What is the Probability an Automorphism Fixes a Group Element?

Author(s): Gary Sherman Reviewed work(s): Source: The American Mathematical Monthly, Vol. 82, No. 3 (Mar., 1975), pp. 261-264 Published by: Mathematical Association of America Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/2319852 . Accessed: 02/11/2011 12:39
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1975]

MATHEMATICAL

NOTES

261

conditionthat an operatorbe the and sufficient the Poisson kernel. A necessary is boundaryvalue of a harmonicfunction that
lim sup I cn(X) |/
jnj-4 oo

function can be recovered as Xr = Ur(O) and Ur(O) -+ X -92R r -1 1. The harmonic fromits boundaryvalue by Poisson's formulau(re'0) = X * Pr(O), wherePr(O) is

2. For any operator X, Cn(X(k)) = (in)kCn(x) and in view of the Riemannthatan operatorbe a derivative condition and Lebesguelemmaa necessary sufficient is function that cn(X) = O(j n Ik) as j n -+ oo forsome of some orderofa continuous k. These operatorsare exactlythe distributions. Also, since 0 e C' if and only if are c(4 ) = (| n 1-k)as n -+ oo forevery thedistributions exactlythose operators k, such that X *4 E C for every 4 E C'. to 3. Simpleexamplesof applications partialdifferential equationscan be made in the by applying theory the case of severalvariables.For example,if g(O, b) is a of CO function 0 and 4 whichis periodicwithperiod2t in each of0 and q, an operthe ator X = X(0, 4) which satisfies non-homogeneous Laplace equation AX = g the and thus mustsatisfy equation in the usual sense. In must be a C' function whichsatisfiesthis equafunction differentiable particularany twicecontinuously differentiable. tion mustin factbe infinitely
GP-34558. was supported partby NSF grant in author The first References
1. A. Erdelyi, Operational Calculus and Generalized Function, Holt, Rinehartand Winston, New York, 1962. 2. J. Mikusinski,Operational Calculus, Pergamon Press, New York, 1959.
DEPARTMENT OF MATHEMATICS, UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA, SANTA BARBARA,

CA 93106.

WHAT IS THE PROBABILITY AN AUTOMORPHISM FIXES A GROUP ELEMENT? GARYSHERMAN

on G Let Introduction. thefinite set group operate thefinite non-empty X (i.e.,G of of is represented a group permutations X). We ask: Whatis theprobability as G an from fixes element chosen random at an element chosen random at from X? is If thisprobability denoted PG (X), then by 1{(g,x)|gx = x forg9EG and xEX}I! PG(X) = xGIi IX Setting = {g e-GIgx G.,
=

that x} we find

262 {(g,x) |gx

=

GARY SHERMAN

[March
k

x for g E G and x EX} X

xeX

G., = E
i=1

[G:GxJ |GIt = kI G|

where {x ,I *,xk is a set of representatives the distinctorbitsof X under G. of Thus, PG(X) = k/| j; the ratio of thenumber orbitsin X underG to the order X of of X. Of special interest, and the motivation the precedingremarks, when G for is itself conjugation. thiscase one obtainstheprobability twogroup In operateson by of elements commuting (see [1]). It is easy to show thisprobability be at most 5/8 to fornonabeliangroups.Recently, Gustafson[2] has shownthebound 5/8to be valid nonabelian compact group (of course the countingmeasure whenG is an infinite is replacedby the normalleftHaar measureon G). The purposeof thisnote is to considerPA (G) where is a finite G abelian group We and A is its groupof automorphisms. show: (i) PA(G) = lif and only if G = Z2, (ii) PA(G) ? 3/4 if G 7 Z2, numberof groupswitha givenprobability, (iii) thereis only a finite (iV) PA(G) -O as fG -oo . Finite abelian groups. It is trivialthat PA (Z2) = . Conversely, PA (G) = 1, if abelian 2-groupsince the automorphism -- -x must x then G is an elementary be theidentity mapping.ViewingG as a Z2 space it followsthatany two nontrivial elements G are in the same orbit.Thus, 2/2i 1 where G f-2i'. This implies of j = 1; i.e., G = Z2. From the introductory we F j + I01 j + remarks have j G j + j 0?, where F is the subgroupof trivialorbitsand 01, , ?r are the nontrivial orbits.Hence, (|G| - fF|)/2? r since Ioif > 2 for i = 1,2,** ,r. From k = r+ fFf we obtain k ? (IGI + fFf)/2. If G = Z2, then F #A and therefore[G: F] ? 2; i.e., G Thus k ? (3/4) G SO PA(G) ? 3/4 proving(ii). Observe that _ |FJ G 1/2. PA(Z4) = 3/4. If G is decomposable,say
-

f,
G

(*) then it is routineto verify (**)

i=l

DGi,

PA(G) <

Fl PA (Gi),

for of where, i = 1,2, --,s, Ai is the groupof automorphisms Gi (equalityprevails sum of its Sylowsubgroups). viewof this in (**) if G is decomposedintoa direct In to to inequality, obtain a bound forPA(G) it suffices obtaina bound forthe Sylow subgroups.To this end, assume G = pn for some primep. If G is elementary abelian, thenPA(G) = 2/pn.This followssince G is a Zp-space.For cyclicG there is at least one elementof order pm for m = 0, 1, ..., n . As elementsin the same

ff

1975]

