Psycho Linguistics Classroom Lessons

TOPIC 1.
1 THEORETICAL BASIS OF BEHAVIOURIST APPROACHES TO LANGUAGE LEARNING

By the end of the topic, participants will be able: y y To grasp the basic principles of behaviourist theories; To read literature about behaviourist approaches to language learning with insight To identify current language teaching practices that are aligned to behaviourist approaches to language learning.
LEARNING OBJECTIVES KEY TERMS
Stimulus response; imitation; reinforcement; contiguity
Section heading
PRESENTATION
Behaviourism was first expounded as a theory of learning by B.F. Skinner in his book Verbal Behavior (1957). Others like Thorndike, Hull, and Watson took this theory forward. Behaviourism is based on three basic assumptions. First, that learning is manifested through a change in observable behaviour. The second, that the behaviour of a person is shaped by the environment (conditioning). The third, the considerations about how close in time should two events happen for learning to take place (contiguity), and how to increase the likelihood of a repetition of what is learnt (reinforcement). Applying these ideas to the inquiry of language learning, the behaviourists maintained that languages are learnt through a process of stimulus and response. The concept of habit-
formation was basic to this view. In his classic work Language (1933) Bloomfield quotes the following example in describing the behaviourist framework:
Suppose that Jack and Jill are walking down a lane. She sees an apple in a tree. She makes a sound with her larynx, tongue and lips. Jack vaults the fence, climbs the tree, takes the apple, brings it to Jill and places it in her hand. Jill eats the apple. (Bloomfield, 1933. pp 22 23)
Bloomfield explains this situation as follows. Firstly, some practical event such as hunger, the sight of an apple must take place before speech. Next, a speech even takes place. This is followed by the hearers response. Thus, according to this view, speech is a practical reaction to some stimulus. According to the behaviourists, imitation and reinforcement are the basic ways a child learns a language. Suppose a child says da da and the father who happens to be nearby picks up and hugs the child. This reinforces the childs utterance and the child would say da da every time the child wants to be picked up. Behaviourist views have had a strong impact on the methodologies used in the language teaching classroom of the day, some of which continue even up to now. Audiolingual Method used in language teaching is a direct result of embracing the behaviourist approaches. Following are some of the other ideas and classroom practices that evolved through adherence to behaviourist views. y y y y y The emphasis on rote learning Non-tolerance of language errors in the classroom Habit formation through repetition Providing immediate feedback, specially in case of language errors The importance of memorization
Study the following reading at the end of this topic:
Behaviourism and language learning

READING
Something to think about 1. Is there a uniformity in the way children learn a language? 2. Is the process of learning a second language similar to learning the first language? 3. If languages are learnt through stimulus response pattern, why arent other intelligent beings like dolphins, apes able to speak?
READING BEHAVIOURISM AND LANGUAGE LEARNING

[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Behaviorism#Relation_to_language]
Reading Text
Experimental and conceptual innovations This essentially philosophical position gained strength from the success of Skinner's early experimental work with rats and pigeons, summarized in his books The Behavior of Organisms and Schedules of Reinforcement. Of particular importance was his concept of the operant response, of which the canonical example was the rat's lever-press. In contrast with the idea of a physiological or reflex response, an operant is a class of structurally distinct but functionally equivalent responses. For example, while a rat might press a lever with its left paw or its right paw or its tail, all of these responses operate on the world in the same way and have a common consequence. Operants are often thought of as species of responses, where the individuals differ but the class coheres in its function-shared consequences with operants and reproductive success with species. This is a clear distinction between Skinner's theory and SR theory. Skinner's empirical work expanded on earlier research on trial-and-error learning by researchers such as Thorndike and Guthrie with both conceptual reformulationsThorndike's notion of a stimulusresponse "association" or "connection" was abandoned; and methodological ones the use of the "free operant," so called because the animal was now permitted to respond at its own rate rather than in a series of trials determined by the experimenter procedures. With this method, Skinner carried out substantial experimental work on the effects of different schedules and rates of reinforcement on the rates of operant responses made by rats and pigeons. He achieved remarkable success in training animals to perform unexpected responses, to emit large numbers of responses, and to demonstrate many empirical regularities at the purely behavioral level. This lent some credibility to his conceptual analysis. It is largely his conceptual analysis that made his work much more rigorous than his peers, a point which can be seen clearly in his seminal work Are Theories of Learning Necessary? in which he criticizes what he viewed to be theoretical weaknesses then common in the study of psychology. An important descendant of the experimental analysis of behavior is the Society for Quantitative Analysis of Behavior. Relation to language As Skinner turned from experimental work to concentrate on the philosophical underpinnings of a science of behavior, his attention turned to human language with Verbal Behavior and other language-related publications; Verbal Behavior laid out a vocabulary and theory for functional
analysis of verbal behavior, and was strongly criticized in a review by Noam Chomsky. Skinner did not respond in detail but claimed that Chomsky failed to understand his ideas, and the disagreements between the two and the theories involved have been further discussed. In addition; innate theory is opposed to behaviorist theory which claims that language is a set of habits that can be acquired by means of conditioning. According to some, this process that the behaviorists define is a very slow and gentle process to explain a phenomenon complicated as language learning. What was important for a behaviorist's analysis of human behavior was not language acquisition so much as the interaction between language and overt behavior. In an essay republished in his 1969 book Contingencies of Reinforcement, Skinner took the view that humans could construct linguistic stimuli that would then acquire control over their behavior in the same way that external stimuli could. The possibility of such "instructional control" over behavior meant that contingencies of reinforcement would not always produce the same effects on human behavior as they reliably do in other animals. The focus of a radical behaviorist analysis of human behavior therefore shifted to an attempt to understand the interaction between instructional control and contingency control, and also to understand the behavioral processes that determine what instructions are constructed and what control they acquire over behavior. Recently a new line of behavioral research on language was started under the name of Relational Frame Theory.
Brown, D. (2007). Principles of language learning and teaching. New York: Pearson. (Chapter 2) Gass. M. & Selinker. R. (2001). Second language acquisition. New Jersey:Lawrence Earlbaum. (Chapter 4)
FURTHER READING
TOPIC 1.2 CRITIQUE OF BEHAVIOURIST THEORIES

By the end of the topic, participants will be able: y y To examine behaviourist theories of language learning in the light of new theories; To become aware of the drawbacks in the behaviourist theories of language learning; To form a balanced view of language learning by a comparison with mentalist approaches to language learning
Section heading
PRESENTATION
Many of the critics of behaviourist approaches to language learning argue that behaviourist theory is an over-simplified, one dimensional approach that tries to explain how languages are learned. For one thing, behaviourist theory does not make allowance for personal factors related to the language learners such as their moods, thoughts and feelings. According to behaviourist psychologists, given the right input and reinforcement, all language learners can achieve the same proficiency irrespective of their personal traits of character. The behaviourist theory does not also take into account such factors as learners free will, specially with regard to learning a second language. Another area that has drawn criticism from researchers studying the process of language learning is the heavy emphasis laid on reinforcement and punishment as two main ways of learning. Other types of learning without the use of reinforcement and punishment are not accounted for by behaviourist theories. In other words people able to learn and adapt their behaviour based on new information even in the absence of reinforcement and punishment. According to behaviourists children learned
languages primarily through a repetitive process; that is they learned to speak a language by imitating the utterances of adults. But, it has been observed that not all the utterances of a child are repetitions of adult speech. In fact, the language of children is creative and they come up with language that they have never heard before. For example consider the following exchange between a mother and her two-year old daughter: Daughter: Somebodys at the door. Mother: Theres nobody at the door. Daughter: Theres yesbody at the door.
(quoted in Scovel, T. (2002). Psycholinguistics. Oxford University Press. Page 19)
These and other examples from childrens language clearly indicate that language learning is not a result of imitating adult speech but a creative process. Although behaviourism as a learning theory, specially a languagae learning theory, has fallen from favour and does not exercise a powerful influence in the language classroom, nevertheless, it has continued to make its presence in other fields of psychology. An example, is the training of animals to behave in a certain way in response to certain stimuli while discouraging unwanted behavioural patterns.
Study the following reading at the end of this unit: Behaviourism under attack
READING 1
Something to think about

What English language teaching classroom practices still carry the influence of behaviourist theories of learning? What second language learning skills can be taught effectively using behaviourist approaches to learning?
An activity for you to do

Draw a box and separate it into two columns. On the right column list all the strengths of behaviourist theories of language. On the other, list the weaknesses of the behaviourist theories.
ACTIVITY
READING BEHAVIOURISM UNDER ATTACK

[From Mitchell, R. & Myles, F. (2004). Second language learning theories. London: Hodder Arnold ] Reading Text Behaviourism under attack
Starting in the 1950s and continuing in the 1960s, both linguists and psychology witnessed major developments. Linguists saw a shift from structural linguistics, which was based on the description of the surface structure of a large corpus of language, to generative linguistics that emphasised the rule -governed and creative nature of human language This shift had been initiated by the publication in 1957 of Svntactic Structures, the first of many influential books by Noam Chomsky. In the field of psychology, the pre-eminent role for the environment - which was argued by Skinner - in shaping the Childs learning and behaviour was losing ground in favour of more developmentalist views of learning, such as Piagets cognitive developmental theory, in which inner forces drive the child, in interaction with the environment (Piaget and Inhelder, l966; Piaget, 1970; Piatelli-Palmarini 1980). The clash of views about the way in which we learn lanaguage came to a head at the end of the l950s with two publications. These were Skinners Verbal Behavior in 1957, which outlined in detail his behaviourist view of learning as applied to language, and Chomskys review of Skinners book, published in 1959, which was a fierce critique of Skinners views.
Chomskys criticisms centred on a number of issues: 1. The creativity of language: children do not learn and reproduce a large set of sentences, but they routinely create new sentences that they have never learnt before. This is only possible because they internalize rules rather than strings of words; extremely common examples of utterances such as it breaked or Mummy goed show clearly that children are not copying the language around them hut applying rules. Chomsky was incensed by the idea that you could compare the behaviour of rats in a laboratory, learning to perform simple tasks, to the behaviour of children learning language without direct teaching, a fundamentally different task because of its sheer complexity and abstractness. 2 Given the complexity and abstractness of linguistic rules (e.g. the rules underlying the formation of questions in many languages, or the rules underlying the use of reflexive pronouns in English discussed in Chapter 3), it is amazing that children are able to master them so quickly and efficientlv, especially given the limited input they receive. This has been termed Platos problem (Chomsky, 1987), and refers specifically to the fact that some of the structural properties of language, given their complexity, could not possibly be expected to be learnt on the basis of the samples of language to which children are exposed. Furthermore, children have been shown not to be usually corrected on the form of their utterances but rather on their truth values. When correction does take place, it seems to have very little effect on the development of language structure. For the above reasons, Chomsky claimed that children have an innate faculty that guides them in their learning of language. Given a body of speech, children are programmed to discover its rules, and are guided in doing that by an innate knowledge of what the rules should look like. Suffice to say for now that this revolutionary approach to the study of language gave a great stimulus to the field of psycholinguistics, and especially to the study of language acquisition.
TOPIC 1.3 THEORETICAL BASIS OF MENTALIST APPROACHES

By the end of the topic, participants will be able: y y
To understand key concepts that underpin the mentalist approach to language learning; To evaluate language classroom practice for consistency with mentalist views of language learning.

Cognitive approach to language learning
Section heading
The behaviorist theory of language and language learning fails to account for the innovative and creative nature of language use phenomena that the mentalists claim they can account for. Language, the mentalists say, is internal, rule-governed, and abstract. The human organism has an innate predisposition toward language acquisition, being in a sense programmed for language. This predisposition accounts for the rapidity and uniformity with which the child learns his native language. The organism's innate ability to process language input gradually deteriorates and seems to be totally inoperative by the time that physical maturity is reached. In terms of second language acquisition, the mentalist theory invites revaluation of present classroom procedures and materials. They insist, specifically, greater emphasis needs to be put on the students competence as opposed to their performance. Rod Ellis (1997) summarises the ideas that are central to mentalist theory of language learning thus:
PRESENTATION
10
1. Only human beings are capable of learning language. 2. The human mind is equipped with a faculty for learning language referred to as a Language Acquisition Device. This is separate from the faculties responsible for other kinds of cognitive activity (for example, logical reasoning). 3 This faculty is the primary determinant of language acquisition. 4 Input is needed, but only to trigger the operation of the language acquisition device.
Study the following reading at the end of this unit:

COGNITIVE APPROACH (MENTALIST APPROACH)
READING

According to mentalist theory language acquisition is not an imitative process. But, are there certain aspects of language learning that take place as a result of imitation? Are there certain stages of language development during which language acquisition is more imitative than generative?
11

Drilling of language patterns which sometimes becomes quite mechanical, is still largely practised in language teaching classrooms. With a friend, discuss how this activity canbe made more meaningful in the light of mentalist views of language learning.
ACTIVITY
READING COGNITIVE APPROACH (MENTALIST APPROACH)

[From http://purwarno-linguistics.blogspot.com/2005/12/cognitive-approach-mentalistapproach.html] Reading Text
The Cognitive View of Language Learning The cognitivists were thoroughly dissatisfied with many of the ideas propagated by the Behaviorists. They maintain that learning cannot be equated with behaviour because observed behaviour is only the outward manifestation of internal changes, which the organism may have undergone as a result of learning. Yet these internal changes are not in themselves observable. In fact, the discipline behaviour may be only for what is called tip of the iceberg; the changes of internal state may be far more significant. For example: A parrot being trained to talk may not begin to talk for a long time leading the learner to believe that it was learning nothing. Yet learning could be latent form. When a certain critical stage is reached the parrot might suddenly begin talking. (Cognitive View, language is not behaviour but a mental process, one might speak a language on a stage he reached). Secondly, the cognitivists believe the view that that language is behaviour is one sided and superficial. Language seems to have a double nature. On the one hand, it is a form of codified, patterned social behaviour, but on the other hand, it is an abstract logical system comparable to mathematics. The difference lies in the fact that while mathematics is derived from some kind of universal logic, language system is largely arbitrary and conventional. However it cannot be denied that language learning means being able to do the right thing at the right time of producing the appropriate behaviour. (According to Chomsky, Mentalist, language has creativity that is rule governed, therefore it is based on logic like math). The main reason why the cognitivists were thoroughly dissatisfied with behaviorism was that Behaviorism does not distinguish between human and animals and between the higher and lower forms of learning.
12
That is why Behaviorism sounds repugnant to those who believe in the uniqueness of human species. Further, according to Behaviourism, learning is the outcome of manipulation, which is a corollary (parallel something) of conditioning which implies a process of shaping and molding of behaviour. Desired behaviour is induced and undesired behaviour is extinguished. This means that there is some agency outside the learner to decide what is desirable and what is not. The learner is merely an instrument (student) to be manipulated by the outside agency. It does not take into account the contribution of learner in the process of learning. How could one explain the fact that individual difference exists among learners even among animal learnt? This realization leads to the overthrow of Behaviourist or at least to the modification of behaviorism and the behaviorists view of learning. BEHAVIOURISM: Stimulus and Response Theory The Behaviourists provided a very simplistic view of learning in terms of stimulus and response: S --------> R (S goes to R). According to Cognitivists, however, there is something, which mediates between S and R, and this is the Cognitive function. S-----> Cognitive Function -------> R That is why the cognitive function makes the learner monitor and evaluates the different stimuli being received, to coordinate and regulate them, to reject some of them and develop appropriate response to those, which are accepted. That is to say, the Cognitive Function makes the learner the controller of the learning process rather than the passive recipient. In Behaviorism, or S -----> R model, each bit of learning is treated as though it had no relation to previous learning. The cognitivist tries to relate together the entire history of learning, which according to him forms a totality. He indeed possesses a cognitive man of his environment, which represents the sum of all his learning. When he encounters a new learning experience, it is screened through a cognitive man, which enables the learner to interpret the new experience. Thus the learning process is subjective to constant appraisal and reappraisal of the environment by the learner and constituent readjustment to it. The experiment involving the ape and banana proves this point. The cognitivists are convinced that learning depends upon perception and insight formation. They feel that all learning is in the nature of problem solving. The learner tries to solve new problem on the basis of previous learning. Briefly, the stages in the learning process can be characterized as the following: 1 The learner encountering a new situation recognizes it as a problem to be solved. 2. He analyses it and tries to identify the elements or components of the new situation. 3. He compares a new situation with those that he has previously encountered in an attempt to find out if it is similar or different. 4. The comparison suggests to him a plan or strategy for dealing with the new situation but the plan has to be tested.
13
5. The plan is tried out (tested): if it doesnt work, it is abandoned and alternative plan is involved and tried. If the plan works, it is stored in the system for use in the future. For one thing, it should be clear that all situations and experiences are not physical. They may be purely mental, requiring a mental solution in the form of explanation. But the explanation has to be such as can be applied and extended to other situations. In other words, the explanation can still be generated. Basically, all knowledge involves the process of generalizing from particular instances. Learning, in this respect, can be thought of as a process of induction. Individual experiences contribute towards the general pattern of understanding. According to the cognitivists, the learner of the languages possesses some kind of data-processing mechanism. The input to the learner is not just a number of occurrences (to be memorized and imitated). The input constitutes the samples of the language data, which he processes. The output from this data processing is not just a number of sentences but a system of rules, which enable the learner to produce an unlimited number of sentences. The diagram below would show this phenomenon: Input samples of Data Processing Outout Language Data ---> Mechanism ----> (system of language rules) If language learning is explained purely in terms of imitation, it should not be possible for a child to produce any utterences which he has not heard before (which are not part of the input). Indeed, children constantly surprise their parents by producing utterances which have not been heard by them before. Even the behaviorists have to accept this phenomenon and they try to account for it. The explanation offered by them was that a child is able to produce new utterances through the process of substitution. According to the Behaviorists, the sentences, which are said to be new, are actually not new. They are merely new combination of words, which the speaker has already received. But even if this argument is accepted, one finds that substitution does not take place in a random manner. There must be some principles, which determine the choice of items, which substitute each other. Why, for example, does the child substitute cat, for dog, or why doesnt he produce, This is a green or This is a come, etc.? (One does not replace noun with verb or adjective. Mind makes distinction between grammar categories; Noun is substituted by Noun). According to the Cognitivists, even a very limited amount of language data may be sufficient to reveal the underlying rules, and once the rule is known, it can be used or applied to produce an infinite number of sentences. However, it does not imply that the child discovers all the rules of grammar in one instance. Indeed, he discovers the correct rules only gradually. In many cases, the rules, which he first discovers or formulates, are wrong. He arrives at the correct rule after going through a series of incorrect rules. For instances, a child may produce a sentence: 1. Two mans have come. He does so because his mini-grammar of English tells him that plurals are formed by adding S. His mini-grammar at this stage is reflecting of the hypothesis, which he has formed on the basis of data received by him. With new experience and further exposure to the data, he finds that the rule that he has so far internalized applies only to a part of the language, not the whole
14
of it. In any language, there may be an area, which is rule-free. If there are rules, they are applicable only to a limited number of cases. For example, there are no rules to govern the past tense forms of irregular verbs (eat ---> ate; go ---> went; drink ---> drank; etc.) In such cases, one has to learn all the individual items. The Cognitivist, indeed, tends to look at only that part of the language, where general rules apply, because for him language learning is the process whereby the rules of language are discovered and internalized. The Cognitivists view is, therefore, only a portion account of the learning process but it has gained greater acceptance or acceptability than Behaviorists point of view.
Ellis, R. (1997). Second Language Acquisition. Oxford University Press.

Clark, Herbert and Eve Clark (1977). Language and Psychology: An Introduction to Psycholinguistics. New York: Harcourt, Brace and Jovahovich.
FURTHER READING
15
TOPIC 1.4 CURRENT TRENDS IN LANGUAGE TEACHING

To re-examine their classroom practices in relation to current trends in language teaching; To modify and update their knowledge about the new developments in the field of language teaching; To gain better insight into the process of learning
Constructivism, zone of proximal development, assimilation, accommodation
Section heading
PRESENTATION
During the past century or so, the language teaching field has been influenced by many schools of thought. As different schools of thought have come and gone, so have the language teaching methods like Grammar Translation Method, Direct Method, Audiolingual Method, and Communicative Language Teaching. Of these, Communicative Language Teaching can be considered a synthesis of the best features of all the previous methods. It is an eclectic method that captures the contributions of previous methods and advocates the moving away from the teaching of rules, patterns, definitions and other knowledge about the language to making the learner use the language spontaneously in authentic situations. A significant difference between the current language teaching practices and those, say, fifty years ago is the absence of any orthodox methodology. For this reason, current language teaching practices can best be described as approaches rather than methods. They allow the teacher flexibility in choosing particular designs and techniques of language teaching to suit a wide range of
16
learners in specific contexts. In the last twenty years or so a new school of thought constructivism has been influential in the field of language teaching. Constructivism is a multidisciplinary approach which takes into account linguistic, psychological, and sociological factors in the teaching/learning of a language. The names of Jean Piaget and Lev Vygotsky are frequently mentioned alongside this approach to learning. For Piaget, learning is a developmental process that involves change, self-generation, and construction, each building on prior learning experience. Described in another way, the learner is not a passive recipient of knowledge, but is an active partner in constructing meaning out of available linguistic input and social interaction thus creating a new linguistic system. The importance of social interaction and cooperative learning was emphasized by Lev Vygotsky who pointed out that there existed a distance between a learners existing stage of development and his/her potential development . This distance which he called zone of proximal development can be bridged through social interaction with a competent adult.
Study the following readings at the end of this unit: Table 1 .1 Schools of thought in second language acquisition
READINGS
What is Constructivism?

The current trends in language teaching have evolved into approaches rather than methods. Discuss the features that distinguish an approach from a method.
17
An activity for you to do Write a short explanation, or draw a flow chart to illustrate the different stages of the constructivist theory of learning.
ACTIVITY
READING ONE SCHOOLS OF THOUGHT IN SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION

[From from Brown, H. D. (2007). Principles of language learning and teaching. San Francisco: Pearson Longman. P.15]
Reading Text
Table 1 .1 Schools of thought in second language acquisition Time Frame Early 1900s and 1940s and 1950s Schools of Thought Structural Linguistics and Behavioral psychology Typical Themes Description Observable performance Scientific method Empiricism Surface structure Conditioning Reinforcement Generative linguistics Acquisition, Innateness lnterlanguage Systematicity Universal grammar Competence Deep structure
1960s, 1970s, and 1980s
Generative linguistics and Cognitive Psychology
18
1980s, 1990s, and 2000s
Constructivism
Interactive discourse Sociocultural variables Cooperative learning Discovery learning Construction of meaning Interlanguage variability
READING TWO WHAT IS CONSTRUCTIVISM?

(from http://saskschoolboards.ca/research/instruction/97-07.htm) Reading Text
What is Constructivism? Constructivism is a view of learning based on the belief that knowledge isn't a thing that can be simply given by the teacher at the front of the room to students in their desks. Rather, knowledge is constructed by learners through an active, mental process of development; learners are the builders and creators of meaning and knowledge. Constructivism draws on the develomental work of Piaget (1977) and Kelly (1991). Twomey Fosnot (1989) defines constructivism by reference to four principles: learning, in an important way, depends on what we already know; new ideas occur as we adapt and change our old ideas; learning involves inventing ideas rather than mechanically accumulating facts; meaningful learning occurs through rethinking old ideas and coming to new conclusions about new ideas which conflict with our old ideas. A productive, constructivist classroom, then, consists of learner-centered, active instruction. In such a classroom, the teacher provides students with experiences that allow them to hypothesize, predict, manipulate objects, pose questions, research, investigate, imagine, and invent. The teacher's role is to facilitate this process. Piaget (1977) asserts that learning occurs by an active construction of meaning, rather than by passive recipience. He explains that when we, as learners, encounter an experience or a situation that conflicts with our current way of thinking, a state of disequilibrium or imbalance is created. We must then alter our thinking to restore equilibrium or balance. To do this, we make sense of the new information by associating it with what we already know, that is, by attempting to assimilate it into our existing knowledge. When we are unable to do this, we accommodate
19
the new information to our old way of thinking by restructuring our present knowledge to a higher level of thinking. Similar to this is Kelly's theory of personal constructs (Kelly, 1991). Kelly proposes that we look at the world through mental constructs or patterns which we create. We develop ways of construing or understanding the world based on our experiences. When we encounter a new experience, we attempt to fit these patterns over the new experience. For example, we know from experience that when we see a red traffic light, we are supposed to stop. The point is that we create our own ways of seeing the world in which we live; the world does not create them for us. Constructivist beliefs have recently been applied to teaching and learning in the classroom. Why Is Constructivism Important? Educational curricula and teaching methods are changing. One component of the current redevelopment of all subject area curricula is the change in focus of instruction from the transmission curriculum to a transactional curriculum. In a traditional curriculum, a teacher transmits information to students who passively listen and acquire facts. In a transactional curriculum, students are actively involved in their learning to reach new understandings. Constructivist teaching fosters critical thinking and creates active and motivated learners. Zemelman, Daniels, and Hyde (1993) tell us that learning in all subject areas involves inventing and constructing new ideas. They suggest that constructivist theory be incorporated into the curriculum, and advocate that teachers create environments in which children can construct their own understandings . Twomey Fosnot (1989) recommends that a constructivist approach be used to create learners who are autonomous, inquisitive thinkers who question, investigate, and reason. A constructivist approach frees teachers to make decisions that will enhance and enrich students' development" in these areas. These are goals that are consistent with those stated by Saskatchewan Education in the the 1984 government report, Directions, that launched the restructuring of Saskatchewan's curricula. This demonstrates that constructivism is evident in current educational change.
Duffy, T.M. & Jonassen, D. (Eds.), (1992).Constructivism and the technology of instruction: A conversation. Hillsdale NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Tobias, S.; Duffy, T. M. (2009). Constructivist instruction: Success or failure?. New York: Taylor & Francis.
FURTHER
20
READING
21
TOPIC 2.1 INTERLANGUAGE THEORY
By the end of the topic, participants will be able:
To recognize the importance of interlanguage in second language acquisition; To interpret learner language in a pedagogically correct aspect.
Interlanguage, language transfer, overgeneralization, simplification.
Section heading
PRESENTATION
The concept of interlanguage in language acquisition is based on the observation that L2 learners, in the process of learning a second language go through stage at which they use a language system which is neither the L1, nor the L2. It is a third language, with its own grammar, its own lexicon and so on. The rules of this interlanguage are not found either in their first language or the target language. In recent years language researchers and teachers have come to realize that they need to consider that language learning is a system of creative construction in which learners are consciously testing hypotheses about the rules of the target language from a number of possible sources of knowledge: knowledge of the target language, limited knowledge of the target language, knowledge of the communicative function etc. Its due to this reason that applied linguists like Pitt Corder and Selinker have suggested that there is a need to consider learners language as a system in its own right not as an imperfect form of language, full of mistakes, that need to be corrected
22
immediately. Further it has been established that learner language is not haphazard, but proceeds through a logical, systematic, and predictable way. How do the learners create their interlanguage? According to Selinker, interlanguage is based on the following learning strategies adopted by the learners in order to acquire the language.
(1) Language transfer - the learners use their own L1 as a
resource. All learners fall back on their mother tongues, particularly in the early stages of language acquisition, and this is a necessary stage in language learning (2) Overgeneralization - the learner uses an L2 rule in situations in which a native speaker would not. This can occur at a number of levels y At the phonetic level, for example, learners of English, after having learnt the sound value of r, may take to pronouncing it where it is not pronounced by native speakers. E.g. the r in the words park and car. y At the grammatical level, a learner in the early stages may use nothing but the present tense. Later, there may be extensive, non-native use of 'be - ing' forms of the verb. y At the lexical level - learners tend to use base terms and to stretch them - thus a 'goose' might be referred to as a 'chicken', or a teaspoon may be a 'little spoon'. y At the level of discourse, lexical items and expressions may be used in inappropriate social contexts. Someone learning French as an L2, and who has been staying with a friendly family with teenagers may find themselves using the 'tu' form to strangers, members of the CRS and so on. (3) Simplification - both syntactic and semantic -
23
the learner uses speech that resembles that of very young children. This may be either because they cannot, in fact, as yet produce the target forms, or because they do not feel sure of them.
Study the following reading at the end of this unit: Learner Language
READING

Are there similarities between the interlanguage of those who learn English as a first language and those who learn English as a second language?

