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Dig It!: Discovering Archaeology

A Standards-Linked Resource Packet for Teachers

CONTENTS
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WELCOME! About These Materials Culture CaraVan: Bringing the Museum to You! Links to State Curriculum Standards Do You Dig Archaeology? What is Archaeology? Archaeological Methods Archaeology in the United States Ethics of Archaeology Vocabulary Lesson Plan One: Understanding Archaeological Context Lesson Plan Two: Recording Artifacts Using the Metric System Lesson Plan Three: In the Lab: Describing Artifacts Resources and Selected Bibliography Acknowledgements 3 4 5 6 6 7 14 15 18 21 29 37 42 45

Cover Images Top Left: Archaeologist in the labratory Center Left: Test pit at an archaeological site in Rhode Island Bottom Left: An artifact from the collections of the Haffenreffer Museum of Anthropology Right: Archaeologist recording data and keeping notes at a cave site in Mesoamerica

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Brown Universitys Haffenreffer Museum of Anthropology welcomes you to our program,

Dig It!: Discovering Archaeology

About These Materials The Haffenreffer Museum has developed these materials to provide you and your students appropriate information, project and activity suggestions and resource materials that complement your studies of archaeology and ancient civilizations. This packet expands on the themes that are covered during the Dig It! Culture CaraVan outreach program, but can be used independently of the Museum program. The first section introduces What is archaeology? and covers basic archaeological methods. This section is informational and can provide you and your students background information about archaeology. You may choose to use this section as a reading section for students during group, partner, or independent reading. The following section comprises lesson plan activities designed for grades four to eight. You can adapt the information and activities provided in this packet to the appropriate learning levels of your students. We also suggest some web sites and books that you and your students can use in your classroom to learn more about archaeology in general. Vocabulary words are in bold and a listing can be found on pages 18-20.

Learning Objectives: 1. Students will understand how the archaeological process works, and the ways archaeologists use science to explore how people lived in the past. 2. Students will be able to understand how scientists gather information about past cultures. This will complement their class exploration of ancient civilizations.

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Culture CaraVan: Bringing the Museum to You!

The Haffenreffer Museum collects and maintains over 100,000 artifacts of human cultures from around the world. We have offered experiential educational programs to the public for over forty years. Through hands-on, object-based activities and inquiry-based teaching, our programs educate students and teachers about people and societies from around the globe. Through our Culture CaraVan outreach program, we deliver the worlds cultures right to your classroom, enhancing the experience with objects from our world famous collections! Visit our web site to learn more about our Culture CaraVan programs. The Dig It!: Discovering Archaeology outreach program is a two-hour interactive program where your students will dive headfirst into the field of archaeology. They will have their own opportunity to try their hand at archaeological excavation and learn more about the scientific methods involved. Your students will participate in a simulated dig, during which they will uncover a variety of artifacts that will lead them to discover the history of New Englands Native people. Students will then report their findings to the class. Visit our website at brown. edu/Haffenreffer for more information.

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Links to State Curriculum Standards

These pre-visit materials and activities link to standards set by the National Council for the Social Studies and curriculum standards used by the Rhode Island Department of Education and the Massachusetts Department of Education in the social sciences, sciences, arts, and English language arts. The standards represented in this packet are listed below.

National Council for the Social Studies: (for all grades) I. Time, Continuity and Change Standards b, d II. People, Places, and Environments Standards a, b, c, h Rhode Island: Historical Perspectives: HP 1 (K-8) -1; HP 2 (K-4) -3; HP 3 (K-4) -2 Earth and Space Science: ESS1 (K-6)-1 Life Science: LS1 (K-4)-1 Reading: (4-8) R-2; R-3; R-4; R-5; R-7; R-8; R-11; R-13; R-16 Writing: (4-8) W-1; W-2; W-3; W-6; W-8; W-9; W-10 Oral Communication: (4-8) OC-1; OC-2 Mathematics: M(N&O)-(4-6)-3; M(N&O)-(4-6)4; M(N&O)(4-8)7; M(G&M)(4-6)7 Visual Arts & Design: VAD 1 (4-8)-1 a&c, VAD 4 (5-6)-1 b&c Massachusetts: Social Science: Gr. 7 concept 6 Arts: Visual Arts: 5.1 Science and Technology (3-5): Life Sciences: 8&10; Physical Sciences : 1 English Language Arts (5-8): General Standards 1, 2, 3, 4, 8, 13, 19, 23, 24, 25 Mathematics: Number Sense and Operation: 4.N.5, 6.N.5; Measurement: 4.M.1, 4.M.5, 8.M.1 WIDA Consortium standards for English Language Learners: ELP Standard 1 Speaking: Instructions/assignments, level 3&4; Social Interaction, level 3 ELP Standard 2 Writing: Editing, level 3&4 ELP Standard 3 Speaking: Metric & standard units of measurement, level 3&4.

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What is Archaeology?
When one hears the word archaeology, it often conjures up images of exotic locales like the Great Wall of China, the Roman Coliseum or the Pyramids of Egypt. However, in actuality, archaeology is not limited to only far-off places, but it surrounds our everyday lives and can be found in almost all places. Archaeology is the study of the human past through the investigation and analysis of artifacts, ecofacts, and other remains. We use archaeology to understand how humans of the past interacted with each other and the environment in which they lived. Past humans formed a unique relationship with their surroundings and related to the local fauna and flora in very specific ways. By learning about the past, we can understand more about ourselves and our own lives and the relationships we form with our present day environment. Archaeology, loosely defined as the study of ancient things, is a sub field of anthropology. Anthropology is the study of humans, past and present, including their biological and cultural developments, languages, and social customs. Although the two fields are related, they often diverge in their means of investigation. Since archaeologists focus on the societies of the past, they use different research methods than cultural anthropologists who analyze living societies. Archaeology is a complex field of work. It is not all about digging up treasure as is commonly believed. Excavation, or digging, is only a small part of an archaeologists job. An archaeologist is like a scientist and has to be very thorough in his/ her investigations. In a science like chemistry, experiments can be repeated over and over again in a lab, but in archaeology, this is not the case. Once a site, the area where an archaeologist works, has been excavated and the evidence is collected, the site is essentially destroyed; there is no way to repeat the excavation since the dirt has been removed and all the data have been taken out of the ground. Therefore, measurements and descriptions must be precise, and

An archaeologist working in the lab

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artifacts need to be handled very delicately. Archaeology requires time and patience; an archaeologist spends the majority of his/her time in the lab analyzing artifacts and recording the finds, not digging in the field.

Archaeological Methods
Research and Funding There are many facets and steps to archaeology. One of the first steps an archaeologist must take is to establish a research design. This is a detailed plan that outlines the various aspects of the archaeologists investigation. This may include questions or hypotheses about the archaeological site, details about what is already known, and a layout of the various methods that will be employed during the investigation. Archaeologists must research what has already been written or recorded about the people and the history of the area. Researching oftentimes includes Books and maps used for research looking up past archaeological digs at the site, or looking up related sites in the vicinity and the data recovered there. There are many record archives and historical documents available for examination. After gathering information on the potential dig, the archaeologist must get permission to excavate from the local government or property owner. The archaeologist must also find a way to pay for the project, as archaeological excavation is a slow and expensive process. The state or government may fund an archaeological dig, but sometimes archaeologists will apply for a grant or loan from places like the National Science Foundation (NSF), National Geographic, various universities or private loan providers. After the financial ends are squared away, the archaeologists may begin their work at the site. The Survey Since excavation destroys a site, archaeologists do not always dig up the entire site. They strategically plan where they are going to excavate in order to attain the maximum amount of information about the people that once lived there. To determine the best places to dig,
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they first undertake an archaeological survey of the site. One of the benefits of conducting survey archaeology is that it is a non-invasive technique, which, unlike excavation, does not destroy or harm the objects beneath the surface. There are several ways of surveying a site, one of which is surface survey. Over a period of many years, because of erosion, agricultural plowing or other reasons, artifacts that were once buried beneath the earth may eventually make their way to the surface. During a surface survey, archaeologists will Aerial survey of the Haffenreffer Museum at Bristol, RI walk across a field or fields, noting where artifacts or interesting features are visible on the earths surface. If there is a high concentration of artifacts in one area and not another, this indicates to the archaeologist where the best potential place to dig is located. Surface surveys include field walking and rigorous note taking. There are also aerial surveys, in which the archaeological site is viewed from a higher location, like from a plane or a helicopter. Sometimes features of a site are not immediately visible from ground level, but become more apparent when they are viewed from higher elevations. This helps to determine any natural boundaries or larger features of the land. New technology has also allowed archaeologists more detailed looks at sites. Images taken from satellites and even the space shuttle have aided archaeologists in locating new sites all over the world. Subsurface survey is another technique that archaeologists use for the remote sensing of an archaeological site. Ground-Penetrating Radar (GPR) is used to see whats under the surface of the earth, without actually digging into it. Think of it like a kind of outdoor x-ray machine that is used on the ground. GPR can pick up larger features under the ground and may indicate to the investigator whether or not a site should be excavated. As technology improves, so does the quality and accuracy
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An archaeologist using a remote sensing device

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of the GPR images. Although useful, GPR machines and other geophysical survey equipment can be expensive and may not always work on every type of site. After the different methods of survey archaeology have been completed, the archaeological team has acquired the maximum amount of possible information about the site prior to excavation. Before digging, the archaeologists divide the site A gridded archaeological site into an imaginary grid. This grid helps the team members better organize their data and allows them to take more detailed notes about the location of archaeological features and artifacts. The squares of the grid are often referred to as trenches or areas, and each trench is excavated separately and one at a time. Trench dimensions usually measure 1m x 1m, depending on the size of the site. In the past, archaeologists would lay out a grid using measuring tape and a compass. Now, technology has made this process easier, as archaeologists use GPS satellites to form the grid and mark the individual corners with flags or posts. Shovel Tests After the site survey and grid layout, archaeologists often use test trenches to evaluate the potential of the site. Test digging provides information on the strata, or the layers of soil that make up the site. Test pits are smaller, shovel-sized pits that are spaced out along the grid. Digging test pits allows the project investigator to see where certain features or clusters of artifacts occur. All the soil from the test dig is sifted with mesh plates to find any artifacts hidden in the dirt. The test pits allow the archaeologist to get an idea of what is at the site without digging up large tracts of land. Since excavating destroys a site and is time consuming, archaeologists tend not to excavate an entire site, but just a sample area. Parts of the site are left for future generations, when technological advances Test pit at an archaelogical site in Rhode Island in archaeology are certain to be better. If
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there are areas where the team wants to excavate further, they will open up larger excavation units. Excavation After all the preliminary fieldwork has been conducted, the excavation can begin. Some tools used during the excavation include trowels, shovels, buckets, sieves, measuring tapes, hoes, notebooks, pencils, cameras, wheelbarrows, picks, whisk brooms, and sometimes even dental tools and toothbrushes, used for scraping away dirt and debris from the more fragile artifacts. The excavation process usually begins with the team clearing away the top layers of the site (i.e. moving any organic debris, modern trash or grass from the surface). Most archaeologists use a method called stratigraphic excavation. This is a term based on the word stratum, mentioned above, which means layer. An archaeological site is usually formed over a period of many, many years due to the gradual deposition of different layers of soil. Although you might think that all dirt is the same, this is not the truth. Dirt can be different colors (reddish, brownish), different textures (soft, sandy) and can even smell and sound different during excavation. Since each one of these layers of soil represents a different period in time, it must be removed separate and individually. Stratigraphic excavation is the process when an archaeologist excavates one stratum, or one layer, at a time.
Top: Tools used on an archaeological dig Middle: A trench at an archaeological site in Rhode Island showing a shell midden Bottom: Archaeologists recording data and keeping notes at a cave site in Mesoamerica

While excavating, its important to remove every level and every artifact individually so it will not

