Chapter 1 Chemistry: Matter and Measurement

This chapter introduces us to a cornerstone of the chemical sciences: the manipulation of numbers and their associated units. These concepts are very important for the rest of the course, and in order to be successful, we must understand them well. This chapter includes definitions of basic concepts, an introduction to SI units used in measurements, explanations of the concepts of precision and accuracy, the use of significant figures in calculations, and an explanation of the unit-conversion technique used in problem solving.

Summary of Sections
1.1 Chemistry: Principles and Applications
OBJECTIVES: Define and use the terms listed in Key Terms.

1.2 Getting Started: Some Key Terms

OBJECTIVES: Describe the difference between chemical and physical properties, and chemical and physical change. Classify matter.

1.3 Scientific Measurements

OBJECTIVES: Know the common units of the metric system (SI) and the common prefixes. Convert between SI units, and convert temperature between Celsius, Kelvin, and Fahrenheit.

1.4 Precision and Accuracy in Measurements

OBJECTIVES: Know the difference between precise and accurate measurements and how to express the degree of precision with the correct number of significant figures.

1.5 A Problem-Solving Method

OBJECTIVES: Understand the unit conversion method of problem solving and apply this method to problems. Problems involving density illustrate unit conversions as well.

Lecture Outline
1.1 Chemistry: Principles and Applications
Why Study Chemistry? It has a considerable impact on society (health care, food, clothing, conservation of natural resources, environmental issues etc.). It is part of your curriculum! Chemistry serves biology, engineering, agriculture, geology, physics etc.

1.2 Getting Started: Some key terms

Definitions must be firmly understood not memorized. It does mean one can apply them, often in unusual situations. What is Chemistry? Study of the composition, structure, and properties of matter and of changes that occur in it.

Matter: Physical material of the universe/has mass/occupies space. May be seen at macroscopic or microscopic level Approximately 117 Elements constitute all matter Elements: Made up of unique atoms. Molecules: Combinations of atoms held together in specific shapes. Macroscopic (observable) properties of matter relate to microscopic realms of atoms. Properties relate to composition (types of atoms present) and structure (arrangement of atoms) present.

Properties of Matter
Physical

and Chemical Properties

Physical properties: Measured without changing the substance (e.g., color, density, odor, melting point, etc.). Chemical properties: Ability of a substance to change into other substances (flammable, explosive, etc ) Properties may be categorized as intensive or extensive: Intensive properties: Do not depend on amount of substance present (e.g., temperature, melting point etc.). Intensive properties give an idea of the composition of a substance whereas extensive properties given an indication of the quantity of substance present. Extensive properties: Depend on quantity of substance present (e.g., mass, volume etc.).

Physical and Chemical Changes Physical change: substance changes physical appearance without altering its identity (e.g., changes of state). Chemical changes (or chemical reactions): substances transform into chemically different substances (i.e. identity changes, e.g., decomposition of water, explosion of nitrogen triiodide). In a chemical reaction, not only do properties change, but the matters identity changes as well. Burning a pencil is an example of a chemical reaction, as is cooking pancakes. To observe a chemical property, the composition and identity of the sample must change: from wood, graphite, and oxygen to carbon dioxide and water, or from batter to pancakes. Often, relatively large quantities of energy are associated with chemical reactions.

Classifying Matter

There are two main categories of matter: Substances and Mixtures

Atoms make up ALL MATTER which exists as Substances which may be Elements Compounds Homogeneous Mixtures which may be Heterogeneous Molecules

A Substances: Matter with fixed composition and distinct proportions. Elements (cannot be decomposed into simpler substances, i.e. only one kind of atom). 114 known Each is given a unique name. Organized in the periodic table. Each is given a one- or two-letter symbol derived from its name. Compounds (consist of two or more elements). Example: The compound H2O is a combination of elements H and O. Compounds have different properties than their component elements (e.g., water is liquid, hydrogen and oxygen are both gases at the same temperature and pressure). Law of Constant (Definite) Proportions (Proust): A compound always consists of the same combination of elements (e.g., water is always 11% H and 89% O). B Mixtures:

Combination of two or more pure substances. Each substance retains its own identity. A mixture can be separated into its components by physical changes Variable composition A homogeneous mixturealso called a solutionhas the same composition throughout. Furthermore, such a mixture will not separate on standing. A heterogeneous mixtures composition and properties vary between parts of the mixture. Such mixtures may settle out on standing.

Chemical symbols Used to designate/name the elements. 1. Be careful of lower- and upper-case letters. Co and CO are different. 2. Also note that small differences are important. C is the symbol for carbon, Ca for calcium; Mg for magnesium, Mn for manganese; Ar for argon, As for arsenic. 3. Most single-letter elements appear in the upper right corner of the periodic table. 4. Assign the symbols grouped by families in the periodic table to the students to memorize, so that they will remember together elements that behave similarly. Please memorize the representative elements and the first transition series.

Scientific method Used to guide scientific investigation.

1. Crucial to the method is the role of experimentation: to collect and reproduce data, to verify hypotheses, to challenge theories, to test predictions. 2. Scientific laws are summaries of patterns observed in data. 3. Also crucial is the role of a hypothesis to explain existing facts and to predict new ones. 4. Elegant theories are simple in their postulates, capable of explaining known facts, and often able to make predictions in areas distant from the original area of investigation.