Study the samples of written English produced by the students in one of the grades in the school. Categorise the intralingual errors made by themunder several headings such as omission of the definite article, use of definite article where none should be used, confusion between the use of definite/indefinite article etc. Examine whether any patterns could be identified in the kind of intralingual errors theyve made.
ACTIVITY
24
READING LEARNER LANGUAGE

[From Brown, H. D. (2007). Principles of language learning and teaching. San Francisco: Pearson Longman. Ch. 9] .] Reading Text
LEARNER LANGUAGE The CAH stressed the interfering effects of the first language on second language learning and claimed, in its strong form, that second language learning is primarily, if not exclusively, a process of acquiring whatever items are different from the first language. As already noted above, such a narrow view of interference ignored the intralingual and strategic effects of learning, among other factors. In recent years researchers and teachers have come more and more to understand that second language learning is a process of the creative construction of a system in which learners are consciously testing hypotheses about the target language from a number of possible sources of knowledge: knowledge of the native language, limited knowledge of the target language itself, knowledge of the communicative functions of language, knowledge about language in general, and knowledge about life. people, and the universe around them. Learners, in acting upon their environment construct what to them is a legitimate system of language in its own righta structured set of rules that for the time being brings some order to the linguistic chaos that confronts them. By the late 1960s, SLA began to be examined in much the same way that first language acquisition had been studied for some time: learners were looked on not as producers of malformed, imperfect language replete with mistakes but as intelligent and creative beings proceeding through logical, systematic stages of acquisition, creatively acting upon their linguistic environment as they encountered its forms and functions in meaningful contexts. By a gradual process of trial and error and hypothesis testing, learners slowly and tediously succeed in establishing closer and closer approximations to the system used by native speakers of the language. A number of terms have been coined to describe the perspective that stresses the legitimacy of learners second language systems. The best known of these is interlanguage, a term that Selinker ( 1972) adapted from Weinreichs (1953) term Interlingual. Interlanguage refers to the separateness of a second language learners system, a system that has a structurally intermediate status between the native and target languages. Nemser (1971) referred to the same general phenomenon in second language learning but stressed the successive approximation to the target language in his term approximative system. Corder (1971, p. 151) used the term idiosyncratic dialect to connote the idea that the learners language is unique to a particular individual, that the rules of the learners language are peculiar to the language of that individual alone. While each of these designations emphasizes a
25
particular notion, they share the concept that second language learners are forming their own self-contained linguistic systems. This is neither the system of the native language nor the system of the target language, but a system based upon the best attempt of learners to bring order and structure to the linguistic stimuli surrounding them. The interlanguage hypothesis led to a whole new era of second language research and teaching and presented a significant breakthrough from the shackles of the CAH. The most obvious approach to analyzing interlanguage is to study the speech and writing of learners, or what is sometimes called learner language (Lightbown & Spada, 1993; James, 1990). Production data is publicly observable and is presumably reflective of a learners underlying competence production competence, that is. Comprehension of a second language is more difficult to study since it is not directly observable and must be inferred from overt verbal and nonverbal responses, by artificial instruments, or by the intuition of the teacher or researcher. It follows that the study of the speech and writing of learners is largely the study of the errors of learners. Correct production yields little information about the actual linguistic system of learners, only information about the target language system that learners have already acquired.
Ellis, R. (1997). Second Language Acquisition. Oxford University Press. (p. 12) Gass. M. & Selinker. R. (2001). Second language acquisition. New Jersey:Lawrence Earlbaum.
FURTHER READING
26
TOPIC 2.2 INTERLINGUAL TRANSFER

y y y
Understand the concept of language transfer; Differentiate between different aspects of language transfer ; To gain more insight into second language learning process.
Language transfer; contrastive analysis hypothesis; positive transfer; negative transfer
Section heading
PRESENTATION
Language transfer is a topic that is frequently discussed in the context of English language learning and teaching. Language researchers normally distinguish between two types of language transfer - interlingual transfer and intralingual transfer. When people learning a second language apply their knowledge of the native language in the production of the second language, this is referred to as Interlingual transfer. This happens usually at the initial stage of learning a second language when the learner is familiar only with the linguistic system of the first language. However, once the learners have begun to acquire parts of the second language, generalizations within the target language begin to appear. This is referred to as the intralingual transfer. This lesson focuses on interlingual transfer. At the initial stages of learning a second language, learners draw heavily on their knowledge of the first language. When there is a high degree of similarity between the first and the second language
27
systems, positive transfer takes place. The results of positive transfer go largely unnoticed, and thus are less often discussed. Nonetheless, such results can have a large effect. Generally speaking, the more similar the two languages are, and the more the learner is aware of the relation between them, the more positive transfer will occur. On the other hand, when the language items and the structures of L1 and L2 vary to a large extent, negative transfer can take place. The effect of first language on second language learning is more fully studied under the topic contrastive analysis hypothesis.
Study the following reading at the end of this unit: Language Transfer
READING 1

As a first language speaker of Sinhala or Tamil, what would be easier for you to learn English or Hindi? Give your reasons. What items in the first language would result in positive transfer, and what items would cause negative transfer?
28

Look at the following wrong uses of the language.
(a) He was went home. (b) He likes to reading.
ACTIVITY
Are both mistakes results of negative transfer from L1? Give Your reasons? Make a list of examples of wrong use of English which in your opinion are due to negative L1 transfer.
29
READING ONE LANGUAGE TRANSFER

[From Ellis, R. (1997). Second Language Acquisition. Oxford University Press. Chap. 6]
Reading Text
L1 transfer
LI transfer refers to the influence that the learners ii exerts over the acquisition of an L2. This influence is apparent in a number of ways. First, as we noted in the section on error analysis in Chapter 2, the learners L1 is one of the sources of error in learner language. This influence is referred to as negative transfer. However, in some cases, the learners LI can facilitate L2 acquisition. For example, French learners of English are much less likely to make errors of this kind: The man whom I spoke to him is a millionaire. than are Arabic learners because French does not permit resumptive pronouns (like him) in relative clauses whereas Arabic does. This type of effect is known as positive transfer. L1 transfer can also result in avoidance. For example, Chinese and Japanese learners of English have been found to avoid the use of relative clauses because their languages do not contain equivalent structures. These learners make fewer errors in relative clauses than Arabic learners of English but only because they rarely use them. Finally, Li transfer may be reflected in the overuse of some forms. For example, some Chinese learners tend to overuse expressions of regret when apologizing in English, in accordance with the norms of their mother tongue. Theoretical accounts of LI transfer have undergone considerable revision since the early days of SLA. In the heyday of behaviourism it was believed that errors were largely the result of interference (another term for negative transfer). That is, the habits of the L1 were supposed to prevent the learner from learning the habits of the L2. In the belief that interference, and thereby learning difficulty, could he predicted by identifying those areas of the target language that were different from the learners L1, comparisons of the two languages were carried out using contrastive analysis. The resulting list of differences was used to make decisions about the content of teaching materials. As we have already seen, behaviourist theories cannot adequately account for 12 acquisition and they fell out of favour in the early 1970S. This led to two developments. Some theorists, espousing strong mentalist accounts of L2 acquisitions sought to play down the role of the L1.
30
They argued that very few errors were the result of L1 transfer. An analysis of the errors produced by Spanish learners of L2 English, for example, led one pair of researchers to claim that less than 5 per cent of the errors were the result of transfer. This minimalist view of L1 transfer, however has not withstood the test of time. The second development was to reconceptualize transfer within a cognitive framework. This was begun by Larry Selinker. In his formulation of interlanguage theory he identified language transfer as one of the mental processes responsible for fossilization. Subsequently, there has been widespread acknowledgement that learners draw on their L1 in forming interlanguage hypotheses. Learners do not construct rules in a vacuum; rather they work with whatever information is at their disposal. This includes knowledge of their L1. The L1 can he viewed as a kind of input from the inside. According to this view, then, transfer is not interference but a cognitive process. One of the main objections to a behaviourist account of LI transfer is that transfer errors do not always occur when they are predicted to occur. That is, differences between the target and native languages do not always result in learning difficulty. Whereas as a behaviourist theory cannot easily account for this, a cognitive theory, which recognizes that transfer will occur under some conditions but not under others, can do so. SLA has succeeded in identifying some of the cognitive constraints that govern the transfer of L1 knowledge.
Gass. M. & Selinker. R. (2001). Second language acquisition. New Jersey:Lawrence Earlbaum. (Chapter 3) http://www.upv.es/dla_revista/docs/art2009/11_Ramon_Torrijos_ MM.pdf
FURTHER READING
31
TOPIC 2.3 VARIABILITY IN INTERLANGUAGE

By the end of the topic, participants will be able: y y y
To understand and discuss the concept of variability in interlanguage; Categorise the different types of variability Explain the role played by different types of variability in second language acquisition.
Systematic variability; non-systematic variability; contextual variability; individual variability; situational context; linguistic context.
Section heading
In the process of acquiring a second language the learners interlanguage system will consist of a number of competing rules. On different occasion different rules guide the learners performance in the second language. This poses both theoretical and practical problems for language research.
PRESENTATION
At a simple level, learner-language variability can be divided into two broad categories systematic variability, and non-systematic variability. Under systematic variability, both contextual variability and individual variability are examined. Contextual variability is concerned with explaining the variability in learner performance either due to situational context or linguistic context. Tarone (1983) represents the effects of situational context as a continuum of interlanguage. At one end of the continuum is the vernacular style, which is called upon when the learner is not attending to his speech. This is the style that is both most natural and most systematic. At the other end of the continuum is the careful style, which is most clearly evident in tasks that require the learner to
32
make a grammatical judgement (e.g. to say whether a sentence is correct or incorrect). The careful style is called upon when the learner is attending closely to his speech. Thus the stylistic continuum is the product of differing degrees of attention reflected in a variety of performance tasks. It should be noted, however, that Tarone views the stylistic continuum as competence, not just as performance. Variability as a result of the linguistic context occurs when two different linguistic contexts induce different forms even though in the target language they require the same form. For example, the learner might produce correct exemplars of the third person singular -s when the linguistic context consists of a single clause utterance as in: Mr Smith lives in Gloucester. but fail to do so when the linguistic context consists of a subordinate clause as in: Mr Smith who live in Gloucester married my sister. This variability may not involve a correct target language form at all. It may consist of the use of two (or more) deviant forms. Dickersons (1975) study also provides evidence of contextual variability according to linguistic context. She noticed that her subjects used a number of variants for English /z/ according to the linguistic environment. The phonetic quality of the sound they produced depended on what consonants and vowels were adjacent to /z/. Thus when /z/ was followed by a vowel, the learners used the correct target language form every time, even on the first occasion; but when /z/ was followed by silence, they used three variants, only one of which was /z/. Progress from one occasion to the next consisted of the increased use of /z/ in environments where initially it was little used, and also of increased use of variants that were phonetically closer to /z/. For instance in the dialogue-reading part of the first test, the subjects used /z/ fifty per cent of the time in environments where the target form was followed by silence (as in the word buzz), but over eighty per cent of the time in the third test. Acquisition of /z/, therefore, consisted of the gradual mastery of its use in a range of linguistic contexts. Individual variability, on the other hand, can be explained in terms of individual differences resulting from such factors as age, motivation
33
and personality.
Study the following readings at the end of this unit: The interlanguage continuum
READING 1
Variability in learner language
READING 2

What aspects of a second language learners production, in speech or in writing, would help a teacher understand the learners position in the interlanguage continuum?