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lose its archaeological context. Context is another word for describing an artifacts location and its relationship to other objects and to its environment. When an artifact is in context, it is taken into consideration with its surroundings and allows the archaeologist to attain the maximum amount of information possible about a single object. Its also important to photograph, draw and record every artifact within its context before its removal. For example, an arrowhead can imply different things about the site, its use, and the people who made it depending on where it was found; if it was found near the remains of a deer, we can infer that the arrowhead was used for hunting. If it was found implanted in the skull of a human, we can infer something totally different about the site and the people who lived there. If the arrowhead loses its context, and we dont know where it was found, we may never fully understand how it was used. Recording all artifacts together provides the big picture of how the people of the past lived. It is like fitting together all the pieces of a puzzle. Since we have learned that excavation cannot be repeated, and an objects context is essential, it is imperative to keep meticulous notes while digging. Everything must be recorded and measured. Archaeologists must note what is found in each stratum with descriptive evidence. This might include specifics about the type of soil, the objects that were discovered, dimensions, elevations and any other details that are of interest. Analysis When an artifact is discovered, it must be handled very gently. Some of the objects from the assemblage retrieved during an excavation may be thousands of years old and very brittle. Using brushes and small tools, an archaeologist will remove dirt and debris away from the artifact to completely uncover it before its removal. If it is deemed safe for the artifact, some items will be washed under the sink in the lab. This can often reveal decorative elements like writing that were not originally visible. The archaeologist will clean, measure (using the metric system), weigh and record the artifact with a precise description. The artifact and description will then be added to the database of the excavation. Each artifact is assigned an identification number to make it easier to locate information about it in the future. ArtiArchaeologist working with an artifact in the lab
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facts are not usually stored directly on site, but often in a laboratory or museum. This allows experts to analyze the objects in a safe location. Dating Artifacts To determine how old a site is, archaeologists may take a sample of the artifacts that were collected and test their age. By determining the age range of certain objects, an archaeologist can establish the history of a site, and often the period of human activity. For example, if one site reveals hundreds of arrowheads that are between 500-800 years old, but very few that are older or younger than that, it is likely that this particular site was inhabited between 1200 and 1500 A.D. or C.E. There are two categories of dating techniques; absolute and relative. Relative dating techniques do not give specific numbers for the range of dates, i.e. 500-800 years old, but demonstrate the age of an artifact in relation to another. For example, an artifact found close to the surface of the ground would be younger (more recent) than an artifact found deeper in the ground. If an archaeologist is digging up an ancient floor, and finds pieces of pottery in the layers underneath the floor, than we know that the pottery is older than the floor since it was found beneath it.

Pottery

Seriation is a relative dating method used to put artifacts in chronological order. It is not as accurate as absolute dating techniques, but it helps archaeologists to put artifacts in context with other artifacts. It is based on the fact that certain artifact styles (e.g. pottery shapes) change and evolve over time. Archaeologists can determine when a certain style was popular, and construct an archaeological pattern that can be used to date sites. Contextual seriation is centered on the design or style of an artifact. Frequency seriation is based on the frequency with which a style or design appears. Absolute dating techniques do provide an actual range of dates for the age of the artifact, i.e. 2,000-4,000 years old. Absolute dating usually relies on technology and science to provide

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an exact age for a group of objects. Other nearby artifacts found in the same stratum would thus be of the same age. One of the most common absolute dating methods is radiocarbon dating. Radiocarbon dating measures the amount of carbon 14 (C14) left on any object that was at one time living, thereby providing an age for certain objects. Carbon 14 comes from radiocarbon in the atmosphere. It is absorbed by plants through the stage of photosynthesis when plants are absorbing carbon dioxide (CO2). Carbon 14 is then distributed throughout the food chain as other living things like animals eat the plants. Once the plant or animal dies, the carbon 14 begins to decay, or break down, at a rate that scientists can calculate. Therefore, carbon 14 dating can only be done on things that were once living like plants and animals. For example, scientists can look at the amount of carbon 14 left in an animal bone found at an archaeological site to calculate when that animal was last alive, and thus figure out how old it is. The same analysis can be carried out on a piece of wood that was once part of an ancient house. By conducting a C-14 evaluation on the wood, archaeologists can determine how old the wood is, and therefore establish when the house was built. Other things that can be radiocarbon dated are charcoal, seeds, shell, leather, pollen, hair, and much more. Carbon 14 completely decays, or disappears after about 50,000 years of time. Therefore, radiocarbon dating cannot be used to date anything older than 50,000 years. Dendochronology is an absolute dating method based on the study of annual tree-ring growth. It is incredibly accurate when it can be used. The rings that form a tree trunk represent individual years in a trees life. If a tree trunk consists of 50 growth rings, then that tree was planted 50 years before it was cut down. Years of heavy growth are represented by fat rings, while years of small growth are recorded as narrow rings. Tree-ring width is based on climate and environment, so trees from the same area will have very similar tree-ring structures. Archaeologists can reference tree ring diagrams for a certain region in order to Tree rings can be used to date establish dates for archaeological sites. For instance, usarchaeological sites ing the example earlier, if a wooden plank from an ancient house is discovered, its particular tree ring pattern can be matched like a fingerprint to an established chronology in order to determine the age of the wood plank, and therefore the age of the house.

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The Preservation of Artifacts It is highly important to preserve artifacts. Conservators work closely with archaeologists to determine the best care for artifacts. They assess the object and decide the best treatment while keeping the integrity of the artifact in tact. Light, humidity, insects, and mold can damage an artifact. Many times the artifact will be stored in a climate and light controlled case if it is to be viewed in a museum, which is why flash photography is not allowed in many museums. When an artifact is unearthed, it must re-assimilate to the new environment. An artifact is used to its surroundings, therefore when it is exposed to a different environment, damage could occur. Some objects can be very fragile. Artifacts are packaged or stored in special boxes to prevent further damage or decay. Preservation is broken down into three general areas: stabilization, cleaning, and repair. Stabilization simply means the strengthening of an object to prevent or reduce deterioration. Cleaning usually takes place after the object has been moved to a lab so that important residues or markings are not ruined before examination. The repair of an object is best done in a lab, but some choose to piece together artifacts in the field. A lot of the preservation process depends on how accessible labs are, as well as local climate and the availability of professionals.

Archaeology in the United States

There are two main types of archaeology that are conducted in the United States: Cultural Research Management (CRM) and University research. CRM deals with the interpretation and preservation of cultural sites. It is sometimes referred to as rescue archaeology. This is because many archaeological sites are in danger of being destroyed by our modern lives and the ever-expanding human population. As our towns and cities grow, we build new buildings, roads and tunnels that infringe upon delicate archaeological environments. CRM archaeologists are often called in to rescue a site in danger. Many federal, state, and local laws aim to protect archaeological sites in an attempt to preserve our heritage. For example, if a builder wants to construct a new building, the company has to hire archaeologists to check out the area that will be impacted by the construction. If a significant site is discovered, then the builder has to make new plans. If cultural materials are present, but not deemed significant according to heritage laws, then archaeologists may excavate part of the site to record what is there before it is destroyed by construction. Cultural Resource Management is also known as Cultural Heritage Management.
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University research is funded predominately by the universities themselves or by private grants and is made up of both archaeologists and students. Archaeological work performed by universities typically serves two purposes. First of all, the project manager is usually a university professor who investigates a site in order to answer important research questions or hypotheses. A hypothesis could be how have grave stone markers changed over time? The second purpose of university sponsored archaeological work is to provide a place for students of archaeology to train, or to learn the methods and techniques of excavation and lab work.

Brown University students on an archaeological dig in Mesoamerica. Photograph by Cassandra Mesick.

Ethics of Archaeology
Like all professions, archaeologists follow an ethical code. Associations such as the Society for American Archaeology, the Archaeological Institute of America, and the Registry of Professional Archaeologists publish their code of ethics and professional standards on their web sites. Ethical codes in archaeology emphasize stewardship, meaning the protection of archaeological sites and records for future generations; education and outreach, or informing the public about archaeology and archaeological discoveries; working with affected groups, like local American Indian tribes; and vowing not to participate in the illegal sale of artifacts. Archaeologists should not keep artifacts they find as they do not have ownership over them. Archaeologists should not keep their research to themselves, although sometimes site locations are not made public in order to protect them from looters. One of the greatest threats to our archaeological sites is the threat of looting and the illegal trade of cultural objects. When looters rob archaeological sites for their artifacts, they are removing them from their context, and destroying our ability to extract meaningful information from them.

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The National Historic Preservation Act (NHPA) was passed in 1966 in an effort to protect and preserve locations of historical and archaeological significance. This act has paved the way for the National Register of Historic Places, State Historic Preservation Offices and also the list of National Historic Landmarks. The Advisory Council on Historic Preservation, made up of twenty members, meets four times a year to advise the government on how to deal with sites of historical importance. NHPA states that the government has to evaluate any projects (federally funded or privately) on historic or archaeological locations by means of a process called Section 106 Review. This act also created new job opportunities under Cultural Resource Management, mentioned above, in an effort to help preserve important archaeological and historical locations. In the past, archaeologists and other scientists dug up the remains of American Indians and other objects that are sacred to American Indians. American Indians today do not like it when people disturb burial grounds; they believe it is like someone digging up your deceased grandmother. There were no laws in the past to protect Native American sites, burials, and sacred objects. The National Museum of the American Indian Act (NMAIA) was the first act in the United States to be passed in regards to repatriation, which is the return of Native American human remains and sacred objects. Passed in 1989, it required the Smithsonian Institution to inventory all its collections and to document any human remains or funerary objects it had. The Smithsonian then had to repatriate, or return, the remains and objects to culturally affiliated, federally recognized Native American groups. The Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act (NAGPRA) was passed in November of 1990. This act is an extension of the NMAIA act, and is a federal law that applies to all archaeologists, museums, and institutions in the United States. NAGPRA has two parts. Just like the NMAIA, it required all museums and cultural institutions to inventory and document human remains and funerary objects related to human burial, sacred objects, and objects of cultural legacy in their collections. Then, they must contact the tribal council of the descendants for repatriation or return. The second part of the act regulates future archaeological investigations. Archaeologists cannot excavate newly discovered human remains of American Indians. If they find human remains by accident, they must stop their work and contact the coroner and nearest American Indian tribal council. Many Native American groups have representatives that work with and monitor archaeologists during the excavation. It has only been as recent as the 1980s that archaeologists began to devise policies and ethical guidelines about their field of work. Until then, considerations towards Native
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American tribes and peoples had been, for the most part, completely disregarded. In the past, many Native Americans felt that archaeologists were disrespecting their ancestors; NAGPRA provides guidelines to deal with the issues pertaining to the excavation of human remains and allows archaeologists to work with Native American tribal councils in a fair and cooperative manner. It is vital that archaeologists respect Native Americans and their culture. Before digging, they need to research whether or not the location is associated with any Native American groups, and if that is the case, they contact the tribal council to discuss matters of spiritual and cultural importance.

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VOCABULARY
A.D. Aerial Survey Abbreviation for Anno Domini, a Latin phrase meaning Year of our Lord. The process in which an archaeological site is examined from high above the earths surface. This is often in the form of photographs or images that are taken from airplanes or satellites. Small digging space, usually about one meter by one meter. An object made or used by humans. All the materials (artifacts and ecofacts) found together at an archaeological site. B.C. Stands for before Christ, but now B.C.E is more commonly used, meaning Before Common Era. Abbreviation for Common Era. Specialists who work on archaeological objects after they have been removed from the ground to try and conserve them and protect them from further damage. Perspective, environment. When an artifact is in context, it is taken into consideration with its surroundings. A detailed written report describing what is found in each layer of excavation. An absolute dating technique in which archaeological objects can be dated using known tree ring sequence patterns. Biological remains found in the archaeological record. Bone, seeds, charcoal, etc. Systematic digging and recording of an archaeological site. Latin term referring to the animals of a particular region.

Area Artifact Assemblage B.C or B.C.E. C.E. Conservators

Context Descriptive Evidence Dendrochrenology Ecofact Excavation Fauna

(Vocabulary is continued on following page)

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Feature Flora Funerary Geophysical Survey

Something man-made that cannot be removed from the dig site, such as floors, altars, fire hearths, etc. Latin term referring to the plants of a particular region. Relating to a funeral or commemoration of the dead. A process in which technological equipment is used to examine what might be buried beneath the surface of a site. Geophysical methods are noninvasive, in that they do not disturb or destroy an archaeological site. A geophysical method in which radar signals are sent into the ground in order to catch a glimpse of what might be buried within a site. An accurate Global Positioning System using satellites to triangulate your position on Earth by sending and receiving signals from a device used for navigation or surveying. Network of uniformly spaced and sized lines that divides a site into units; used to record and measure an objects position in relationship to the rest of the site. A research question. In a science like chemistry, the scientist conducts experiments to answer her hypothesis. In archaeology, the archaeologist studies the evidence left behind by humans to answer a hypothesis.

Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR) GPS

Grid

Hypothesis

Identification number Each item found at the excavation site is given a unique number. This number corresponds to the Field, Area in which it was found, and the item number. Level Looter Midden A layer of excavation. Levels are numbered from top to bottom, with top layer being number one. A person who digs for artifacts without a permit for the purpose of selling them. This is illegal and can result in fines and/or jail time. A trash pit. Archaelogists like trash pits because one can find out a lot about people by going through their trash. A shell midden shows what kinds of shellfish people ate. Middens can also include animal bones, potsherds, pipe stems, etc. Similarly, a lot of artifacts can be found in old privys or latrines. (Vocabulary is continued on following page)
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VOCABULARY
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Photosynthesis Potsherds Radiocarbon Dating Remote Sensing

The process by which green plants and other organisms use sunlight to produce food from carbon dioxide and water. Pieces of broken pottery; very common to dig sites. A process that provides absolute dates by determining the decay of carbon in the remains of anything once alive. Noninvasive techniques in which an archaeological site is examined from above the earths surface. Remote sensing provides ways in which archaeological sites can be analyzed without disturbing or destroying a site. In archaeology, to send an object or group of objects back to the cultural or indigenous group from which it came. A detailed plan for archaeological investigation. This might include the investigators hypothesis, questions or problems facing the project, theoretical approaches and an outline of the methodology. A relative dating technique in which archaeological objects are analyzed according to their frequency or style. In this way it is possible to date objects in relation to themselves by putting them into a sequential order. Any location in which humans left some evidence of past activitiy. The process of strengthening an object to prevent or reduce deterioration. Excavation in which you clear out each level before digging any further. Layers of earth or levels in an archaeological site, singular being stratum. Systematic examination of the ground surface of sites. Usually consists of organized field walking and recording of artifacts found on the surface. An organized archaeological work area that is part of the sites grid.

Repatriation Research Design

Seriation

Site Stabilization Stratigraphic Excavation Strata Surface Survey Trench

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LESSON PLAN ONE

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Understanding Archeological Context

A note to teachers participating in the Dig It! outreach program: As your students will participate in a simulated dig, it is imperative they understand that the purpose of the dig is not to search for treasures in a sand box. Students will learn that archaeology is a science, and thus careful recording of artifacts is necessary. In understanding context, students will understand that archaeologists must look at the overall picture to understand how a people once lived. Content Objectives Students will understand the most important principle in the science of archaeology: context. Students will understand the term context. Students will be able to explain their thoughts in writing and orally. Students will be able to reflect and write about context and their opinion on a scenario. Enough 100-piece puzzles for each team, pencils, paper or bluebook for each student, copies of Reading: The Artifact for each student.

Language Objectives (for English Language Learners)

Materials

Educational Standards Rhode Island Department of Education Standards Massachusetts Department of Education Standards WIDA Consortium standards for English Language Learners Reading: (Gr. 4-8) R-2, R-4, R-5, R-11, R-16. Writing: (Gr. 4-8) W-1, W-2, W-3, W-9, W-10. Oral Communication: (Gr. 4-8) OC-1, OC-2. Social Science: Gr. 7 concept 6 English Language Arts (5-8): General Standards 1, 2, 3, 4, 8, 13, 19, 23, 24, 25 ELP Standard 1 Speaking, Social Interaction, level 3; ELP Standard 2 Writing, Editing, level 3&4.

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LESSON PLAN ONE TEACHER INSTRUCTIONS

BROWN

Session One Before class, decide how many teams you will have and assign a puzzle to each team. Remove some of the puzzle pieces from each teams box. Break your students into teams of two to four. Each team first receives only one piece of their puzzle. Read the questions provided in Activity One: Questions About the Puzzle Piece, giving students time to reflect and write. Each student will respond in his/her notebook or paper provided. After completing the questions in Activity One: Questions About the Puzzle Piece, have students in the teams discuss their answers. Now, pass out the remaining puzzle pieces to each team. The team works on completing the puzzle together (remember that some pieces are missing). Read the questions provided in Activity Two: Questions About the Whole Puzzle, giving students time to reflect and write. Each student will respond in his/her notebook or paper provided. Students discuss their answers with their team mates. Session Two Read aloud Activity Three: What is Context? Hand out Reading: The Artifact Students work individually or with a partner to read Scenario One and Scenario Two. Students discuss each scenario with his/her partner. Each student will write an essay using the instructions provided in the scenarios. Students can switch their papers with a partner to have their essay edited.

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LESSON PLAN ONE TEACHER INSTRUCTIONS (continued)

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Activity One: Listening and Writing: Questions about puzzle piece

Looking at your teams puzzle piece, please answer the following questions in your notebooks. 1. What does your puzzle piece look like? Use descriptive words to illustrate the color, shape, and size. 2. Can you tell what the larger puzzle looks like by just seeing this one piece? Why or why not?

Activity Two: Listening and Writing: Questions about the whole puzzle
1. What does your original puzzle piece look like now? 2. What does the larger puzzle look like? Can you see this even though there are some pieces missing?

Activity Three: Listening: What is Context?

Context is the most important principle to an archaeologist. When an artifact is found, it is important to note exactly where the artifact was found, and to investigate the area further to see if there are other artifacts. An artifact by itself might not offer much information about how it was used or how the people that used it lived. But looking at all the artifacts at a site together might give the archaeologist a whole story about how the people who were once there lived. For example, let us pretend an archaeologist finds an oyster shell with some lines etched into it. The shell can be said to be an artifact because it was altered by a human; someone scratched lines into it. Just looking at the shell by itself, we can tell it was an oyster, and someone scratched lines into it. That is all.

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LESSON PLAN ONE TEACHER INSTRUCTIONS (continued)

BROWN

Now, let us pretend the archaeologist investigates further. She excavates, or digs, and finds more shells; oyster, clam, and quahog. She also finds some turkey and deer bones. Some of the deer bones also have scratch marks. Nearby, she discovers a ring of stones and some charcoal; a hearth, or fire pit. From all these surrounding clues, she can tell that area was used for cooking, and the people ate oysters, clams, quahogs, deer, and turkey. She realized the scratch marks were from people cutting the meat off the bones while eating. She can also take the charcoal to the lab to find out how old it is. That way, she knows how long ago people were using that site. All those surrounding clues are the artifacts context. Without the context clues, not much can be said about the artifact. With context, the archaeologist

was able to learn more about the artifact and the people who once lived at the site.
Just like your puzzle piece. You did not know much about the larger puzzle until you had more pieces of the puzzle together. Just like your puzzle, an archaeologist might have a few pieces missing, but the more pieces he has, the more context clues there are to figure out the bigger picture.