1.3 Scientific Measurements

- Many properties of matter are quantitative: associated with numbers. - A measured quantity must have BOTH a number and a unit. - The units most often used for scientific measurement are those of the metric system. SI Units 1960: All scientific units use Systme International dUnits (SI Units). There are seven base units.

 Metric prefixes -ig and very small measurements . Use to express very bOne should be able to understand and use each of these prefixes.

Length and Mass SI base unit of length = meter (1 m = 1.0936 yards). SI base unit of mass (not weight) = kilogram (1 kg = 2.2 pounds). Mass is a measure of the amount of material in an object. Temperature Scientific studies use Celsius and Kelvin scales. 9 Celsius scale: Water freezes at 0C and boils at 100C (sea level). F = C + 32 Kelvin scale (SI Unit): 5 Water freezes at 273.15 K and boils at 373.15 K (sea level). 5 C = (F 32) Based on properties of gases. 9 Zero is lowest possible temperature (absolute zero). C = K 273.15 0 K = 273.15C. K = C + 273.15 Fahrenheit (not used in science): Water freezes at 32 F and boils at 212 F (sea level). Conversions: Derived SI Units These are formed from the 7 base units. Example: Velocity is distance traveled per unit time, so units of velocity are units of distance (m) divided by units of time (s): m/s. Volume The Units of volume = (units of length)3 = m3. Important: The liter is not an SI unit but is commonly used 1L = 1000 ml =1000 cm3 1 ml = 1cm3 Density Used to characterize substances. Density is defined as mass divided by volume. Units: g/cm3 or g/mL (for solids and liquids); g/L (often used for gases). Examples: Convert the following: 1.22 x 10-9 km = 6.523 x 10-4 nm = 2.5 x 10-9 nm3 = 30.5 cm/s = 9.6 ng/mm2 = m Mm mm3 km/h kg/m2

1.4 Precision, Accuracy, and Significant Figures in Measurements

Precision and Accuracy

Precision: how well measured quantities agree with each other. Accuracy: how well measured quantities agree with the true value.

Significant Figures or writing number to reflect precision

- It is not possible to make exact measurements all measurements have uncertainty - All scientific measures are subject to error - These errors are reflected in the number of digit reported for the measurements

4.2 cm

4.25 cm

The answer we report should reflect the precision of the measurement. This exactness is reflected in the number of significant figures. Guidelines for determining the number of significant figures in a measured quantity: The number of significant figures is the number of digits known with certainty plus one uncertain digit. (Example: 2.2405 g means we are sure the mass is 2.240 g but we are uncertain about the nearest 0.0001 g.) Final calculations are only as significant as the least significant measurement. Rules: 1. Nonzero numbers and zeros between nonzero numbers are always significant. 2. Zeros before the first nonzero digit are not significant. (Example: 0.0003 has one significant figure.) 3. Zeros at the end of the number after a decimal point are significant. 4. Zeros at the end of a number before a decimal point are ambiguous (e.g., 10,300 g). Exponential notation eliminates this ambiguity. 5. Significant figures apply just to measured quantities, not to counted items or the results of definitions; both of these are exact numbers. infinite significant figure What happens when we count? How many significant figures are in 125 students (ans: infinite) Significant Figures in Calculations Multiplication and Division: - Report to the least number of significant figures (e.g., 6.221 cm x 5.2 cm = 32 cm2). Addition and Subtraction: - Report to the least number of decimal places (e.g., 20.4 g 1.322 g = 19.1 g). In multiple step calculations always retain an extra significant figure until the end to prevent rounding errors.

Examples (in class)

Perform the following calculation to the correct number of significant figure and unit. a) (50.214 g 49.93 g ) x 1.224 cm/55.22 cm3 = b) 3.6050 cm x (24.10 cm - 23.10 cm) = c) 4.0 x 102 cm 3 cm = d) 42.12 ml x 0.912 g/ml 0.23 g = e) 12.64 cm 48 mm + 0.246 m (answer in mm) =

1.5 A Problem-Solving Method: The unit-conversion method (In class) 1. You pass a road sign saying New York 512 km. (1 mile =1.609 km; 1 gal = 3.375L). a) If you drive at a constant speed of 65 mi/h, how long should it take you to reach New York? b) If your car gets 28 miles to the gallon, how many liters of gasoline are necessary to travel 112 km?

2. A 14-karat gold ring contains 58.3% gold and weighs 12.41 g. If gold sells for $276.00/ounce, what is the value of the gold in the
ring? (1 oz = 28.35 g)

3. An intravenous bag delivers a nutrient solution to a hospital patient at a rate of 1.5 drops per second. If a drop weighs 65 mg on
average, how many kilograms of solution are delivered in 8.0 h?

4. The density gold is 19.3 g/cm3. (1 lb = 453.6 g; 1 in = 2.54 cm; 1 ft = 12 in.)

a) Convert this density in lb/ft3. b) What volume in cm3 will 325 g of gold occupy?

5. Whole milk contains 8.0 % butterfat by mass. If 5.0 g butterfat supplies 25 calories, how many calories are contained in 1.45 gallon
whole milk (density of the milk = 0.8 g/ml; 1gallon = 3.785L)

6. A sample of concentrated sulfuric acid has a density of 1.84 g/cm3 and contains is 95.7% H2SO4 by mass.
a) How many grams of pure H2SO4 are contained in 1.00 gallon of this sample? (1 gallon = 3.785 L)

b) How many mm3 of this sample contains 100.0 mg of pure H2SO4?