Study Figure 1 in The interlanguage continuum (Tarone 1983: 152). Do Sri Lankan children studying English as a second language progress through this continuum as they move from one grade to another, or according to the language tasks set in the language classroom?
ACTIVITY
34
READING ONE INTERLANGUAGE CONTINUUM

[From The interlanguage continuum (Tarone 1983: 152) ] Reading Text Figure 1.
vernacular style style 2 style 3 style 4 style n careful style
unattended attended speech data speech data
various elicitation tasks (e.g. imitation, sentence combining)
grammatical judgements
READING TWO VARIABILITY IN LEARNER LANGUAGE

[ From Ellis, R. (1997). Second Language Acquisition. Oxford University Press. Pp. 2527) Reading Text Variability in learner language
We have seen that learner language is systematic. That is, at a particular stage of development, learners consistently use the same grammatical form, although this is often different from that employed by native speakers. We have also seen that learner language is variable. At any given stage of development, learners sometimes employ one form and sometimes another. Thus, one type of error may alternate with another type:
35
Yesterday the thief steal the suitcase. Yesterday the thief stealing the suitcase. or an error may alternate with the correct target language form: Yesterday the thief steal the suitcase. Yesterday the thief stole the suitcase. Such was the case with Jean, whose oral narrative (see page r6) displays the use of both correct past tense forms (for example, arrived and cried) and erroneous forms (for example, whistle and escape). As we have already noted, there is even one verb (contain) that occurs in both correct and erroneous forms at different points of the narrative. These observations do not invalidate the claim that learner language is systematic since it is possible that variability is also systematic. That is, we may be able to explain, and even predicts when learners use one form and when another. Indeed, we have already seen evidence of systematic variability. Learners choice of past tense marker (i.e. zero, progressive form, or correct past tense form) depends, in part, on whether the verb refers to an event, an activity, or a state. Thus, it appears that learners vary in their use of the L2 according to linguistic context. In one context they use one form while in other contexts they use alternate forms. In the above example, the linguistic context for the choice of past tense marker is created h the verb itself. In other examples, the crucial element in the linguistic context involves some other constituent of the utterance. For example, learners may behave differently depending on whether or not an adverb of frequency (for example, every day or usually) occurs with an activity verb like play. In sentences referring to past time which do not have an adverb of frequency, they are likely to use a progressive marker: George playing football. (= George played football all the time.) However, in sentences with such an adverb, they are more likely to use the base form of the verb: In Peru, George usually play football every day. (= In Peru, George usually played football every day.) We can see, then, that one linguistic form can trigger the use of another form. The effects of linguistic context are also evident in learners use of the verb to be. Learners sometimes use full be (for example, is), sometimes contracted be (for example, s), and sometimes omit be entirely. The use of these three forms is determined to a considerable extent by the linguistic context. In one study it was found that the target-language variants (for example1 is and s) were used more consistently with pronoun subjects1 while be was more likely to be omitted with noun subjects (for example, Teacher not here).
36
Learners also vary the linguistic forms they use in accordance with the situational context. In this respect, learners are no different from native speakers. When native speakers of English are talking to friends. for example, they tend to speak informallv, using colloquial expressions: My kids a real pain these days. In contrast, when they are talking to someone they do not know verv well they tend to use more formal language: My daughter can be very troublesome these days. Learners vary their use of language similarly. They are more likely to use the correct targetlanguage forms in formal contexts and non-target forms in informal contexts.
Ellis, R. (1985). Variability in interlanguage. In Understanding second language acquisition (chap. 4, pp 75-98). Oxford:OUP
THE VARIABILITY OF INTERLANGUAGE USE http://sun025.sun.ac.za/portal/page/portal/Arts/Departments/linguistics /documents/SPILPLUS31-Killian_article.pdf
FURTHER READING
37
TOPIC 2.4 INTERLANGUAGE FOSSILIZATION

To understand the concept of interlanguage fossilization in second language acquisition; To discuss the factors that account for language fossilization; To help students overcome difficulties resulting from fossilized linguistic forms.
Fossilization, target language, language plateau
Section heading
PRESENTATION
Interlanguage fossilization is a stage during second language acquisition. As discussed in the previous lessons, in the process of learning a target language, second language learners develop a linguistic system, variously called interlanguage (Selinker), approximative system (Nemser) etc., that is self-contained and different from both the learners first language and the target language. According to Corder (1981), this temporary and changing grammatical system which is constructed by the learner, approximates the grammatical system of the target language. In the process of L2 acquisition, interlanguage continually evolves coming ever-closer to the full proficiency in the target language. Theoretically the interlanguage should advance gradually until it becomes equivalent, or nearly equivalent, to the target language. However, during the L2 learning process, an interlanguage may reach reach a stage beyond which any further progress seems to be very slow or altogether halted. A feezing of the interlanguage which results in a permanent halt to progress toward the target language
38
has been referred to as fossilization (Selinker, 1972). This linguistic phenomenon, interlanguage fossilization, can occur despite all reasonable attempts at learning . Fossilization includes those items, rules, and sub-systems that L2 learners tend to retain in their interlanguage, that become an entrenched and permanent aspect of their target language. These imperfect forms of the target language can only be dislodged only with considerable effort. It has also been noticed that fossilization of interlanguage occurs particularly in the case of adult L2 learners. This is considered as one of the most important factors that affects the lack of progression towards the target language, especially in phonology. Brown (2007), however, takes a more moderate view of interlanguage fossilization and endorses the term stabilization used by Long (2003) to emphasise the fact that second language learners may hit a plateau in the progress towards target language and that fossilization is a normal and natural stage for many learners, and should not be viewed as some sort of terminal illness, in spite of the forbidding metaphor that suggests an unchangeable situation etched in stone.
Study the following reading at the end of this unit: The Risk of Fossilization in Language Acquisition
READING
39

Are you aware of any language errors that are made by yourself, in speech or in writing, but find it hard to get rid of them? What reasons do you give for this phenomenon?

With a partner discuss and compile a list of language errors that seem to persist with G.C.E O Level students studying English as a second language.
ACTIVITY
READING THE RISK OF FOSSILIZATION IN LANGUAGE ACQUISITION

[From http://www.brighthub.com/education/languages/articles/63102.aspx] Reading Text The Risk of Fossilization in Language Acquisition For all the effort that you put into learning a language, untangling the grammar, forcing your mouth to make the right sounds, hours spent memorizing vocabulary... at some point, there is a chance that you might just stall. This article discusses this phenomenon, known as fossilization.
40
What Is Fossilization?
We're not talking trilobites and Tyrannosauruses here: language fossilization refers to the process in the learning of a secondary language in which the student has more and more difficulty furthering their fluency in the language, until eventually, the student can learn no more. The language, for all intents and purposes, has been set in stone in the mind of the learner at this last point. Some potential for learning small superficial aspects of the language might still exist, such as vocabulary, but conceptual understanding of the material will not develop any further. Fossilization, thus, is a sort of stagnation in secondary language acquisition that cannot be overcome.
Why Does Fossilization Happen?
There's no real rule determining when certain users may begin to fossilize. It varies widely by the individual and by the environment in which the language is learned. Fossilization most often occurs in an inadequate learning environment. This usually means learning a language in a classroom, as opposed to learning it in the country where it is natively spoken. Many aspects of a language simply cannot be taught in a classroom, where one generally learns a highly academic version of the tongue, as opposed to the colloquial language. However, fossilization can still occur despite complete immersion in a foreign language environment for decades, a well documented phenomenon amongst, for example, immigrants. Clearly, this is not the only issue at stake. Fossilization often means that certain aspects of the language were learned incompletely or incorrectly, such as grammatical features like conjugating verbs in the wrong fashion or using the wrong vocabulary, in such a manner that they cannot be unlearned and replaced with correct usage. Fossilization may also consist of a sort of subconscious clinging to aspects of the learner's mother tongue, for instance, with syntax and phonology. This may reflect an inability to similarly unlearn characteristics of a mother language for the purpose of learning another; the native language so deeply hardwired into the brain that its paradigms cannot be replaced when attempting to learn a new and foreign language.
41
Critical Period Hypothesis
In the critical period hypothesis, or CPH, it is argued that language fossilization is inevitable in those individuals who are learning a language beyond this critical period, which ends roughly at puberty. CPH as generally accepted allows for virtually unlimited learning of superficial elements of a language such as grammar and vocabulary, but fossilization will still occur when it comes to the more intuitive aspects of a language, such as cadence, pronunciation and idiom. However, language fossilization has been noted to varying degrees amongst those still well within the critical period in certain individuals. A minority of individuals, yes, but it proves that those within the CPH are not universally invulnerable to the effect.
The Risk of Fossilization
Fossilization is, again, not well understood, and therefore your risk to develop fossilization is also not understood. The current understanding is that those who are learning the language within a native environment are less likely to fossilize, and at a minimum have a higher threshold at which they fossilize. Learning a language at a younger age, following the CPH, also seems to reduce the risk of fossilization. Still, the debate goes on amongst psycholinguists: keep an eye out for further developments!
Long, Michael. Maturational Constraints on Language Development. Studies in Second Language Acquisition 12 (1990): 251-85.
Corder, S. P. (1981). Error analysis and interlanguage. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
FURTHER READING
42
TOPIC 3.1 CONCEPT OF CONTRASTIVE ANALYSIS IN LANGUAGE LEARNING

y y y
To grasp the concept of contrastive analysis; To different versions of contrastive analysis To use ideas from contrastive analysis to improve classroom teaching.
Contrastive analysis; strong, weak, and moderate versions of contrastive analysis.
Section heading
Background of Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis (CAH)is deeply rooted in the structural linguistics and behavioral psychology that were dominant in the sixties. The term originated from Lados Linguistics across Cultures (1957). He made one of the strongest claims of CAH in the preface of the book. The plan of the book rests on the assumption that we can predict and describe the patterns that will cause difficulty in 1earnirg, and those that will not cause difficulty. by comparing systematically the lahguag and the culture to be learned with the native language and culture of the student. (1957)i) Then, in the first chapter of the book, Lado continues: in the comparison between native and foreign language lies the key to ease or difficulty in foreign language learning ... Those elements that are similar to (the learners) native language will be simple for him, and those elements that are different will be difficult. The linguistic model of CAH is structuralism which was expounded
PRESENTATION
43
by Bloomfield (1933), elaborated by Fries (1945) and Lado (1957). Structuralism assumes that there is a finite structure of a given language that can be documented and compared with another language. Behavioral psychology associated with Skinner was the basis of CAH according to which any kind of learning is viewed as habit formation. Procedures of CAH Whitman (1970:191) breaks the contrastive analysis down to a set of component procedures. The four steps are (1)taking the Iwo languages, Li and L2, and writing format descriptions of them or choosing descriptions of them), (2) picking forms from the descriptions for contrast, (3) making a contrast of the forms chosen, and (4) making a prediction of difficulty through the contrast. Here, the term form refers to any linguistic unit of any size. To describe the prediction stage. Stockwell et al. (1965) propose a hierarchy of difficulty based on the notions of transfer (positive, negative, and zero).When the structures of the given two languages are similar, positive transfer will occur while with those that are different, a negative transfer will take place. Where there is no relation between those structures of the two languages zero transfer will occur. Three Different Versions of CAH In view of predictability. CAH is classified into strong, moderate, and weak versions. Wardhaugh (1970) classified the strong version of CAH as that version that claims the ability to predict difficulty through contrastive analysis. The assumption is thai the two languages can be compared a priori. The strong version claims the following:
(1) The main obstacle to second language learning is from the

interference of the learners native language system.
(2) The greater the difference between native language and

target language, the greater the difficulty will be.
(3) systematic and scientific analysis of the two language

systems can help predict the difficulties. (4) The result of contrastive analysis can be used as a reliable source in the preparation of teaching materials, the planning
44
of course and the improvement of classroom techniques. Wardhaugh (1970:126) notes that contrastive analysis has intuitive appeal and that teachers and linguists have successfully used the best linguistic knowledge available in order to account for observed difficulties in second language learning. He called such observational use of contrastive analysis the weak version of CAH. Here, the emphasis shifts from the predictive power of the relative difficulty, to the explanatory power of observable errors. This version has been developed into Error Analysis (EA). CAH is a theory or hypothesis while the EA is an assessment tool. Oller and Ziahosseiny (l97O) proposed a moderate version of CAH based on their study of spelling errors on the dictation section of the UCLA placement test in English as a second language. They found that the strong version was too strong while the weak version was too weak. Here they focused on the nature of human learning and proposed the moderate version which is summarized as : The categorization of abstract and concrete patterns according to their perceived similarities and differences is the basis for learning; therefore, wherever patterns are minimally distinct in form or meaning in one or more systems, confusion may result (186). In the same way. Brown (1987: l6l) explains the technica idea applying it to human learning interference can actually he greater when items to be learned are similar to existing items than when the items are new and unrelated to existing items
Study the following reading at the end of this unit: Psycholinguistic aspects of interlanguage
READING
45

In your opinion, when is the negative transfer between L1 and L2 at its greatest? When the two languages are quite different, or when they are quite similar?

Make list of language structures in your L1 which you perceive as unmarked and therefore easily transferable to L2, and those structures which you perceive as marked and therefore not easily transferable to L2.
ACTIVITY
READING ONE PSYCHOLINGUISTICASPECTS OF LANGUAGE LEARNING

[From Ellis, R. (1997). Second Language Acquisition. Oxford University Press. Chap. 6) ] Reading Text Psycholinguistic aspects of interlanguage
Theoretical accounts of Li transfer have undergone considerable revision since the early days of SLA. In the heyday of behaviourism it was believed that errors were largely the result of interference (another term for negative transfer). That is, the habits of the Li were supposed to prevent the learner from learning the habits of the L2. In the belief that interference, and thereby learning difficulty, could be predicted by identifying those areas of the target language that were different from the learners L1, comparisons of the two languages were carried out using contrastive analysis. The resulting list of differences was used to make decisions about the content of teaching materials.
46
As we have already seen, behaviourist theories cannot adequately account for L2 acquisition and they fell out of favour in the early 1970s. This led to two developments. Some theorists, espousing strong mentalist accounts of L2 acquisition, sought to play down the role of the L1. They argued that very few errors were the result of L1 transfer. An analysis of the errors produced by Spanish learners of L2 English, for example, led one pair of researchers to claim that less than 5 per cent of the errors were the result of transfer. This minimalist view of L1 transfer, however, has not withstood the test of time. The second development was to reconceptualize transfer within a cognitive framework. This was begun by Larry Selinker. In his formulation of interlanguage theory he identified language transfer as one of the mental processes responsible for fossilization. Subsequently, there has been widespread acknowledgement that learners draw on their L1 in forming interlanguage hypotheses. Learners do not construct rules in a vacuum; rather they work with whatever information is at their disposal. This includes knowledge of their LI. The L1 can be viewed as a kind of input from the inside. According to this view, then, transfer is not interference but a cognitive process. One of the main objections to a behaviourist account of LI transfer is that transfer errors do not always occur when they are predicted to occur. That is, differences between the target and native languages do not always result in learning difficulty. Whereas a behaviourist theory cannot easily account for this, a cognitive theory, which recognizes that transfer will occur under some conditions but not under others, can do so. SLA has succeeded in identifying some of the cognitive constraints that govern the transfer of L1 knowledge.
Kellerman, E.(1983). Now you see it, now you dont in S. Gass and L. Selinker (eds.): Language Transfer in Language Learning. Newbury House 1983, pages 1134
FURTHER READING
Brown, D. (2007). Principles of language learning and teaching. New York: Pearson. (Chapter 9)
47
TOPIC 3.2 INTRALINGUAL TRANSFER

