Chapter 1: Fundamental Issues in Environmental Science

Why is Science Necessary to Solve Environmental Problems? Certain issues are basic to the study of environmental science. After reading this chapter, you should understand: why rapid growth of the human population is the fundamental environmental issue; that we must learn to use our environmental resources in a way that assures that they will be available in the future; how people affect the environment of the entire planet and why we must take a global perspective on environmental problems; that urban environmental issues and the effects of urban areas on other environments should be a primary focus of our attention; that people and nature are intimately linked; that developing solutions to environmental problems requires us to make value judgments based on knowledge of scientific facts; that solutions to many environmental problems involve an understanding of systems and rates of change; why solving environmental problems is often complex and difficult; what the Precautionary Principle is, and when to apply it.

Environmental Wisdom Those that believe in an environmental wisdom worldview believe that we are all a part of and totally dependent on nature. Nature exists for the good of all species and we must include them as we create management plans. An environmental wisdom belief system believes that all resources are limited and should not be wasted or squandered. Environmentally friendly modes of economic growth should be employed and those economic practices that degrade the Earth should be discouraged. The success of the human race depends on learning how natural systems maintain and sustain themselves. Humans must integrate lessons of nature into the ways we think and live. 1.2 Human Population: The Basic Environmental Problem Our rapidly increasing population underlies all environmental problems because most environmental damage results from the very large number of people on Earth. Ultimately, then, we cannot solve our environmental problems unless we learn to limit our population to a number that Earth can sustain.

1.3 Sustainability (

Use it, but don t use it up When we harvest a product from ecosystem, we need to be concerned about the sustainability of the product, the sustainability of our harvest, and most important, the sustainability of the ecosystem itself. For humans to live sustainably, the Earth's resources must be used at a rate at which they can be replenished.

Sustainable society meaning that we seek ways to ensure that Earth s resources will remain adequate to support future generation. Sustainable economy can maintain its uses of environmental resources, and at least doesn t cause irreversible harm to the environment. Sustainable development means that a society is able to maintain the environment while continuing to develop its economy and social institutions for an indefinite time. In other words it is the development that is economically viable, socially just, and doesn t harm the environment. Sustainable architecture designing buildings that do not waste energy and are environmentally friendly. Earth s carrying capacity Earth s human capacity depends in part on how we want to live, and how we want those who follow us to be able to live. 1.4 A Global Perspective The Gaia hypothesis states that life manipulates the environment for the maintenance of life. It proposes that the environment at a global level has been profoundly changed by life throughout the history of life on Earth, and that these changes have tended to improve the chances that life on earth will continue. 1.5 Cities Affect the Environment We are becoming an urban species, and our effects on the environment are more and more the effects of urban life. We must look more closely at the effects of urbanization. In the future we must place more emphasis on urban environments and their effects on the rest of the planet. * Wilderness One mistake many people make in studying and trying to understand environmental science is to try to separate people from the concept of the environment. The idea is to have a "wild, natural environment" separate from a "human-influenced" one, usually with the idea that the natural one is pristine and wonderful, and the human one being messed up in various ways. Think of driving from downtown Seattle where nearly every area is built up and there are few species except humans and those like pigeons and ants that live off humans. The term "wilderness" is often applied to the wildest environment, and we are taught that it is special. I don't disagree, and I often gravitate toward these areas myself (particularly toward the end of a quarter of teaching ESRM100). To understand "wilderness," however, you need to understand that it is a human concept as well. As our lives get more complicated, we are becoming more Earth-centered, hoping to spend more time in nature for recreation and spiritual activities. 1.6 People and Nature Principle of Environmental unity

everything affects everything else.

We depend on nature for many natural service functions, such as providing us with soil, water, and air.

*The principle of environmental unity is very important to integerate into our thinking about environmental science. We simply cannot live as humans anywhere on the Earth without having an impact on the environment, and our goal should be to live well even as we use lightly from the environment. As Americans we are harangued constantly, from the time we can barely understand words, to "Buy, Buy, Buy." We are currently (2009) being asked to buy our way out of the current slump in the economy. Consumption of resources always has an impact. 1.7 Science and Values Before we decide what kind of environment we want, we need to know what is possible. That requires scientific data. Once we know our options, we make choices based on our values. (An example of an environmental value judgment is the choice between one s desire to have many children and the need to limit the human population. Science is a process of discovery Rather than looking to science for answers to questions, think of science as a continuing adventure with increasingly better knowledge about how the world works. Sometimes changes in ideas are little. Sometimes a since undergoes a fundamental revolution in ideas. Science is one way of looking at the world It begins with observations about the natural world. From these observations, scientists formulate hypotheses that can be tests. Science does not deal with things that cannot be tests by observation, such as the ultimate purpose of life, the existence of a supernatural being, or the issues of good and evil. Ideas are scientific if it is possible to disprove them. What is environmental science? Environmental science is different from other sciences for two reasons: 1. It includes sciences, but also is often linked with non-scientific fields that have to do with how we value the environment, such as environmental ethics. 2. It deals with many topics that have great emotional effects on people. Often stirring up political debate and strong feelings that sometimes override scientific information. *We can use environmental science potentially as a way to help us live well but with less negative impact, by using fewer resources and producing less waste. Studying environmental science will not only tell us about where resources are and how we use them, but also allow us to develop more efficient systems. Placing a value on the environment 1. Utilitarian justification values the environment it is useful economically or for survival. (Ex. fishermen need a continuous supply of fish to earn a living.) 2. Ecological justification values the larger life-support functions of the environment. (how part of the environment function may not directly benefit an individual) 3. Aesthetic justification values beauty. (how the environment affects our humanity and soul)

4. Moral justification based on one s view of right and wrong, and extending inherent rights beyond humans. (certain aspects of the environment have the right to exist)

1.8 Solving Many Environmental Problems Involves Systems and Rates of Change What is a system? We also need to start thinking of the environment and solving environmental problems as the study of systems. Like your own body, the environment is a system. Your body needs food (which would be an input), which you digest for energy; environmental systems also respond to inputs of energy. The oxygen in the air you breathe is also an input. You also need to eliminate the bioproducts of respiration and digestion, which would be outputs, not always pleasant ones ;>). The carbon dioxide you exhale is also an output. Likewise, an environmental system has outputs. Systems respond to inputs and have outputs. These systems also have feedback, since the output of one system also serves as input for another, and leads to further changes in the other system. For instance, the CO2 you breathe out can become a raw material that plants use in photosynthesis to produce food, fiber, or wood, which you, in turn, might use. Negative and positive feedback Positive Feedback occurs when an increase in output leads to a further increase in the output. Negative Feedback An increase in output leads to a decrease in further.It is self-regulating, or stabilizing; it usually keeps a system in a relatively constant condition. (Ex. an increase in temperature is followed by a response that leads to a decrease in temperature) - Positive feedback can cause problems (Ex. off-road vehicles vs. erosion) - Some situations involve both positive and negative feedback (Ex. City Population) - The question on which kind of feedback is more desirable depends on our values. - Exponential growth is an important outcome of positive feedback. - Exponential growth is incompatible with sustainability. Environmental Unity It is impossible to change only one thing; everything affects everything else. Changes in one part of a system often have secondary and tertiary effects. One of the most important principles we need to consider in environmental science is that many of these systems are interconnected. For instance, human population growth is connected to many other things than just the genetic potential of humans to reproduce. It is limited by resources, social pressures, and anything that kills humans before they have the chance to have children. However, it is possible to take things a little too far. The idea that a butterfly beating its wings in China can cause cyclones is interesting, but perhaps a bit overstated. Changes and Equilibrium in Systems

When the input to a system is equal to the output, the system is said to be in a steady state. Steady state is a dynamic equilibrium because something is still happening. (Ex. Incoming radiation and outgoing radiation from Earth)

When the input is less than the output (Ex. water is consumed faster than it can be replaced by nature or by people) When inputs exceeds output (Ex. The Buildup of heavy metals in lakes and pollution of groundwater)

Residence time is also important. By using rates of change or input-output analysis of systems, we can calculate an average residence time for material moving through a system that is, how long it takes for that particular material to be cycled through the system. Average residence time has important implications for environmental systems. In a system such as a small lake with an inlet and an outlet, water has a short residence time. This makes the lake especially vulnerable to change if, for example, a pollutant is introduced. On the other hand, the pollutant soon leaves the lake. In large systems, such as oceans, water has a long residence time. This makes such systems much less vulnerable to quick change. However, once polluted, they are difficult to clean up. The balance of nature The balance of nature may exist for different periods, but it is the exception in many systems, not the rule. We find that a steady state seldom happens. Most systems are disturbed, not only by people, but also by natural events, such as floods, wildfires, volcanoes (such as Mt. St. Helens), and earthquakes (think of the Seattle fault), tsunamis, and so on that change systems over time. Studies of systems such as forests, rivers, and coral reefs find that disturbances due to natural events such as storms, floods, and fires are often required for the maintenance of those systems. The lesson is that systems change naturally. To effectively manage natural system, we need to understand: The types of disturbances and changes that are likely to occur The time periods over which changes occur The importance of each change to the long-term productivity of the system.

Biota: Biosphere and Sustaining Life Biota: all living things (animal and plants, microorganisms) within a given area Biosphere: the region of Earth where life exists What is needed to sustain life? There must be several species within a system that includes air and water to transport material and energy an ecosystem. Ecosystem A community of organisms and their local nonliving environment in which matter (chemical elements) cycles and energy flows. Vary in size, from the smallest puddle of water to a large forest, or the entire biosphere. Ecosystem borders may be clearly or vaguely defined.

Characteristics of Environmental Systems that Make Solving Environmental Problems Harder 1. Exponential growth and the positive feedback that accompanies growth 2. Lag time the time between a stimulus and a system s response to that stimulus. If there is a long delay between stimulus and response, then the resulting changes are much more difficult to recognize. (Ex. Overshooting of human population. 3. Irreversible Consequences consequences that may not be easily rectified even within a few hundred years. (Ex. soil erosion) 1.9 The Precautionary Principle: When in Doubt, Play it Safe It can be difficult to prove with absolute certainty how human activities lead to local and global environmental problems. When there is a threat of serious environmental damage, we should not wait for certain scientific proof before taking steps to prevent harm. The Precautionary Principle is a proactive tool. Key Terms Biosphere Has several meaning. One is that part of a planet where life exists. On Earth it extends from the depths of the oceans to the summit of mountains, but most life exists within a few meters of the surface. A second meaning is: the planetary system that includes and sustains life, and therefore is made up of the atmosphere, oceans, soils, upper bedrock, and all life. Biota All the organisms of all species living in an area or region up to and including the biosphere, as in the biota of the Mojave Desert or the biota in that aquarium. Carrying Capacity The maximum abundance of a population or species that can be maintained by a habitat or ecosystem without degrading the ability that habitat or ecosystem to maintain that abundance in the future. Doubling Time The time necessary for a quantity of whatever is being measured to double.

Dynamic Equilibrium Equilibrium is a condition of constancy for a system, also referred to as the rest state for the system, like an ecosystem or a population. A dynamic equilibrium is one in which the rest state changes somewhat and slow over time. Ecological Footprint Measure of the total impact a person or society has on the environment. Based on resource use and waste produced. Ecosystem An ecological community and its local, nonbiological community. An ecosystem is the minimum system that includes and sustains life. It must include at least an autotroph, a decomposer, a liquid medium, a source and sink of energy, and all of the chemical elements required by the autograph and the decomposer. Environmental Unity A principle of environmental sciences that states that everything affects everything else, meaning that a particular course of action leads to an entirely potential string of events. Another way of stating this idea is that you can t only do one thing. Exponential Growth Growth in which the rate of increase is a constant percentage of the current size; that is, the growth occurs at a constant rate per time period. Feedback A kind of system response that occurs when output of the system also serves as input leading to changes in the system.

Gaia hypothesis The Gaia hypothesis states that the surface environment of Earth, with respect to such factors as the atmospheric composition of reactive gases (for example, oxygen, carbon dioxide, and methane), the acidity-alkalinity of waters, and the surface temperature, are actively regulated by the sensing, growth, metabolism and other activities of the biota. Interaction between the physical and biological system on Earth s surface has led to a planetwide physiology that began more than 3 billion years ago and the evolution of which can be detected in the fossil record. (Life manipulates the environment for the maintenance of life.) Overshoot Occurs when growth in one part of a system over time exceeds carrying capacity, resulting in sudden decline in one or both parts of the system. Precautionary Principle The idea that in spite of the fact that full scientific certainty is often not available to prove cause and effect, we should still take cost-effective precautions to solve environmental problems when there exists a threat of potential serious and/or irreversible environmental damage. Steady State When input equals output in a system, there is no net change and the system is said to be in a steady state. A bathtub with water flowing in and out at the same rate maintains the same water level and is in a steady state. Compare with equilibrium. Sustainability Management of natural resources and the environment with the goals of allowing the harvest of resources to remain at or above some specified level, and the ecosystem to retain its functions and structure. System A set of components that are linked and interact to produce a whole. For example, the river as a system is composed of sediment, water, bank, vegetation, fish, and other living things that all together produce the river. Earth is also a system.