea). There is evidence that parents reinforce speech based on its accuracy or truth rather than grammar (Brown, Cazden and Bellugi, 1969). According to Skinner, children would then speak truthfully but ungrammatically (in fact, most adults speak grammatically, but not always truthfully!).

Interactionist theories
Basic principles: In interactionist theories, language acquisition is both innate and acquired by reinforcement. Such theories propose that social interaction is crucial in developing language skills as the child learns the basic rules by interacting with experienced language users. Bruner (1983) proposed a LASS (language acquisition support system) instead of a LAD. In the LASS, interaction between adults and children produces language. Interaction with adults supports the childs language acquisition because it provides both the vocabulary and social interaction necessary for language use. Evaluation: The case of a child whose parents were both deaf and did not speak supports the social interactionist view. Although the child did hear speech on TV and at nursery, his speech was below normal for his age at 4 years old. However, speech therapy improved his language quickly, showing that language will develop in a social context (Sachs et al., 1981).

Acknowledgements: This Psychology Factsheet was researched and written by Amanda Albon. The Curriculum Press, Bank House, 105 King Street, Wellington, Shropshire, TF1 1NU.

10 Learning language: stages and explanations of language acquisition

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Worksheet: Learning language: stages and explanations of language acquisition

Name
1. What are the stages of language development? ...................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ...................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ...................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ...................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 2. Describe and evaluate the one-word stage of language acquisition. ...................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ...................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ...................................................................................................................................................................................................................... Is Dada see dog an example of telegraphic speech or a holophrase? Explain why. ...................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ...................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ...................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 4. Define tact, mand and echoic response in a childs acquisition of language. ...................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ...................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ...................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 5. Why does Chomsky think that language is innate? ...................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ...................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 6. What is the language acquisition device? ...................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ...................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 7. Give two criticisms of nativist theories. ...................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ...................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 8. What does Skinner propose about language acquisition? ...................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ...................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ...................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 9. Give two criticisms of learning theories. ...................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ...................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 10. What is the interactionist view of language acquisition? ...................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ......................................................................................................................................................................................................................

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