y y y y
To study language produced by students with more insight; To research, and itemize the intralingual errors of students; To distinguish between interlingual and intralingual errors To explore and develop methodologies for correcting students language errors.
Over generalization; ignorance of rule restriction; incomplete application of rules; false concept hypothesized
Section heading
PRESENTATION
Under Topic 2.2 Language Transfer we considered interlingual transfer, or the influence of L1 in acquiring L2. The contrastive analysis hypothesis discussed in the previous lesson focused on this aspect of transfer. Researchers maintain that interlingual transfer is a feature in the early stages of acquiring a second language. However, once the learners have begun to acquire parts of the linguistic system of the second language, more and more intralingual transfer becomes evident. Intralingual transfer mostly takes the form of generalizantions within the target language. In examples of negative intralingual transfer such as Does John can sing?, He goed, or I dont know what time is it, it is not easy to trace the source of the intralingual error. Only repeated, systematic observation of the error can remove the ambiguity surrounding the source of such an error. Applied linguists studying intralingual errors have identified three broad categories of intralingual errors: (1) overgeneralization, (2) ignorance of rule restriction, (3) incomplete application of rules, and
48
(4) false concept hypothesized. In second language acquisition, overgeneralization usually occurs when the learner, acting within the target language, generalize a particular rule or item beyond its legitimate bounds. It has been observed that children, at a particular stage of learning English as a native language, overgeneralize the regular past tense verb form ed and apply it to all verbs resulting in the production of past verb forms such as goed or flied until they recognize a subset verbs that belong to an irregular category. Ignorance of rule restrictions involves a failure to perceive the restrictions of existing structures when rules are extended to other contexts. It might result from analogical extension or the rote learning of rules. For example, misuse of the infinitive form of the verb in I made her to do it reflects how learners may ignore limitations in the use of the verb make. They may feel that there is something missing in I made her do it as they have been taught the constructions of tell, allow, or enable + object to infinitive. Therefore, incorrect rules are applied through analogy when they use the infinitive with to after the object following make. Incomplete application of rules or a failure to achieve complete knowledge of the second language occurs in cases where the learner finds he can have successful communication by using simple rules rather than mere complex ones. The learner tends to apply some of the rules and continues to make deviant forms in order to make himself easily understood. A good example of this is seen when learners do not conjugate verbs in relation to their antecedent, for instance, she know what she want. This can reflect learners incomplete application of agreement rules since they are supposed to add s to know and want in accord with a third person singular pronoun, she. False concept hypothesized, which is sometimes treated under developmental errors, refers to errors derived from faulty knowledge of target language distinctions or inaccurate ideas about language rules. One example is that learners often substitute one word for another such as bring for take in I will bring it to you. Though these two words, in fact, have contrasting meanings, learners may
49
assume that this pair is a synonym and can be used interchangeably.
Study the following reading at the end of this unit:

Typical English intralingual errors in the use of articles
READING 1

Out of the four categories of intralingual errors which category is the most dominant (a) in speaking or (b) in writing with Sri Lankan Second language learners? Can you give reasons?

Study the table of intralingual errors given in the Reading 1. Which of these errors are typical of Sri Lankan students learning English as a second language?
ACTIVITY
Can you add to the list?
50
READING ONE TYPICAL ENGLISH INTRALINGUAL ERRORS IN THE USE OF ARTICLES

[From Richards, J. (1971). A non-contrastive approach to error analysis. English Language Teaching. P.187) ] Reading Text
Typical English intralingual errors in the use of articles 1. Omission of the a. before unique nouns b. before nouns of nationality c. before nouns made particular in context d. before a noun modified by a participle e. before superlatives f. before a noun modified by an of phrase 2. the used instead of zero article a. before proper names b. before abstract nouns c. before nouns behaving like abstract nouns d. before plural nouns e. before some 3. a used instead of the a. before superlatives b. before unique nouns 4. a instead of zero article a worst, a best boy in the class a sun becomes red. The Shakespeare The friendship, the nature, the science After the school, after the breakfast The complex structures are still developing The some knowledge Sun is very hot Himalayas are... Spaniards and Arabs ... She goes to bazaar everyday She is mother ofthat baby Solution given in this article Richest person Institute of Nuclear Physics
51
a. Before plural noun qualified by

an adjective b. before uncountables c. before an adjective 5. Omission of a Before class nouns defined by Adjectives
a holy places, a human beings

a bad news a gold, a work ... taken as a definite
he was good boy he was brave man
Odlin, Terrence. (1989). Language Transfer. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Richards, J. (1971). A non-contrastive approach to error analysis. English Language Teaching. 25, 204 - 219
FURTHER READING
52
TOPIC 3.3 ERROR ANALYSIS

y y y
To distinguish between contrastive analysis and error analysis; To use elements from both to improve classroom teaching ; To show interest in making methodical analysis of students errors with a view to repairing them.
Language errors; language mistakes
Section heading
ERROR ANALYSIS
Learning is fundamentally a process that involves the making of mistakes. Mistakes, misjudgments, miscalculations and erroneous assumptions form an important aspect of learning virtually any skill or acquiring information. Success comes by profiting from mistakes by using mistakes to obtain feedback from the environment, and with that feedback to make new attempts that successively approximate desired goals. Language learning, in this sense, is like any other learning. children learning their first language make countless mistakes from the point of view of adult grammatical language. Many of these mistakes are logical in the limited linguistic system within which children operate, but, by carefully processing feedback from others, children slowly but surely learn to produce ,what is acceptable speech in their native language. Second language learning is a process that is clearly not unlike first language learning in its trial-and-error nature. Inevitably learners will make mistakes in the process of acquisition,
PRESENTATION
53
and that process will be impeded if they do not commit errors and then benefit from various forms of feedback on those errors. Researchers and teachers of second languages came to realize that the mistakes a person make in this process of constructing a new system of language needed to be analyzed carefully, for they possibly held in them some of the keys to the understanding of the process of second language acquisition (James, 1998). As Corder (1967, p.167) noted: A learners errors . . . are significant in [that] they provide to the researcher evidence of how language is learned or acquired, what strategies or procedures the learner is employing in the discovery of the language.
Mistakes and Errors

In order to analyze learner language in an appropriate perspective, it is crucial to make a distinction between mistakes and errors. These are technically two very different phenomena. A mistake refers to a performance error that is either a random guess or a slip, in that it is a failure to utilize a known system correctly. All people make mistakes in both native and second language situations. Native speakers are normally capable of recognizing and correcting such lapses or mistakes, which are not the result of a deficiency in competence but the result of some sort of temporary breakdown or imperfection in the process of producing speech. These hesitations, slips of the tongue, random ungrammaticalities, and other performance lapses in native-speaker production also occur in second language speech. Mistakes, when attention is called to them, can be self-corrected. Mistakes must be carefully distinguished from errors of a second language learner, idiosyncrasies in the language of the learner that are direct manifestations of a system within which a learner is operating at the time. An error, a noticeable deviation from the adult grammar of a native speaker, reflects the competence of the learner. Learners of English who ask Does John can sing? are in all likelihood reflecting a competence level in which all verbs require a pre-posed do auxiliary for question formation. As such, it is an error, most likely not a mistake, and an error that reveals a portion of the learners competence in the target language. Can you tell the difference between an error and a mistake? Not
54
always. An error cannot be self-corrected, according to James (1998. p. 83), while mistakes can be self-corrected if the deviation is pointed out to the speaker. But the learners capacity for selfcorrection is objectively observable only if the learner actually selfcorrects: therefore, if no such self-correction occurs, we are still left with no means to identify error vs. mistake. So, can we turn to frequency of a deviant form as a criterion? Sometimes. If, on one or two occasions, an English learner says John cans sing, but on other occasions says John can sing, it is difficult to determine whether cans is a mistake or an error. If, however, further examination of the learners speech consistently reveals such utterances as John wills go, John mays come, and so forth, with very few instances of correct third-person singular usage of modal auxiliaries, you might safely conclude that cans, mays, and other such forms are errors indicating that the learner has not distinguished modals from other verbs. But it is possible, because of the few correct instances of production of this form, that the learner is on the verge of making the necessary differentiation between the two types of verbs.
(Extracted from Brown, H. D. (2007). 5th ed. Principles of language learning and teaching. San Francisco: Pearson Longman. pp 257-258)
Study the following reading at the end of this unit: Error Analysis
READING
55

Think back to the time you were learning English as a second language. What kind of language errors (in speech, or in writing) did you make? Were some errors more difficult to correct than others?

Study the Reading at the end of this unit, and prepare a flow chart similar to Figure 9.1 on page 261 in Brown (2007) detailing the the 5 steps of error analysis suggested by Ellis.
ACTIVITY
READING ERROR ANALYSIS

[From Ellis, R. (1986). Understanding Second Language Acquisition. Oxford University Press.]
Reading Text
Error Analysis Sridhar (1981) points out that Error Analysis has a long tradition. Prior to the early 1970s, however, Error Analysis consisted of little more than impressionistic collections of common errors and their linguistic classification (e.g. French 1949). The goals of traditional Error Analysis were pedagogicerrors provided information which could be used to sequence items for teaching or to devise remedial lessons. The absence of any theoretical framework for explaining the role played by errors in the process of SLA led to no serious attempt to define error or to account for it in psychological terms. Also as the enthusiasm for Contrastive Analysis grew, so the interest in Error Analysis declined. In accordance with Behaviourist learning theory, the
56
prevention of errors (the goal of Contrastive Analysis) was more important than the identification of errors. It was not until the late 1960s that there was a resurgence of interest in Error Analysis. A series of articles by Corder (e.g. 1967; 1971; 1974) both traced this resurgence and helped to give it direction. The procedure for Error Analysis is spelled out in Corder (1974). It is as follows. (1) A corpus of language is selected. This involves deciding on the size of the sample, the medium to be sampled, and the homogeneity of the sample (with regard to the learners ages, L1 background, stage of development, etc). (2) The errors in the corpus are identiied. Corder (1971) points out the need to distinguish lapses (i.e. deviant sentences that are the result of processing limitations rather than lack of competence) from errors (i.e. deviant sentences that are the result of lack of competence). He also points out that sentences can be overtly idiosyncratic (i.e. they are ill formed in terms of target language rules) and covertly idiosyncratic (i.e. sentences that are superficially well formed but when their context of use is examined are clearly ungrammatical). (3) The errors are classified. This involves assigning a grammatical description to each error. (4) The errors are explained. In this stage of the procedure an attempt is made to identify the psycholinguistic cause of the errors. For example, an attempt could be made to establish which of the five processes described by Selinker (1972) (as discussed earlier in this chapter) is responsible for each error. (5) The errors are evaluated. This stage involves assessing the seriousness of each error in order to take principled teaching decisions. Error evaluation is necessary only if the purpose of the Error Analysis is pedagogic. It is redundant if the Error Analysis is carried out in order to research SLA.
Brown, H. D. (2007). 5th ed. Principles of language learning and teaching. San Francisco: Pearson Longman. Chap 9. Ellis, R. (1986). Understanding Second Language Acquisition. Oxford University Press. Chap 2.
FURTHER READING
57
TOPIC 3.4 PEDAGOGICAL IMPLICATIONS OF ERROR ANALYSIS

To distinguish between a mistake and an error; To analyse language errors for their possible source ; To explain how error analysis relates to language teaching pedagogy

Error correction; repeating; echoing; denial; questioning;
Section heading
PRESENTATION
Error analysis can be used in order to (i) identify strategies which learners use in language learning, (ii) identify the causes of learner errors, and (iii) obtain information on common difficulties in language learning as an aid to teaching or in development of teaching materials (Richards et al.1992). Thus the results of error analysis can provide useful insight into second language teaching/learning. Teachers can benefit from the findings of error analysis in many ways. Errors tell the teacher how far towards the expected goal the learner has progressed and what remains to be learned. With this knowledge the teacher will be able to devise teaching strategies for remedial work. Errors are a means of feedback for the teacher to assess how effective his/her teaching style is and what changes must be effected to get higher performance from the students. Errors also indicate to the teacher the language items that need further attention.
58
How should teachers correct students? What kind of feedback should they give? Does each error need to be treated? Error analysis has an important role in finding the answers to these questions. In general, the teachers job is to point out when something has gone wrong and see whether the student can correct himself. This helps the teacher find out if what the student says or writes is just a mistake, or an error. However, the technique of correction is not simply presenting the data repeatedly and going through the same set of drills and exercises to produce a state of over learning. On the contrary, it requires that the teacher understands the source of the errors so that he can provide appropriate remedial work to overcome learners wrong use of language and allows him/her to discover the relevant rules. Harmer (1998) suggests three steps to be followed by the teacher when errors occur. The teacher first listens to the students, then identifies the problem, and puts it right in the most efficient way. Corder (1973) states that the ability to perceive language mistakes is the only the starting point. Skill lies in determining and presenting the appropriate data to help correction. Since no teacher has time to deal with all the errors of the students, a hierarchy should be established for the correction of errors according to nature and significance of errors. In such a hierarchy, priority should be given to errors which may affect communication and cause misunderstanding. For example, Brown (2000) suggests that local errors as in the following example usually need not be corrected as the message is clear, and correction might interrupt a learner in the flow of productive communication: * I gave she a present. On the other hand, global errors need to be treated in some way since the message is not comprehended clearly: * Daddy my car happy tomorrow buy. Errors in pluralization, use of articles, tenses, etc. are less important than errors regarding word order, the choice of placement and appropriate connectors in terms of the comprehensibility of the sentence. Therefore, it is implied that in error correction priority should be given to global errors in order to develop the students communication skills. The knowledge of error analysis enables the teacher to monitor the students errors and repair the
59
mistakes/errors. Different kinds of tasks may require different treatment. The reaction of the teacher towards errors and the type of feedback to be given is usually determined by the gravity of the error in the objective of the task. In oral work, it is usually recommended that students making mistakes during a fluent speech should not be interrupted, but be reminded of the mistakes later on and reasons must be talked about. The type of feedback, whether form-focused or content-focused must be decided on the goal of the language activity. If the goal is to make the students practice a certain grammar point, it may be necessary to give form-focused feedback. For correcting written works, it is accepted that the teacher should not correct the students mistakes himself/herself, but must indicate in some way that there is something wrong with the writing. An agreed set of symbols can be used to indicate the type of mistake made.
Study the following reading at the end of this unit: Correction
READING