MATHEMATICAL NOTES

263

of orbitmusthave equal orders,G has at least n + 1 orbits.Since elements thesame as withordersprimeto p, the elements ordercan be written powers of elements whenG is cyclic.The of a particular orderforman orbit.Thus PA(G) = (n + 1)/p" lemmais helpful establishing generalbound forPA(G) when G is a in a following p-group.
LEMMA. Let n be a positiveintegergreater than 1. The maximumvalue of

]7J=1ni,for

ni = n, is

3(n-i)/3

* 2l/2, where

i= 4 if n i = 2 if n

1 (mod3) 2 (mod3) (mod3).

i = O if n-O

(m-2) *2 > m if, and Proof. The maximumoccurs when no n, = 1. Further, only if, m > 4. Thus each ni > 4 can be replacedby (ni - 2) + 2 in the partition it and the associated productwill be increased.If some ni = 4, replacing by 2 + 2 replacingit by + 2 occursin the partition, leaves the productunchanged.If 2 + 2 occurs wheneach ni is a two or 3 + 3 increasesthe product.Hence the maximum a three.The conclusion of the lemma followsimmediately. of We observethat the maximumproductassociated with the partitions n is productobtainedfromm if n < m. smallerthan the corresponding
PROPOSITION 1. If I G = pn, thenPA(G) <

2 * (3/p2)n/2.

., 1, of Proof. Suppose theinvariants G are Mi1, iMk,b , 1 , where XI'=l mi = m and i < j impliesmi _ mj. Let Ge denotethe summandsof G of orderp and G' denote the summandsof G of orderat least p2. Thus G G' C Ge. From (**) we get

PA (G) ? PA (G')

PA (Ge) _

(in m
k

(P2)

(*)

(2/p') r l _~~~~~~~~~
i=1

+ (mi 1).

I 1(mi + 1) = m + k, maximizingk maximizes the sum. The largest Since value fork occurs whenthe mi's are smallest(all twos,except for one threeif m of is odd). Taking k' to be the integer {m/2, - 1)/2} and applyingthe lemmato (m () w6 have

PA(G)

<p_l

3(m+k')/3 <

p2

3(m+*m)/3

2.m/2 nE2(3f/2
-

pi

264

L. CARLITZ

[March

abelian offinite PROPOSITION 2. If 0 < p < 1, thenthereis only a finitenumber groups G withPA(G) ? p. N Proof. We may choose a positiveinteger and a primeq both so large that 2 *(3/4)N/2 < p and 2 *(3/q2)1/2< p. If PA (G) ? p and pJdivides I G j, wherep is imposesan upperbound on theorder then < N and p < q. This condition a prime, j of G. The resultis clear. abelian groupsforwhichI Gn PROPOSITION 3. If {Gn} is a sequenceoffinite as n -+ oo, thenPA (G,,) - 0 as n -+ oo. oO

Proof. Since {PA (G,)} is bounded above by 1, the limitsuperiorof{PA(Gn)} 2. Proposition Thus we Indeed, limsupPA(Ge) = 0, otherwise contradict is finite. < limSUPPA(Gn) 0. = O ? liminfPA(Gn) problem.Suppose G is a A problem.As a finalremarkwe pose the following finite abelian) group and S is its set of subgroups.Let G operate (not necessarily on S by conjugationand considerPG(S). It is clear thatPG(S) = 1 if,and only if, to of each subgroup G is normal.This is equivalent G beingabelian or Hamiltonian. 0 if existssomerealnumber where < p < 1, is p, then to determine there The problem abelian nor Hamiltonian.The authorcon? p whenG is neither forwhichPG(S) is jecturesp = 2/3. If thisconjecture true,the bound is sharp since PS3(S) = 2/3.
References of 1. P. Erdos and P. Turan,On some problems a statistical group-theory, Acta Math. IV, Acad. Sci. Hung., 19 (1968) 413-435. this that elements commute? MONTHLY, Whatis theprobability twogroup 2. W. H. Gustafson, 80 (1973) 1031-1034. 3. S. Lang, Algebra,Addison-Wesley, Reading,Mass. 1965. IN 47803.
DEPARTMENT OF MATHEMATICS, ROSE-HULMAN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY, TERRE HAUTE,

SOME SUMS INVOLVING FRACTIONAL PARTS

L. 1. Put
(.0

CARLITZ

[x]

(x : integer) (x = integer),

wherex is real and [x] denotesthegreatest integer< x. Berndt[1] has provedthe following result: