001 WCDMA RAN Fundamental

WCDMA RAN Fundamental
Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd.

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Mexico Training Center
Confidential information of Huawei.
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Revision Record
Date 04-07-2007 Version 1C Change description Author Victor Toledo
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Table of Contents
1 3G Overview ........................................................................................................ 9 3G Evolution ................................................................................................ 11 3G Objectives .............................................................................................. 12 3G Spectrum Allocation ............................................................................... 13 WCDMA Bands............................................................................................ 14 2 CDMA Fundamentals ....................................................................................... 15 Multiple Access Technology and Duplex Technology.................................. 15 Characteristics of CDMA system ................................................................. 18 3 WCDMA Key Technologies .............................................................................. 20 Communication Model of WCDMA system .................................................. 20 WCDMA Source Coding .............................................................................. 21 WCDMA Channel Coding ............................................................................ 22 WCDMA Interleaving .................................................................................... 22 Spreading and Despreading......................................................................... 23 Correlation.................................................................................................... 27 WCDMA Spreading codes............................................................................ 27 WCDMA Scrambling codes: Gold sequence ................................................ 29 WCDMA Modulation ..................................................................................... 30 Fading ......................................................................................................... 31 Principle of RAKE receiver .......................................................................... 33 WCDMA Power control................................................................................. 35 4 Performance Enhancement Methods .............................................................. 36 Smart antenna features ............................................................................... 36 Introduction to diversity technique ............................................................... 37
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Objectives
Upon completion of this module, you will be able to:
Know the development of 3G Outline the advantage of CDMA technology Outline the fundamentals of UTRAN Outline the key technologies of UTRAN
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3G Overview
Figure 1.- Evolution of cellular standards. The first generation is the analog cellular mobile communication network in the time period from the middle of 1970s to the middle of 1980s. The most important breakthrough in this period is the concept of cellular networks put forward by the Bell Labs in the 1970s, as compared to the former mobile communication systems. The cellular network system is based on cells to implement frequency reuse and thus greatly enhances the system capacity. The typical examples of the first generation mobile communication systems are the AMPS system and the later enhanced TACS of USA, the NMT and the NTT. The AMPS (Advanced Mobile Phone System) uses the 800 MHz band of the analog cellular transmission system and it is widely applied in North America, South America and some Circum-Pacific countries. The TACS (Total Access Communication System) uses the 900 MHz band. It is widely applied in Britain, Japan and some Asian countries. The main feature of the first generation mobile communication systems is that they use the frequency reuse technology, adopt analog modulation for voice signals and provide an analog subscriber channel every other 30 kHz/25 kHz.
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However, their defects are also obvious: Low utilization of the frequency spectrum Limited types of services No high-speed data services Poor confidentiality and high vulnerability to interception and number embezzlement High equipment cost Large volume and big weight To solve these fundamental technical defects of the analog systems, the digital mobile communication technologies emerged and the second generation mobile communication systems represented by GSM and IS-95 came into being in the middle of 1980s. The typical examples of the second generation cellular mobile communication systems are the DAMPS of USA, the IS-95 and the European GSM system. The GSM (Global System for Mobile Communications) is originated from Europe. Designed as the TDMA standard for mobile digital cellular communications, it supports the 64 kbps data rate and can interconnect with the ISDN. It uses the 900 MHz band while the DCS1800 system uses the 1800 MHz band. The GSM system uses the FDD and TDMA modes and each carrier supports eight channels with the signal bandwidth of 200 kHz. The DAMPS (Digital Advanced Mobile Phone System) is also called the IS-54 (North America Digital Cellular System). Using the 800 MHz bandwidth, it is the earlier of the two North America digital cellular standards and specifies the use of the TDMA mode. The IS-95 standard is another digital cellular standard of North America. Using the 800 MHz or 1900 MHz band, it specifies the use of the CDMA mode and has already become the first choice among the technologies of American PCS (Personal Communication System) networks.
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Since the 2G mobile communication systems focus on the transmission of voice and low-speed data services, the 2.5G mobile communication systems emerged in 1996 to address the medium-rate data transmission needs. These systems include GPRS and IS-95B. The CDMA system has a very large capacity that is equivalent to ten or even twenty times that of the analog systems. But the narrowband CDMA technologies come into maturity at a time later than the GSM technologies, their application far lags behind the GSM ones and currently they have only found large-scale commercial applications in North America, Korea and China. The major services of mobile communications are currently still voice services and low-speed data services. With the development of networks, data and multimedia communications have also witnessed rapid development; therefore, the target of the 3G mobile communication is to implement broadband multimedia communication.
3G Evolution
Proposal of 3G IMT-2000: the general name of third generation mobile
communication system The third generation mobile communication was first proposed in
1985
and was renamed as IMT-2000 in the year of 1996
Commercialization: around the year of 2000 Work band : around 2000MHz The highest service rate :up to 2000Kbps
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The 3G mobile communication systems are a kind of communication system that can provide multiple kinds of high quality multimedia services and implement global seamless coverage and global roaming. They are compatible with the fixed networks and can implement any kind of communication at any time and any place with portable terminals. Put forward in 1985 by the ITU (International Telecommunication Union), the 3G mobile communication system was called the FPLMTS (Future Public Land Mobile Telecommunication System) and was later renamed as IMT-2000 (International Mobile Telecommunication-2000). The major systems include WCDMA, cdma2000 and UWC136. On November 5, 1999, the 18th conference of ITU-R TG8/1 passed the Recommended Specification of Radio Interfaces of IMT-2000 and the TD-SCDMA technologies put forward by China were incorporated into the IMT-2000 CDMA TDD part of the technical specification. This showed that the work of the TG8/1 in formulating the technical specifications of radio interfaces in 3G mobile communication systems had basically come into an end and the development and application of the 3G mobile communication systems would enter a new and essential phase.
3G Objectives
3G is developed to achieve: Universal frequency band for standard and seamless global coverage High spectral efficiency High quality of service with complete security and reliability Easy and smoothly transition from 2G to 3G, compatible with 2G Provide multimedia services, with the rates: Vehicle environment: 144kbps Walking environment: 384kbps Indoor environment: 2Mbps
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1. Capable of roaming globally: users can roam within the whole system, even in the whole world, and can be provided with guaranteed quality of service at different rates and in different statuses of motion. 2. Providing diversified services: providing voice, data with variable rates, active video non-voice services, especially multimedia services. 3. Capable of adapting to many kinds of environment: can integrate the
existing Public Switched Telephone Network (PSTN), Integrated Service Digital Network (ISDN), cordless system, land mobile communication system and satellite communication system to provide seamless coverage. 4. Sufficient system capacity, powerful management capability of multiple users, high security performance and quality of service.
3G Spectrum Allocation
Figure 2.- Spectrum allocation for 3G system.
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ITU has allocated 230 MHz frequency for the 3G mobile communication system IMT-2000: 1885 ~ 2025MHz in the uplink and 2110~ 2200 MHz in the downlink. Of them, the frequency range of 1980 MHz ~ 2010 MHz (uplink) and that of 2170 MHz ~ 2200 MHz (downlink) are used for mobile satellite services. As the uplink and the downlink bands are asymmetrical, the use of dual-frequency FDD mode or the single-frequency TDD mode may be considered. This plan was passed in WRC92 and new additional bands were approved on the basis of the WRC-92 in the WRC2000 conference in the year 2000: 806 MHz ~ 960 MHz, 1710 MHz ~ 1885 MHz and 2500 MHz ~ 2690 MHz.
WCDMA Bands
Main bands 1920 ~ 1980MHz / 2110 ~ 2170MHz Supplementary bands: different country maybe different 1850 ~ 1910 MHz / 1930 MHz ~ 1990 MHz (USA) 1710 ~ 1785MHz / 1805 ~ 1880MHz (Japan) 890 ~ 915MHz / 935 ~ 960MHz (Australia)
DL frequency channel number : 10562
The WCDMA system uses the following frequency spectrum (bands other than those specified by 3GPP may also be used): Uplink 1920 MHz ~ 1980 MHz and downlink 2110 MHz ~ 2170 MHz. Each carrier frequency has the 5M band and the duplex spacing is 190 MHz. In America, the used frequency spectrum is 1850 MHz ~ 1910 MHz in the uplink and 1930 MHz ~ 1990 MHz in the downlink and the duplex spacing is 80 MHz.
UL frequency channel number
9612
Frequency channel number
central frequency 5, for main band: 9888 10838
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2 CDMA Fundamental
Multiple Access Technology and Duplex Technology
The possibility to operate in either FDD or TDD mode is allowed for efficient utilization of available spectrum according to frequency allocation in different regions. FDD and TDD are defined as follows: FDD: A duplex method whereby the Uplink and the Downlink transmissions use 2 separate frequency bands: Uplink 1920 MHz - 1980 MHz; Downlink 2110 MHz - 2170 MHz. Bandwidth: each carrier is located on the center of a 5 MHz wide band. Channel separation: nominal value of 5 MHz that can be adjusted. Channel raster: 200 kHz (center frequency must be a multiple of 200 kHz). Tx-Rx frequency separation: nominal value of 190 MHz. This value can be either fixed or variable (minimum of 134.8 and maximum of 245.2 MHz). Channel number: the carrier frequency is designated by the UTRA Absolute Radio Frequency Channel Number (UARFCN). This number is sent by the network (for the uplink and downlink) on the BCCH logical channel and is defined by Nu= 5 * (Fuplink MHz) and ND= 5 * (Fdownlink MHz). TDD: A duplex method by which the Uplink and the Downlink transmissions are carried over the same frequency using synchronized time intervals. The carrier uses a 5 MHz band, although there is a low chip rate solution under study by the 3GPP (1.28 Mcps). The available frequency bands for TDD will be: 1900-1920 MHz and 2010-2025 MHz. The transmission medium is a resource that can be divided into individual channels according to different criteria depending on the technology used:
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Heres how the three most popular multiple access techniques divide their channels: FDMA Frequency Division Multiple Access
Each user on a different frequency, One channel uses one frequency.
TDMA Time Division Multiple Access
Each user on a different window period in time (time slot), TDMA usually uses FDMA to divide the frequency band into smaller frequency channels, which are then divided in a time division fashion (GSM),
a channel is a specific time slot on a specific frequency.
W-CDMA Wideband Code Division Multiple Access
Each user uses the same frequency all the time, but mixed with different distinguishing code patterns,
W-CDMA usually uses FDMA to divide the frequency band into smaller frequency channels, which are then divided in a code division fashion (UMTS),
a channel is a unique set of codes, and a specific frequency carrier.
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Multiple Access Technology
Figure 3.- Multiple access technologies. Frequency Division Multiple Access means dividing the whole available spectrum into many single radio channels (transmit/receive carrier pair). Each channel can transmit one-way voice or control information. Analog cellular system is a typical example of FDMA structure. Time Division Multiple Access means that the wireless carrier of one bandwidth is divided into multiple time division channels in terms of time (or called timeslot). Each user occupies a timeslot and receives/transmits signals within this specified timeslot. Therefore, it is called time division multiple access. This multiple access mode is adopted in both digital cellular system and GSM. CDMA is a multiple access mode implemented by Spreading Modulation. Unlike FDMA and TDMA, both of which separate the user information in terms of time and frequency, CDMA can transmit the information of multiple users on a channel at the same time. The key is that all information before transmission should be modulated by different Spreading Code to broadband signal, then all the signals should be mixed and send. The mixed signal would be demodulated by different Spreading Code at the different receiver. Because all the Spreading Code is orthogonal, only the information that was be demodulated by same Spreading Code can be reverted in mixed signal.
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Characteristics of CDMA System