Some teachers hold the view that when a student makes a mistake while speaking, he/she should be interrupted immediately and the mistake corrected before he/she is allowed to continue. Do you think this is good practice? Give your reasons. Similarly, many teachers are in the habit of correcting all the mistakes in the written work produced by a student. Are you one of them? Give your reasons.
60

Read Section 8.3 Correcting written work on pages 146 & 147 of The Practice of English Language Teaching by Jeremy Harmer (1991)
ACTIVITY
READING CORRECTION
[From J. Harmer (1991) The Practice of English Language Teaching (Chapter 6: Introducing new language structure), Longman.] Reading Text Correction
During the accurate reproduction phase there are two basic correction stages: showing incorrectness (indicating to the student that something is wrong see 6.3.2 (b)) and using correction techniques. (a) Showing incorrectness This means that we will indicate to the student that a mistake has been made. If the student understands this feedback he or she will be able to correct the mistake and this self-correction will be helpful to him or her as part of the learning process. There are a number of techniques for showing incorrectness 1 Repeating: Here we simply ask the student to repeat what he or she has just said by using the word again. This, said with a questioning intonation, will usually indicate that the response was unsatisfactory (although it could be misunderstood as only indicating that the teacher has not heard the students response). 2 Echoing: We will be even clearer if we repeat what the student has just said, using a questioning intonation since this will clearly indicate that we are doubting the accuracy or
61
content of what is being said. Sometimes we can echo the complete student response, probably stressing the part of the utterance that was incorrect, for example: Flight 309 GO to Paris? Another possibility is to echo the students response, but only up to the point where the mistake was made, for example: Flight 309 GO? This was the technique used in our example on page 66. Echoing, in its various forms, is probably the most efficient way of showing incorrectness. 3 Denial: We can simply tell the student that the response was unsatisfactory and ask for it to be repeated. This seems somewhat drier than the techniques so far discussed; it may be a bit more discouraging. 4 Questioning: We can say Is that correct? asking any student in the class to answer our question. This has the advantage of focusing everybodys mind on the problem, though it may make the student who made the mistake seem somewhat exposed. 5 Expression: Many teachers indicate that a response was incorrect by their expression or by some gesture. This is very economical (and can be quite funny) but can be dangerous if the student thinks that the expression or gesture is a form of mockery. In general, showing incorrectness should be handled with tact and consideration. The process of student selfcorrection which it provokes is an important and useful part of the learning process. Showing incorrectness should be seen as a positive act, in other words, not as a reprimand. Frequently, however, we find that showing incorrectness is not enough for the correction of a mistake or an error and the teacher may therefore have to use some correction techniques. (b) Using correction techniques If students are unable to correct themselves we can resort to one of the following techniques. 1 Student corrects student: we can ask if anyone else can give the correct response. We can ask if anyone can help the student who has made the mistake. If another student can supply the correct information it will be good for that students self-esteem. However, the student who originally made the mistake may feel humiliated if this technique is used insensitively. 2 Teacher corrects student(s): Sometimes we may feel that we should take charge of correction because the students are extremely mixed-up about what the correct response should be. In
62
that case we can re-explain the item of language which is causing the trouble. This will be especially appropriate when we see that a majority of the class are having the same problem. After the re-explanation we can move to choral and individual repetition (if necessary) before moving on. The object of using correction techniques of course, is to give the student(s) a chance to (know how to) get the new language right. It is important, therefore, that when we have used one of the techniques suggested above, we ask the student who originally made the mistake to give us a correct response.
J. Harmer (1991) The Practice of English Language Teaching, Longman. Frodsen, J. (2001). Grammar in Writing . In M. Celce-Murcia (Ed.) Teaching English as a Second or Foreign Language (pp 233 248). Heinle & Heinle: Thomson Learning .
FURTHER READING
63
TOPIC 4.1 LEARNING STYLES

To understand how learning process varies according learning styles of individuals; How to devise teaching methods to address the various learning styles within the class ; To find out and reflect on their own style of learning.

y y y y
Visual (spatial): Aural (auditory musical); Verbal (linguistic); Physical (kinesthetic); Logical mathematical); Social (interpersonal); Solitary (intrapersonal).
Section heading
PRESENTATION
Its a well-known observation that people learn in indifferent ways; they have different learning styles and techniques. However, a person is not confined to one single learning style, rather it is a mixture of learning styles with, perhaps, one dominant style of learning. Also, learners may use different learning styles depending on the learning task at hand. By recognizing and understanding the learners learning styles, teaching techniques better suited to them can be used to improve the speed and quality of their learning. Language researchers have come up with various taxonomies of learner styles in their attempts to categorise learner styles. Brown (2007), for example, discusses learner styles under the headings tolerance of ambiguity, left/right brain approach, reflective style/impulsive style. A more descriptive categorization of learner styles is as follows:
64
y y y y y y y y
Visual (spatial): You prefer using pictures, images, and spatial understanding. Aural (auditory-musical): You prefer using sound and music. Verbal (linguistic): You prefer using words, both in speech and writing. Physical (kinesthetic): You prefer using your body, hands and sense of touch. Logical (mathematical): You prefer using logic, reasoning and systems. Social (interpersonal): You prefer to learn in groups or with other people. Solitary (intrapersonal): You prefer to work alone and use selfstudy. Another area that has attracted much attention with regard to describing learning styles is the concept of field independence (FI) and field dependence (FD). Persons with field independence style of learning are able to focus and concentrate thier attention on a single item without being distracted by the surrounding items. For example, someone who is able to concentrate on reading a book in a nosy room full of people can be said to exhibit a field independent style of learning. It helps a learner to distinguish parts from a whole and concentrate on them. Field independence is usually viewed as a positive trait in the learning process. However, too much field independence can result in what is called the tunnel vision; that is the learner is able to see the individual parts, but misses the relationship of the parts to the whole a kind of not seeing the wood for the trees. Field independence increases as a learner matures and it is a relatively stable trait in adulthood. Persons with field dependent style of learning, on the other hand, tend to perceive things as a whole. They have a synthetic view and tend to look at the global aspect of things. Most people exhibit a mixture of both field independent and field dependent styles of learning, but may gravitate towards one than the other.
65
Study the following reading at the end of this unit: Learning Styles
READING 1

Are there good language learners and poor language learners? Can poor language learners benefit from being taught the strategies that good learners use, or do you need to be a good learner already to use some of the strategies?

Visit http://www.ldpride.net/learning-style-test.html Or http://www.learning-styles-online.com/inventory/questions.php
ACTIVITY
and take the online test to find out your learning style. Compare yours with a partners.
66
READING ONE LEARNING STYLES

[From Oxford, R. L. (2001). Language Learning Styles and Strategies . In M. CelceMurcia (Ed.) Teaching English as a Second or Foreign Language (pp 359 366). Heinle & Heinle: Thomson Learning . ]
Reading Text
LEARNING STYLES
Ehrman and Oxford (1990) cited nine major style dimensions relevant to L2 learning, although many more style aspects might also prove to be influential. This chapter discusses four dimensions of learning style that are likely to be among those most strongly associated with L2 learning: sensory preferences, personality types, desired degree of generality, and biological differences. Learning styles are not dichotomous (black or white, present or absent), but generally operate on a continuum or on multiple, intersecting continua. For example, a person might be more extroverted than introverted, or more closure-oriented than open, or equally visual and auditory but less kinesthetic and tactile. Few if any people could be classified as having all or nothing in any of these categories (Ehrman 1996). Sensory Preferences Sensory preferences can be broken down into four main areas: visual, auditory, kinesthetic (movement-oriented), and tactile (touch-oriented). Sensory preferences refer to the physical, perceptual learning channels with which the student is the most comfortable. Visual students like to read and obtain a great deal from visual stimulation. For them, lectures, conversations, and oral instructions without any visual backup can be very confusing. In contrast, auditory students are comfortable without visual input and therefore enjoy and profit from unembellished lectures, conversations, and oral instructions. They are excited by classroom interactions in role plays and similar activities. They sometimes, however, have difficulty with written work. Kinesthetic and tactile students like lots of movement and enjoy working with tangible objects, collages, and flashcards. Sitting at a desk for very long is not for them; they prefer to have frequent breaks and move around the room. Reid (1987) demonstrated that ESL students varied significantly in their sensory preferences, with people from certain cultures differentially favoring the four different ways of learning. Students from Asian cultures, for instance, were often highly visual, with Koreans being the most visual. Many studies, including Reid's, found that
67
Hispanic learners were frequently auditory. Reid discovered that Japanese were very nonauditory. ESL students from a variety of cultures were tactile and kinesthetic in their sensory preferences. See also Reid (1995) and Oxford and Anderson (1995). Personality Types Another style aspect that is important for L2 education is personality type, which consists of four strands: extroverted versus introverted; intuitive-random versus sensing-sequential; thinking versus feeling; and closure-oriented/judging versus open/perceiving. Personality type (often called psychological type) is a construct based on the work of psychologist Carl Jung. Ehrman and Oxford (1989, 1990) found significant relationships between personality type and L2 proficiency in native-English-speaking learners of foreign languages. For more on personality type in language learning, see Ehrman (1996) and Oxford (1996b). Extroverted versus Introverted By definition, extroverts gain their greatest energy from the external world. They want interaction with people and have many friendships, some deep and some not. In contrast, introverts derive their energy from the internal world, seeking solitude and tending to have just a few friendships, which are often very deep. Extroverts and introverts can learn to work together with the help of the teacher. Enforcing time limits in the L2 classroom can keep extroverts' enthusiasm to a manageable level. Rotating the person in charge of leading L2 discussions gives introverts an opportunity to participate equally with extroverts. Intuitive-Random versus Sensing-Sequential Intuitive-random students think in abstract, futuristic, large-scale, and nonsequential ways. They like to create theories and new possibilities, often have sudden insights, and prefer to guide their own learning. In contrast, sensing-sequential learners are grounded in the here and now. They like facts rather than theories, want guidance and specific instruction from the teacher, and look for consistency. The key to teaching both intuitive-random and sensing-sequential learners is to offer variety and choice: sometimes a highly organized structure for sensing-sequential learners, and at other times multiple options and enrichment activities for intuitive-random students. Thinking versus Feeling Thinking learners are oriented toward the stark truth, even if it hurts some people's feelings. They want to be viewed as competent and do not tend to offer praise easilyeven though they might secretly desire to be praised themselves. Sometimes they seem detached. In comparison, feeling learners value other people in very personal ways. They show empathy and compassion through words, not just behaviors, and say whatever is needed to smooth over difficult situations. Though they often wear their hearts on their sleeves, they want to be respected for personal contributions and hard work. L2 teachers can help thinking learners show greater overt compassion to their feeling classmates and can suggest that feeling learners might tone down their emotional expression while working with thinking learners. Closure-oriented/Judging versus Open/Perceiving
68
Closure-oriented students want to reach judgments or completion quickly and want clarity as soon as possible. These students are serious, hardworking learners who like to be given written information and enjoy specific tasks with deadlines. Sometimes their desire for closure hampers the development of fluency (Ehrman and Oxford 1989). In contrast, open learners want to stay available for continuously new perceptions and are therefore sometimes called "perceiving." They rake L2 learning less seriously, treating it like a game to be enjoyed rather than a set of tasks to be completed. Open learners dislike deadlines; they rant to have a good time and seem to soak up L2 information by osmosis rather than hard effort. Open learners sometimes do better than closure-oriented learners in developing fluency (Ehrman and Oxford 1989), but they are at a disadvantage in a traditional classroom setting. Closure-oriented and open learners provide a good balance for each other in the L2 classroom. The former are task-driven learners, and the latter know how to have fun. Skilled L2 teachers sometimes consciously create cooperative groups that include both types of learners, since they can benefit from collaboration with each other. Desired Degree of Generality This strand contrasts the learner who focuses on the main idea or big picture with the learner who concentrates on details. Global or holistic students like socially interactive, communicative events in which they can emphasize the main idea and avoid analysis of grammatical minutiae. They are comfortable even when not having all the information, and they feel free to guess from the context. Analytic students tend to concentrate on grammatical details and often avoid more free-flowing communicative activities. Because of their concern for precision, analytic learners typically do not take the risks necessary for guessing from the context unless they are fairly sure of the accuracy of their guesses. The global student and the analytic student have much to learn from each other. A balance between generality and specificity is very useful for L2 learning. Biological Differences Differences in L2 learning style can also be related to biological factors, such as biorhythms, sustenance, and location. Biorhythms reveal the times of day when students feel good and perform their best. Some L2 learners are morning people, while others do not want to start learning until the afternoon, and still others are creatures of the evening, happily "pulling an allnighter" when necessary. Sustenance refers to the need for food or drink while learning. Quite a number of L2 learners feel very comfortable learning with a candy bar, a cup of coffee, or a soda in hand, but others are distracted from study by food and drink. Location involves the nature of the environment: temperature, lighting, sound, and even the firmness of the chairs. L2 students differ widely with regard to these environmental factors. The biological aspects of L2 learning style are often forgotten, but vigilant teachers can often make accommodations and compromises when needed. Beyond the Stylistic Comfort Zone
69
L2 learners clearly need to make the most of their style preferences. However, occasionally they must also extend themselves beyond these preferences. By providing a wide range of classroom activities that cater to different learning styles, teachers can help L2 students develop beyond the comfort zone dictated by their natural style preferences. The key is systematically offering a great variety of activities within learner centred, communicative approach.
Cohen, A.D. 1998. Strategies in Learning and Using a Second Language. Essex, UK: Longman Oxford, R. L. 1990. Language Learning Strategies: What Every Teacher Should Know. Boston, MA: Heinle & Heinle Publishers
FURTHER READING
70
TOPIC 4.2 LEARNING STRATEGIES : METACOGNITIVE STRATEGIES

By the end of the topic, participants will be able: y y y The importance of learning strategies in second language teaching/learning; To discover the learning strategies used by their students; To make training of learning strategies a part of the language lesson.
Learning strategies; metacognitive strategies;
Section heading
PRESENTATION
All students devise their own strategies of learning either consciously or subconsciously. It has been demonstrated that the use of learning strategies is directly related to the students achievement and proficiency in language learning. Although all learners use learning strategies some students use them more effectively than others with the result that they are perceived as good language learners. Less able language learners typically do not use learning strategies in a consistent manner; their use of language learning strategies is random, unconnected and uncontrolled. The successful language learners use learning strategies in a more conscious, systematic, and relevant way. Various language researchers and applied linguists have come up with various categories of language learning strategies. Oxford (1990), for example identifies six main categories of L2 learning strategies. OMalley and Chamot (1990) have put forward an alternative taxonomy of learning strategies. Brown (2007) discusses learning strategies under three categories metacognitive
71
strategies, cognitive strategies, and socioaffective strategies. This lesson focuses on metacognitive strategies. Metacognition can be described as thinking about thinking. This means the student not only attends to a learning task, but after the completion of the learning task he/she reflects upon the steps and processes he/she went through in tackling the task. Looking at it in another way, metacognition can be described as retracing the steps of ones thinking process. This involves processes like identifying ones own learning style, planning, gathering and organising materials, self-monitoring of mistakes, evaluating success, directing attention. In general, the learner is actively engaged in the learning task before, while, and after. Through many studies conducted by researchers it has been conclusively proved that teaching students to employ metacognitive strategies has had a demonstrable increase in the proficiency in second language.
Study the following reading at the end of this unit: Metacognitive Learning Strategies
READING 1
Study the following reading at the end of this unit: Learning Strategies
READING 2
72

What is your learning style? In what way does your personal learning style affect your teaching?