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LESSON PLAN ONE STUDENT HANDOUT LESSON PLAN ONE

BROWN

Reading: The Artifact

Scenario One: Pedro and the artifact
Pedro took a hike in the woods with his friends Jason and Mark. While they were walking through a clearing, Pedro noticed a rock that did not look like a regular rock. Look! An arrowhead! Pedro exclaimed to his friends. Cool! Mark said. Let me see it, Jason said as he took it in his hand for a closer look. The arrowhead was made out of white stone called quartz, and it looked like this:

What are you going to do with that? Jason asked Pedro. I think I might make a necklace out of it. Cool idea, Mark said. Pedro put the arrowhead in his pocket, and the boys continued their hike.

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LESSON PLAN ONE STUDENT HANDOUT (continued)

BROWN

Scenario Two: Gina and the artifact

Gina went for a hike in the woods with Sarah and Emily. Gina saw a fuzzy caterpillar and bent down to see it closer. Next to the caterpillar, she noticed something interesting. Look! An Arrowhead! Gina exclaimed. Wow! Sarah yelled. That is really cool, Emily stated, What are you going to do with it? I dont know, Gina replied, but I bet the park ranger will know. The arrowhead Gina found was made out of a gray stone. Its tip was broken, and it looked like this.

Gina noticed that there was a trail marker near where they were standing. She put the arrowhead back, and the girls went to the beginning of the trail to find the park rangers office. Gina took the park ranger back to the trail marker, and showed him where she found the arrowhead. The park ranger moved some leaves aside and noticed a couple of pot sherds next to the arrowhead. Thank you for reporting this to me, the park ranger told Gina. The park ranger next contacted an archaeologist at the Public Archaeology Lab in Pawtucket. The archaeologist came out to the park, and the ranger showed her where the artifacts were.
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LESSON PLAN ONE STUDENT HANDOUT (continued)

BROWN

The archaeologist set up an excavation and took careful notes. When she dug deeper, she found a lot of charcoal, a ring of stones, and a lot of pieces of deer bone. Some of the deer bone had cut marks on it. The site looked like this:

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LESSON PLAN ONE STUDENT HANDOUT (continued)

BROWN

Speaking: Discussion of the readings

Turn to your partner and discuss the two scenarios you just read. What did you learn about the artifact Pedro found? What did you learn about the artifact Gina found? What would you have done if you were in Pedro and Ginas situation?

Writing: Essay on the readings

Now you are going to organize your thoughts by writing an essay about the readings. In the first paragraph, write about the artifact Pedro found. What do you know about his artifact? What can you tell about the people who used this artifact? In the second paragraph, write about the artifact Gina found. What information can you report on Ginas artifact? What can you tell about the people who used this artifact? In the third paragraph, write about what happens when an artifact is taken out of its context. Also think about the puzzle activity you did earlier. Why were you able to write more about the artifact Gina found than you could about the one Pedro found? In the fourth paragraph, write your opinion. Do you think what Pedro did with the artifact was right or wrong? Why? Do you think what Gina did with the artifact was right or wrong? Why? What would you do if you found an artifact?

Review
When you have completed your essay, have your partner check your work. Look for proper punctuation, grammar, and spelling.

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LESSON PLAN TWO

BROWN

Recording Artifacts Using the Metric System

Content Objectives

Students will be able to read a metric ruler using the decimal system and take measurements of different types of artifacts. Students will connect math with science and will be able to apply math in a real-life scientific situation. Students will understand the terms centimeter and millimeter. Students will be able to read, speak, and write measurements in decimals to the tenths place. Students will be able to orally explain how to measure the length and width of artifacts/objects. Metric rulers, pencils, four objects for each student or team, copies of the attached worksheets.

Language Objectives (for English Language Learners)

Materials

Educational Standards Rhode Island Department of Education Standards Massachusetts Department of Education Standards WIDA Consortium standards for English Language Learners Mathematics: M(N&O)-(4-6)-3, M(N&O)(4-6)4, M(N&O)(4-8)7, M(G&M)(4-6)7.

Mathematics: Number Sense and Operation: 4.N.5, 6.N.5; Measurement: 4.M.1, 4.M.5, 8.M.1

ELP Standard 1 Speaking, Social Interaction, level 3; ELP Standard 3 Speaking, Metric & standard units of measurement, level 3&4.

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LESSON PLAN TWO TEACHER INSTRUCTIONS

BROWN

Session One Divide the students into teams of 2-3. Introduce the metric system to the whole class. Each team measures the lines in Activity One: Reading the Metric System and shares with the class. Introduce decimals to the whole class. The teams work together to fill out the chart in Activity Two: The Decimal System. Students must say the numbers properly to each other as they work on the chart.

Session Two Explain how to find the length and width of archaeological objects. Teams work together to measure the objects in Activity Three, Practice One. Students work individually to measure the objects in Activity Three, Practice Two. Each student picks their favorite object and tells the class how he/she figured out the length and width of the object.

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LESSON PLAN TWO STUDENT HANDOUT

Name Date
BROWN

Instructions
You are an archaeologist, and have just come back from digging at an important site. You are back at the lab, and ready to take important measurements of the artifacts you have found. Before you can measure the artifacts, you need to learn how to read a metric ruler. All scientists measure things using the metric system rather than measuring things with inches and feet.

Activity One: Reading the metric ruler

Below is a portion of a metric ruler. The numbers on the ruler represent centimeters. The symbol for centimeters is cm. The smaller lines in between the numbers represent millimeters, or mm.

There are ten (10) millimeters in one (1) centimeter.

Examples:
A. This line is 13 cm long.

(Examples are continued on the following page.)

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LESSON PLAN TWO STUDENT HANDOUT (continued)

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B. This line is 1 cm and 2 mm long.

C. This line is 9 cm long.

Practice: Lets practice measuring the following lines with your ruler.
Write your answer underneath the line. A.

B.

C.

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LESSON PLAN TWO STUDENT HANDOUT (continued)

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Activity Two: The Decimal System

As we just learned, the line below can be read as 5 cm and 1 mm long.

You can write this measurement using fractions. Since there are ten (10) millimeters in one (1) centimeter, each millimeter is one tenth (1/10) of a centimeter. The measurement for the line above can be written as five and one tenth centimeters (5 1/10 cm) long. Scientists, including archaeologists, do not like to write measurements in fractions. Instead, they prefer to use decimals. The scientific way to write the measurement above is 5.1 cm (also read as five and one tenth centimeters). Tips when reading measurements: 6.5 cm is the same as 6 5/10 centimeters. You can reduce the fraction to 6 centimeters, or six and a half centimeters. Scientists write 15 centimeters as 15.0 cm to show that they are reading measurements to the nearest tenth of a centimeter.