Make a list of the strategies that you use when you want to (1) remember a new vocabulary item, (2) remember the spelling of a word which is difficult to remember.
ACTIVITY
Write down the learning strategies you have seen your students using in their L2 classroom.
READING ONE METACOGNITIVE LEARNING STRATEGIES

[From http://www.nclrc.org/guides/HED/chapter2.html]
Reading Text
Metacognitive learning strategies are general learning strategies. Reflecting upon your own thinking and learning is metacognitive thinking. Once students begin to think about their own learning, they can then begin to notice how they learn, how others learn, and how they might adjust how they learn to learn more efficiently. We list four general metacognitive strategies:
y y y y
Organize/Plan Your Own Learning Manage Your Own Learning Monitor Your Own Learning Evaluate Your Own Learning
These metacognitive strategies follow the sequential order of the process a learner generally goes through in accomplishing any task. What do I do before I start? (Organize/Plan) What do I do while I am working on the task? (Manage) How do I make sure I am doing the task correctly?
73
(Monitor) What do I do after I have finished the task? (Evaluate) It is important to remember, however, that learners are not as linear as our models suggest. In reality, we go back and forth: planning, then monitoring, then planning again, managing, organizing, etc.
READING TWO LEARNING STRATEGIES

[From Ellis, R. (1997). Second Language Acquisition. Oxford University Press. Text Learning strategies
Language aptitude and motivation constitute general factors that influence the rate and level of L2 achievement. But how does their influence operate? One possibility is that they affect the nature and the frequency with which individual learners use learning strategies. Learning strategies are the particular approaches or techniques that learners employ to try to learn an U. They can be behavioural (for example, repeating new words aloud to help you remember them) or they can be mental (for example, using the linguistic or situational context to infer the meaning of a new word). They are typically problem-oriented. That is, learners employ learning strategies when they are faced with some problem, such as how to remember a new word. Learners are generally aware of the strategies they use and, when asked, can explain what they did to try to learn something. Different kinds of learning strategies have been identified. Cognitive strategies are those that are involved in the analysis, synthesis or transformation of learning materials. An example is recombination, which involves constructing a meaningful sentence by recombining known elements of the L2 in a new way. Metacognitive strategies are those involved in planning, monitoring, and evaluating learning. An example is selective attention, where the learner makes a conscious decision to attend to particular aspects of the input. Social/affective strategies concern the ways in which learners choose to interact with other speakers. An example is questioning for clarification(i.e. asking for repetition, a paraphrases or an example). There have been various attempts to discover which strategies are important for L2 acquisition. One way is to investigate how good language learners try to learn. This involves identifying learners who have been successful in learning an L2 and interviewing them to find out the
74
strategies that worked for them. One of the main findings of such studies is that successful language learners pay attention to both form and meaning. Good language learners are also very active (i.e. they use strategies for taking charge of their own learning), show awareness of the learning process and their own personal learning styles and, above all, are flexible and appropriate in their use of learning strategies. They seem to be especially adept at using metacognitive strategies. Other studies have sought to relate learners reported use of different strategies to their L2 proficiency to try to find out which strategies are important for language development. Such studies have shown, not surprisingly, that successful learners use more strategies than unsuccessful learners. They have also shown that different ent strategies are related to different aspects of L2 learning. Thus, strategies that involve formal practice (for example, rehearsing a new word) contribute to the development of linguistic competence whereas strategies involving functional practice (for example, seeking out native speakers to talk to) aid the development of communicative skills. Successful learners may also call on different strategies at different stages of their development. However, there is the problem with how to interpret this research. Does strategy use result in learning or does learning increase learners ability to employ more strategies? At the moment, it is not clear. An obvious question concerns how these learning strategies relate to the general kinds of psycholinguistic processes discussed in Chapter 6. What strategies are involved in noticing or noticing the gap, for example? Unfortunately, however, no attempt has yet been made to incorporate the various learning strategies that have been identified into a model of psycholinguistic processing. The approach to date has been simply to describe strategies and quantify their use. The study of learning strategies is of potential value to language teachers. If those strategies that are crucial for learning can be identified, it may prove possible to train students to use them. We will examine this idea in the broader context of a discussion of the role of instruction in L2 acquisition.
Brown, D. (2007). Principles of language learning and teaching. New York: Pearson. (Chapter 5)
OMalley, J. M. and A. U. Chamot. (1990). Learning Strategies in Second Language Acquisition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
FURTHER READING
75
TOPIC 4.3
TOPIC 4.3 LEARNING STRATEGIES : COGNITIVE AND SOCIOAFFECTIVE STRATEGIES

To become familiar with the ways cognitive and socioaffective strategies have been categorised; To research the cognitive strategies used by various learners ; To help students use cognitive strategies to enhance the language learning task
Cognitive strategies; socioaffective strategies;
Section heading
Cognitive Learning Strategies Many second language researchers have acknowledged that the line that separates cognitive strategies from metacognitive strategies is a rather thin one. They have found that a learning strategy that has been initially classified as metacognitive appears to function as a cognitive strategy later. Cognitive strategies are generally described as mental strategies learners use to make sense of their learning. They refer to the steps or operations used in learning or problem-solving that require direct analysis, transformation, or synthesis of learning materials. Rubin identified 6 main cognitive learning strategies contributing directly to language learning. They are:
y
PRESENTATION
Clarification / Verification
76
y y y y y
Guessing / Inductive Inferencing Deductive Reasoning Practice Memorization Monitoring
O Malley & Chamot (1990) have developed a very detailed taxonomy of cognitive strategies used by second language learners that includes, among others, strategies such as repetition, resourcing, translation, grouping, note taking, deduction, recombination, imagery, elaboration, transfer, inferencing. According to them, among the cognitive strategies, elaboration emerged as a main learning strategy that was used in many ways in combination with other strategies. Language Learning Strategy theory postulates that, other things being equal, at least part of the differential success rate of second language learners is attributable to the varying strategies which different learners bring to the task of language learning. From this perspective, which views students as being able to consciously influence their own learning, the learning of language becomes a cognitive process, similar in many ways to any other kind of learning (McLaughlin 1978).
Socioaffective Strategies
It is evident that good language learners employ distinct affective strategies. Language learning can be frustrating in some cases. In some cases, a feeling of strangeness can be evoked in the process learning foreign language. A learner, for example, might ask himself/herself why he/she has to expend time and effort in learning a second/foreign language when he/she is in possession of a fully functional language (L1). In some other cases, L2 learners may have negative feelings about an L2. In the post-independence Sri Lanka, in the wake of resurgent nationalistic feelings, there was a call from certain sections of the educated elite to reject English as the language of the colonial masters, Good language learners are more or less conscious of these emotional problems. Good language learners try to create associations of positive affect towards the foreign language and its speakers as well as towards the learning activities involved. Training in socioaffective learning strategies can help students face up to the
77
emotional difficulties and overcome them by drawing attention to the potential frustrations or pointing them out as they arise (Stern 1992:266).
Study the following reading at the end of this unit: Cognitive Strategies
READING 1
Study the following reading at the end of this unit: Social and affective Strategies
READING 2
Something to think about What types of language learning strategies appear to work best with what learners, in which contexts? What language learning strategies should be taught at different proficiency levels?
78

Make a presentation to the class that illustrates any instances in which you have used the cognitive strategies mentioned in Reading One.
ACTIVITY
READING ONE COGNITIVE STRATEGIES

[From OMalley, J.M. & Chamot, A.V. (1990). Learning strategies in second language acquisition (pp. 136-150, 158-159). Cambridge:Cambridge University Press ] Reading Text
Cognitive strategies involve interacting with the material to be learned, manipulating the material mentally or physically, or applying a specific technique to a learning task. 1. Repetition: Repeating a chunk of language (a word or phrase) in the course of performing a language task. 2. Resourcing: Using available reference sources of information about the target language, including dictionaries, textbooks, and prior work. 3. Grouping: Ordering, classifying, or labeling material used in a language task based on common attributes; recalling information based on grouping previously done. 4. Note taking: Writing down key words and concepts in abbreviated verbal, graphic, or numerical form to assist performance of a language task. 5. Deduction/Induction: Consciously applying learned or self-developed rules to produce or understand the target language. 6. Substitution: Selecting alternative approaches, revised plans, or different words or phrases to accomplish a language task. 7. Elaboration: Relating new information to prior knowledge; relating different parts of new
79
information to each other; making meaningful personal associations to information presented. This has been coded in the think-aloud data in the following ways: a. Personal elaboration: Making judgments about or reacting personally to the material presented. b. World elaboration: Using knowledge gained from experience in the world. c. Academic elaboration: Using knowledge gained in academic situations. d. Between parts elaboration: Relating parts of the task to each other. e. Questioning elaboration: Using a combination of questions and world knowledge to brainstorm logical solutions to a task. f. Self-evaluative elaboration: Judging self in relation to materials. g. Creative elaboration: Making up a story line, or adopting a clever perspective. h. Imagery: Using mental or actual pictures or visuals to represent informatlon; coded as a separate category, but viewed as a form of elaboration. 8. Summarization: Making a mental or written summary of language and information presented in a task. 9. Translation: Rendering ideas from one language to another in a relatively verbatim manner. 10.Transfer: Using previously acquired linguistic knowledge to facilitate a language task. 11. Inferencing: Using available information to guess the meanings or usage of unfamiliar language items associated with a language task, to predict outcomes, or to fill in missing information.
READING TWO SOCIAL AND AFFECTIVE STRATEGIES

Social and affective strategies involve interacting with another person to assist learning or using affective control to assist a learning task. Questioning for clarification: Asking for explanation, verification, rephrasing, or examples about the material; asking for clarification or verification about the task; posing questions to the self.
80
1. Cooperation: Working together with peers to solve a problem, pool information, check a learning task, model a language activity, or get feedback on oral or written performance. 2. Self-talk: Reducing anxiety by using mental techniques that make one Feel competent to do the learning task. 3. Self-reinforcement: Providing personal motivation by arranging rewards for oneself when a language learning activity has been successfully completed.
Source: From Chamot, Kpper, and Impink-Hernandez (1988b, pp. 1719)
OMalley, J.M. & Chamot, A.V. (1990). Learning strategies in second language acquisition (pp. 136-150, 158-159). Cambridge:Cambridge University Press
http://www.equest.edu.vn/tesol-tefl/the-teachers-role-in-learnerstrategy-training.html
FURTHER READING
http://www.udveksling.com/MenSpr2010/Learnstrat.pdf
81
TOPIC 4.4 COMMUNICATION STRATEGIES

By the end of the topic, participants will be able: y y To explain various communication strategies with examples; To analyse and categorise various communication strategies; To start thinking about ways of incorporating language learning strategies into classroom teaching.
Communication strategies; circumlocution; strategy training; approximation; word coinage
Section heading
COMMUNICATION STRATEGIES
When faced with a need to express an idea or concept in the second language many second language learners find that they are without the linguistic resources to express that idea or concept in the target language. Sometimes, they do not know the equivalent vocabulary item or the particular tense form needed to communicate their ideas. In situations like these they turn to communication strategies to overcome their language difficulty. A communication strategy, unlike the learning strategies discussed in the previous lessons, is a very conscious and deliberate attempt to express an idea or a concept for which the learner does not have adequate linguistic knowledge in the second language. The following example of communication strategy is taken from Bialystok (1990a, p. 1)
While living in Colombia, a friend of mine wanted to buy some silk. The Spanish word for silk, seda, however, is apparently used for a variety of synthetic substitutes. Eager to have the genuine product, my friend went into the local shop and, roughly translated from Spanish, said
PRESENTATION
82
something like the following to the shopkeeper: its made by little animals, for their house, and then turned into material.
The speaker, apparently a second language learner of Spanish, didnt know the Spanish words for silkworm, cocoon, or silk and had to resort various descriptive devices to communicate his idea to the shopkeeper. The speaker, in this example, uses circumlocution as a communication strategy. As with learner strategies, language researchers have produced various lists of communication strategies. Selinker (2001), for example identifies four types of communication strategies: Approximation, Literal translation, Language switch, and Avoidance. Brown (2007), adapting Dornyei 1995, p.58, discusses two types of communication strategies avoidance strategies, and compensatory strategies. Though treated separately, communication strategies are frequently discussed under the topic of language learning strategies. Therefore, an understanding of communication strategies are crucial in helping students develop their communicative competence. As Oxford (1990a) puts it, language learning strategies "...are especially important for language learning because they are tools for active, self-directed involvement, which is essential for developing communicative competence" (p. 1). Currently, second language teaching forums have increasingly tended to discuss whether language learning strategies should be included as a component in its own right within the second language learning classroom.
Study the following reading at the end of this unit: Communication Strategies
READING
83

Study the list of cognitive communicative strategies given in the reading. Which of these are the most used by Sri Lanakan L2 learners, and which of them are the least used communication strategies?
Match the examples of communication strategies given in Column (B) with the type of strategy given Column (A) Column A
ACTIVITY
(a) generalization (b) paraphrase (c) word coinage (d) re-structuring Column B
(i)
and you use er. you know, the thing to hold some papers together L: and there were 25 people in the car ... NS: 25 people in a car? L: yes. 25 people in the car, a big car. NS: oh,you mean a bus it was a good birthday party, a lot to eat. Children had many airballs. lam going to ... going to ... I feel sick.
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
[ From Mangubhai, F.(2000). Principles of second language learning. Study Book. University of Southern Queensland ]
84
READING COMMUNICATION STRATEGIES

[From Brown, D. (2007). Principles of language learning and teaching. New York: Pearson. P.138]
Reading Text
Table 5.3. Communication strategies
Avoidance Strategies 1 . Message abandonment: Leaving a message unfinished because of language difficulties 2. Topic avoidance: Avoiding topic areas or concepts that pose language difficulties Compensatory Strategies 3. Circumlocution: Describing or exemplifying the target object of action (e.g., the thing you open bottles with for corkscrew) 4. Approximation: Using an alternative term which expresses the meaning of the target lexical item as closely as possible (e.g., ship for sailboat 5. Use of all-purpose words: Extending a general, empty lexical item to contexts where specific words are lacking (e.g., the overuse of thing, stuff, what-do-you-call-it, thingie) 6. Word Coinage: Creating a nonexisting L2 word based on a supposed rule (e.g., vegetarianist for vegetarian) 7. Prefabricated patterns: Using memorized stock phrases, usually for survival purposes (e.g., Where is the _______ or Comment allez -vous? where the morphological components are not known to the learner) 8. Nonlinguistic signals: Mime, gesture, facial expression, or sound imitation 9. Literal translation: Translating literally a lexical item, idiom, compound word, or structure from Li to L2
85
10.Foreignizing: Using a L1 word by adjusting it to L2 phonology (i.e., with a L2 pronunciation) and/or morphology (e.g., adding to it a L2 suffix)
11.Code-switching: Using a Li word with Li pronunciation or a L3 word with L3 pronunciation while speaking in L2 12. Appeal for help: Asking for aid from the interlocutor either directly (e.g, What do you call . . .?) or indirectly (e.g., rising intonation, pause, eye contact, puzzled expression) 13.Stalling or time-gaining strategies: Using fillers or hesitation devices to fill pauses and to gain time to think (e.g., well, now, lets see, uh, as a matter of fact) Source: Adapted from Drnyei 1995, p. 58.
Brown, D. (2007). Principles of language learning and teaching. New York: Pearson. (Chapter 5. pp 137 - 140) Gass. M. & Selinker. R. (2001). Second language acquisition. New Jersey:Lawrence Earlbaum. (Chapter 9)
FURTHER READING
http://www.equest.edu.vn/tesol-tefl/the-teachers-role-in-learnerstrategy-training.html
86
TOPIC 5.1 ACQUISITION LEARNING HYPOTHESIS AND NATURAL ORDER HYPOTHESIS

By the end of the topic, participants will be able: y y . ; ;
LEARNING OBJECTIVES KEY POINTS

; y . xx ;
KEY TERMS
xx
Section heading
Description of Krashen's Theory of Second Language Acquisition Krashen's theory of second language acquisition consists of five main hypotheses:
PRESENTATION
y y y y y
the Acquisition-Learning hypothesis, the Monitor hypothesis, the Natural Order hypothesis, the Input hypothesis, and the Affective Filter hypothesis.
The Acquisitionlearning distinction is the
87
most fundamental of all the hypotheses in Krashen's theory and the most widely known among linguists and language practitioners. According to Krashen there are two independent systems of second language performance: 'the acquired system' and 'the learned system'. The 'acquired system' or 'acquisition' is the product of a subconscious process very similar to the process children undergo when they acquire their first language. It requires meaningful interaction in the target language - natural communication - in which speakers are concentrated not in the form of their utterances, but in the communicative act. The 'learned system' or 'learning' is the product of formal instruction and it comprises a conscious process which results in conscious knowledge 'about' the language, for example knowledge of grammar rules. According to Krashen 'learning' is less important than 'acquisition'. (Veja o texto ao lado e tambm outra pgina em portugus sobreAcquisition/Learning) .
88
The Monitor hypothesis explains the relationship between acquisition and learning and defines the influence of the latter on the former. The monitoring function is the practical result of the learned grammar. According to Krashen, the acquisition system is the utterance initiator, while the learning system performs the role of the 'monitor' or the 'editor'. The 'monitor' acts in a planning, editing and correcting function when three specific conditions are met: that is, the second language learner has sufficient time at his/her disposal, he/she focuses on form or thinks about correctness, and he/she knows the rule. It appears that the role of conscious learning is somewhat limited in second language performance. According to Krashen, the role of the monitor is - or should be - minor, being used only to correct deviations from 'normal' speech and to give speech a more 'polished' appearance. Krashen also suggests that there is individual variation among language learners with regard to 'monitor' use. He distinguishes those learners that use the 'monitor' all the time (over-
89
users); those learners who have not learned or who prefer not to use their conscious knowledge (under-users); and those learners that use the 'monitor' appropriately (optimal users). An evaluation of the person's psychological profile can help to determine to what group they belong. Usually extroverts are under-users, while introverts and perfectionists are overusers. Lack of selfconfidence is frequently related to the over-use of the 'monitor'.
The atural Order hypothesis is based on research findings (Dulay & Burt, 1974; Fathman, 1975; Makino, 1980 cited in Krashen, 1987) which suggested that the acquisition of grammatical structures follows a 'natural order' which is predictable. For a given language, some grammatical structures tend to be acquired early while others late. This order seemed to be independent of the learners' age, L1 background, conditions of exposure, and although the agreement between individual acquirers was not always 100% in the studies, there were statistically significant similarities that reinforced the existence of a Natural Order of language acquisition. Krashen however points out that the implication of the natural order hypothesis is not that a language program syllabus should be based on the order found in the studies. In fact, he rejects grammatical sequencing when the goal is language acquisition. The Input hypothesis is Krashen's attempt to explain how the learner acquires a second language. In other words, this hypothesis is Krashen's explanation of how second language acquisition takes place. So, the Input hypothesis is only concerned with 'acquisition', not 'learning'. According to this hypothesis, the learner improves and progresses along the
90
'natural order' when he/she receives second language 'input' that is one step beyond his/her current stage of linguistic competence. For example, if a learner is at a stage 'i', then acquisition takes place when he/she is exposed to 'Comprehensible Input' that belongs to level 'i + 1'. Since not all of the learners can be at the same level of linguistic competence at the same time, Krashen suggests that natural communicative input is the key to designing a syllabus, ensuring in this way that each learner will receive some 'i + 1' input that is appropriate for his/her current stage of linguistic competence. Finally, the fifth hypothesis, the Affective Filter hypothesis, embodies Krashen's view that a number of 'affective variables' play a facilitative, but non-causal, role in second language acquisition. These variables include: motivation, self-confidence and anxiety. Krashen claims that learners with high motivation, self-confidence, a good self-image, and a low level of anxiety are better equipped for success in second language acquisition. Low motivation, low selfesteem, and debilitating anxiety can combine to 'raise' the affective filter and form a 'mental block' that prevents comprehensible input from being used for acquisition. In other words, when the filter is 'up' it impedes language acquisition. On the other hand, positive affect is necessary, but not sufficient on its own, for acquisition to take place.
Study the following reading at the end of this unit: xxxx.
READING 1
91
An activity for you to do .
ACTIVITY
92
READING ONE XX XX
[From xxx.]
Reading Text
FURTHER READING
93
TOPIC 5.2 THE MONITOR HYPOTHESIS AND INPUT HYPOTHESIS


; y . xx ;
KEY TERMS
xx
Section heading
An activity to do .
PRESENTATION
94
READING 1
ACTIVITY
95
READING ONE XX XX
[From xxx.]
Reading Text
FURTHER READING
96
TOPIC 5.3 INPUT HYPOTHESIS: CRITICAL PERIOD HYPOTHESIS


; y . xx ;
KEY TERMS
xx
Section heading
An activity to do .
PRESENTATION
97
READING 1
ACTIVITY
98
READING ONE XX XX
[From xxx.]
Reading Text
FURTHER READING
99
TOPIC 5.5 A CRITIQUE OF THE FIVE HYOPOTHESES


; y . xx ;
KEY TERMS
xx
Section heading
An activity to do .
PRESENTATION
100
READING 1
ACTIVITY
101
READING ONE XX XX
[From xxx.]
Reading Text
FURTHER READING
102
TOPIC 6.1 HOWARD GARDNERS THEORY OF MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCES AND ITS RELEVANCE TO LANGUAGE LEARNING

; y . xx ;
KEY TERMS
xx
Section heading
An activity to do .
PRESENTATION
103
READING 1
ACTIVITY
READING ONE XX XX
[From xxx.]
Reading Text
104
FURTHER READING
105
TOPIC 6.2 SELF-ESTEEM AND INHIBITION


; y . xx ;
KEY TERMS
xx
Section heading
An activity to do .
PRESENTATION
106
READING 1
ACTIVITY
READING ONE XX XX
[From xxx.]
Reading Text
107
FURTHER READING
108
TOPIC 6.3 RISK TAKING AND ANXIETY


; y . xx ;
KEY TERMS
xx
Section heading
An activity to do .
PRESENTATION
READING 1
109
ACTIVITY
READING ONE XX XX
[From xxx.]
Reading Text
110
FURTHER READING
111
TOPIC 6.4 MOTIVATION


; y . xx ;
KEY TERMS
xx
Section heading
An activity to do .
PRESENTATION
READING 1
112
An activity to do .
ACTIVITY
READING ONE XX XX
[From xxx.]
Reading Text
113
FURTHER READING
114
115

Psycho Linguistics Classroom Lessons

Caricato da

Informazioni sul documento

Descrizione originale:

Copyright

Formati disponibili

Condividi questo documento

Condividi o incorpora il documento

Opzioni di condivisione

Hai trovato utile questo documento?

Questo contenuto è inappropriato?

Copyright:

Formati disponibili

Psycho Linguistics Classroom Lessons

Caricato da

Copyright:

Formati disponibili

TOPIC 1.

1 THEORETICAL BASIS OF BEHAVIOURIST APPROACHES TO LANGUAGE LEARNING

LEARNING OBJECTIVES KEY TERMS

Stimulus response; imitation; reinforcement; contiguity

Study the following reading at the end of this topic:

Behaviourism and language learning

READING BEHAVIOURISM AND LANGUAGE LEARNING

TOPIC 1.2 CRITIQUE OF BEHAVIOURIST THEORIES

LEARNING OBJECTIVES KEY TERMS

Something to think about

An activity for you to do

READING BEHAVIOURISM UNDER ATTACK

TOPIC 1.3 THEORETICAL BASIS OF MENTALIST APPROACHES

LEARNING OBJECTIVES KEY TERMS

Study the following reading at the end of this unit:

Something to think about

An activity for you to do

READING COGNITIVE APPROACH (MENTALIST APPROACH)

Ellis, R. (1997). Second Language Acquisition. Oxford University Press.

TOPIC 1.4 CURRENT TRENDS IN LANGUAGE TEACHING

LEARNING OBJECTIVES KEY TERMS

Constructivism, zone of proximal development, assimilation, accommodation

Something to think about

READING ONE SCHOOLS OF THOUGHT IN SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION

1960s, 1970s, and 1980s

Generative linguistics and Cognitive Psychology

1980s, 1990s, and 2000s

READING TWO WHAT IS CONSTRUCTIVISM?

TOPIC 2.1 INTERLANGUAGE THEORY

By the end of the topic, participants will be able:

LEARNING OBJECTIVES KEY TERMS

Interlanguage, language transfer, overgeneralization, simplification.

Something to think about

An activity for you to do

READING LEARNER LANGUAGE

TOPIC 2.2 INTERLINGUAL TRANSFER

LEARNING OBJECTIVES KEY TERMS

Language transfer; contrastive analysis hypothesis; positive transfer; negative transfer

Something to think about

An activity for you to do

(a) He was went home. (b) He likes to reading.

READING ONE LANGUAGE TRANSFER

TOPIC 2.3 VARIABILITY IN INTERLANGUAGE

LEARNING OBJECTIVES KEY TERMS

Variability in learner language

Something to think about

An activity for you to do

READING ONE INTERLANGUAGE CONTINUUM

unattended attended speech data speech data

various elicitation tasks (e.g. imitation, sentence combining)

READING TWO VARIABILITY IN LEARNER LANGUAGE

TOPIC 2.4 INTERLANGUAGE FOSSILIZATION

LEARNING OBJECTIVES KEY TERMS

Fossilization, target language, language plateau

Something to think about

An activity for you to do

READING THE RISK OF FOSSILIZATION IN LANGUAGE ACQUISITION

Critical Period Hypothesis

TOPIC 3.1 CONCEPT OF CONTRASTIVE ANALYSIS IN LANGUAGE LEARNING

LEARNING OBJECTIVES KEY TERMS

Contrastive analysis; strong, weak, and moderate versions of contrastive analysis.

(1) The main obstacle to second language learning is from the

(2) The greater the difference between native language and