Examples:
Below are examples of the different ways to write measurements. Practice reading the measurements aloud.

Spelled out Five and four tenths centimeters long Nine tenths of a centimeter long Thirteen and seven tenths centimeters long Eight and a half centimeters long

Fraction 5 4/10 cm 9/10 cm 13 7/10 cm 8 cm (8 5/10) cm (5/10) 12 cm

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Decimal 5.4 cm 0.9 cm 13.7 cm 8.5 cm 0.5 cm 12.0 cm

Half of a centimeter long

Twelve centimeters long

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LESSON PLAN TWO STUDENT HANDOUT (continued)

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Practice: Fill out the table below.

Spelled out Six and three tenths centimeters long

Fraction

Decimal

3 1/2 cm Five centimeters long 14.8 cm 7 1/5 cm (7 2/10 cm) Eight tenths of a centimeter long .05 cm

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LESSON PLAN TWO STUDENT HANDOUT (continued)

Activity Three: Measuring the Length and Width of Objects

Now, lets apply what you just learned to measuring artifacts. Archaeologists measure the length and the width of an artifact.

BROWN

To measure the length of the artifacts below, you measure them along their longest sides. Stone tool Terra Cotta figure Metal head

To measure the width of the same artifacts, you measure them along their widest sides.

Practice One: Using the lines above as guides, measure the length and width of each
artifact. Report your measurements using decimals. Stone tool: Terra Cotta figure: Metal Head: length ________________ length ________________ length ________________ width ________________ width ________________ width ________________

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LESSON PLAN TWO STUDENT HANDOUT (continued)

Practice Two: Now measure the length and width of each object below.
Wooden handle
length ____________ width _________

BROWN

Pottery sherd
length ____________ width _________

Arrow head
length ____________ width _________

Stone tool
length ____________ width _________

Practice Three: Measure the length and the width of the objects your teacher gave you.
Report the measurements below using the decimal system. Object name ____________________ Object name ____________________ Object name ____________________ Object name ____________________ length _______ length _______ length _______ length _______ width _______ width _______ width _______ width _______

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LESSON PLAN THREE

BROWN

In the Lab, Describing Artifacts

Content Objectives

Students will learn the difference between fact and opinion, and will be able to objectively describe an object based on facts about that object. Students will understand the word describe. Students will understand the difference between fact and opinion. Students will be able to write and verbally describe their assigned object. An object for the class to work on together, an object for each student, pencils, paper or blue-book for each student, large sheet of poster paper hung in a prominent place in the classroom, rulers, copies of In the Lab: Recording Artifacts. If cultural artifacts are not available to you, this lesson can be adapted using any classroom or household object.

Language Objectives (for English Language Learners)

Materials

Educational Standards Rhode Island Department of Education Standards Mathematics: M(N&O)(4-8)7, M(G&M)(4-6)7. Reading: (4-8) R-2, R-3. Writing: (4-8) W-1, W-6, W-8, W-9. Oral Communication: (4-8) OC-1, OC-2. Visual Arts & Design: VAD 1 (4-8)-1 a&c, VAD 4 (5-6)-1 b&c. Arts: Visual Arts: 5.1 Science and Technology (3-5): Physical Sciences: 1 English and Language Arts (5-6): General Standards 1, 2, 3, 4, 19, 23 ELP Standard 1 Speaking, Instructions/assignments, level 3&4; ELP Standard 2 Writing, Editing, level 3&4.

Massachusetts Department of Education Standards

WIDA Consortium standards for English Language Learners

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LESSON PLAN THREE TEACHER INSTRUCTIONS

BROWN

Session One Ask students what words they use to describe things, or how do they explain what something looks like to someone who has never seen it. If students are having trouble, you can ask them to describe your class object. Write their responses on the large sheet of poster paper. Make sure each student has offered at least one word. Now ask students which of the words on the poster paper reflect fact and which reflect opinion, i.e. fact: red; opinion: pretty. Discuss with students why they think a word to be fact or opinion. Explain that a word like pretty is an opinion because another person might not agree, but a word like red is fact. When the class has reached a consensus about a word, mark an F or O next to it. Next, discuss with students that the best way to describe an object is to use the factual words, i.e. vanilla ice cream is white and, when I touch it, it feels cold; not vanilla ice cream tastes good and is yummy. Good descriptive words explain size, shape, color, texture, etc. Ask students which words on their list should not be used to describe an object, (those marked O.) Cross those words off. This sheet should be left in a prominent place in the room throughout the remainder of the lesson for student reference. If you did not use your class object, show the students the object, and ask what are good descriptive words for the object. This is your opportunity to evaluate whether students have understood. Explain further if necessary. Ask students to come up with good sentences to describe the object. They will write the sentences on their papers or blue books, i.e. the water bottle is clear, round, and has a label with writing on it. The water bottle is also full of water.

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LESSON PLAN THREE TEACHER INSTRUCTIONS (continued)

BROWN

Session Two Students are given their own object and the attached worksheet In the Lab: Recording Artifacts. Have students think aloud the steps needed to complete the assignment. Students are to work individually on their worksheet using the poster paper and their notes from Session One as a reference. Students having trouble may be partnered, or the activity can be done in groups. Please note that if students are unfamiliar with taking measurements, you should complete the lesson Recording Artifacts Using the Metric System first. Students may need help with the drawing section. Explain to students how to draw an object from two different viewpoints. Students can switch their completed worksheets with a partner for partner editing. Students then show their object and report their description to the class.

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LESSON PLAN THREE STUDENT HANDOUT

BROWN

Name_____________________________________

Date__________________________

In the Lab: Recording Artifacts

You are an archaeologist, and have just come back from digging at an important site. You are back at the lab, and ready to record the artifacts you have uncovered. On this sheet of paper, you are going to measure, describe, and draw your artifact. 1. In your opinion, what do you think your artifact is? How do you think the artifact was used?

2. Using your ruler, measure the length and width of your artifact. Remember that scientists measure using the metric system. Do not forget to include the unit of measure. Length: _________ Width: _________

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LESSON PLAN THREE STUDENT HANDOUT (continued)

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3. Describe your artifact. Remember to use good descriptive terms such as color, shape, size, texture, etc. Please write in complete sentences.

4. Draw your artifact below from two views.

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RESOURCES AND SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY

BROWN

References
Archaeology Expert n.d. Extensive Information on Archaeology and Artefacts at Archaeology Expert (UK). Electronic Document, http://www.archaeologyexpert.co.uk/toolsofthearchaeologist.html. accessed April 20, 2009. Archaeological Institute of America 2009 Lesson Plans: Simulated Digs. Electronic Document, http://www.archaeological.org/webinfo. php?page=10329, accessed April 20. 1997 [1990] AIA Code of Ethics. Electronic Document, http://www.archaeological.org/pdfs/AIA_Code_of_ EthicsA5S.pdf, accessed July 20, 2009. Hester, Thomas R., Harry J. Shafer, and Kenneth L. Feder 1997 Field Methods in Archaeology. 7th edition. Mountain View, CA: Mayfield Publishing Company. Hodder, Ian 2000 [1999] The Archaeological Process: An Introduction. Oxford: Blackwell Publishers. The Key School 1997 Background on Archaeological Methods. Electronic Document, http://keyschool.pvt.k12.md.us/ londontown/Pages/Pages/archbg.html, accessed April 20. Lynott, Mark J. and Alison Wylie, eds 1995 Ethics in American Archaeology: Challenges for the 1990s. Society for American Archaeology Special Report. Panchyk, Richard 2001 Archaeology for kids uncovering the mysteries of our past : 25 activities. Chicago: Chicago Review. Radiocarbon WEB-info n.d. K-12. Electronic Document, http://www.c14dating.com/k12.html, accessed April 20, 2009. Register of Professional Archaeologists n.d. Code of Conduct and Standards of Research Performance. Electronic Document, accessed July 20, 2009. Renfrew, Colin, and Paul Bahn 1996 Archaeology: Theories, Methods, and Practice. 2nd Edition. Thames and Hudson. Society for American Archaeology 1996 Principles of Archaeological Ethics. Electronic Document, http://www.saa.org/AbouttheSociety/Princip lesofArchaeologicalEthics/tabid/203/Default.aspx, accessed July 20, 2009. Sutton, Mark Q., and Brooke S. Arkush 1998 Archaeological Laboratory methods: An Introduction. 2nd Edition. Dubuque, Iowa: Kendall/Hunt.
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RESOURCES AND SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY

BROWN
Tunnard, Christopher 1966 Landmarks of Beauty. New York: Randomhouse. Vitelli, Karen D., ed. 1996 Archaeological Ethics. AltaMira Press: Walnut Creek. Watkins, Joe 2001 Indigenous Archaeology: American Indian Values and Scientific Practice. New York: AltaMira Press.

Internet Resources for Teachers

For more information about making maps, visit the New Mexico Space Grant Consortium. http:// spacegrant.nmsu.edu/lunarlegacies/archaeological_mapping.html. The Society for American Archaeology. Has a list of lesson plans, resources for classrooms, and information about careers in archaeology at http://www.saa.org/publicftp/PUBLIC/resources/foredu.html. Also follow their links for more information about the Societys Code of Ethics. The Archaeological Institute of America also has published lesson plans on archaeology and ancient civilizations on their website at http://www.archaeological.org/webinfo.php?page=10329. The San Diego Museum of Man, also a museum of anthropology, has free lesson plans at http://www. museumofman.org/html/education_lessonplans.html which includes information about select ancient civilizations and archaeology. Visit Archaeology Expert (UK) for extensive information about archaeology, tools, famous archaeologists, interesting finds, careers in archaeology, and more at http://www.archaeologyexpert.co.uk/ toolsofthearchaeologist.html.

Books for Teachers

The Archaeology Education Handbook: Sharing the Past with Kids. Karolyn Smardz and Shelley J. Smith, eds. New York: AltaMira Press. Teaching Archaeology: A Sampler for Grades 3 to 12. Few, Joan, and KC Smith, eds. Washington, DC: Society for American Archaeology. Project Archaeology Primer: The Complete Guide for Creating a State or Regional Program. Dolores: Anasazi Heritage Center.

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RESOURCES AND SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY

BROWN
Intrigue of the Past: A Teachers Activity Guide for Fourth through Seventh Grades. Smith, Shelley J., Jeanne M. Moe, Kelly A. Letts, and Danielle M. Paterson. Washington, DC: Department of the Interior, Bureau of Land Management. Archaeology and Intercultural Education in the Elementary Grades: An Example from Minnesota. Whiting, Nancy Carolyn. Social Studies Vol. 89 Issue 6 Pages 254-260.

Internet Resources for Students

Dig: The Archaeology Magazine for Kids has links, games, ask Dr. Dig, and more at http://www.digonsite. com/. The National Park Service has a site called Archaeology for Kids at http://www.nps.gov/history/ archeology/public/kids/index.htm. The Reed Farm Archaeological Site sponsors an internet exploration of this farmstead. http://www. kidsdigreed.com/default.asp.

Books for Students

Motel of the Mysteries by David Macaulay. Eyewitness Books has a book on Archaeology by Jane McIntosh. Archaeologists Dig for Clues by Kate Duke. Young Oxford Books has a book on Archaeology by Norah Moloney. 100 Facts on Archaeology by John Farndon.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
BROWN

Acknowledgements
Project Director Geralyn Hoffman, Curator of Programs and Education, Haffenreffer Museum of Anthropology These materials were written by Geralyn Hoffman, Cara Boyd, Education Intern from School One, and Jason Urbanus, Education Intern and Ph.D Candidate at the Joukowsky Institute for Archaeology & The Ancient World, Brown University Edited by Kevin P. Smith, Deputy Director, Haffenreffer Museum of Anthropology Graphic Design and Illustrations by Sarah Philbrick, Graphics Coordinator, Haffenreffer Museum of Anthropology Photography coordination by Rip Gerry Photo Archivist, Haffenreffer Museum of Anthropology

Evaluation
We welcome questions and comments. Teacher feedback on the use of these materials in the class room is appreciated. Please email us at haffenrefferprograms@brown.edu.

Creative Commons Attribution

This publication may be copied or reproduced without prior permission when used for educational purposes. Please attribute the work to the Haffenreffer Museum of Anthropology. This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivs 3.0 Unported License. To view a copy of this license, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-ncnd/3.0/ or send a letter to Creative Commons, 171 Second Street, Suite 300, San Francisco, California, 94105, USA.

2010
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