High Spectral Efficiency Frequency multiplex coefficient is 1. Soft capacity Quality Coverage Interference Self-interference system A UE transmission power is interference for another UE. In CDMA system, mutual interference between users or cells is permitted, so adjacent cells can be distributed with same frequency. That is why the spectrum efficiency is very high and the capacity is also very large in CDMA system. But it also causes self-interference, if the interference is out of control, the capacity and quality of CDMA system will be worse, so many technologies were invented to control the interference, and it is not easy. The second feature of CDMA is security. After spreading, the narrowband signal of the user will be changed to broadband signal, is close to noise, only people who use the same spreading code can revert it. Of course, it causes the other shortcoming: more frequency band needed. The third feature of CDMA is soft capacity. Because all of the carrier resource (the main resource is power) is shared by all of the users, if some user occupy more power, it will cause the capacity lower. Soft capacity will cause network planning more complex, emulation is necessary.
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Characteristics of WCDMA FDD

Channel bandwidth: 5MHz Chip rate: 3.84Mcps Frame length: 10ms Voice coding: AMR (Adaptive Multi-Rate) Uplink and downlink modulation: QPSK/QPSK (R99) Coherence demodulation aided with pilot Fast closed loop power control: 1500Hz Handover: soft/hard handover Support synchronous and asynchronous NodeB operation Compatible with GSM-MAP core network Support open loop and closed loop transmit diversity mode
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3 WCDMA Key Technologies

Communication Model of WCDMA System
Figure 4.- WCDMA Communication Model.
Source coding can increase the transmitting efficiency. Channel coding can make the transmission more reliably. Spreading can increase the capability of overcoming interference. Scrambling can make transmission in security. Through the modulation, the signals will transfer to radio signals from digital signals. Terms
Bit, Symbol, Chip Bit : data after source coding Symbol: data after channel coding and interleaving Chip: data after spreading Process Gain: 10log (cps/bps); for different service, the Gain is different Process Gain is smaller, UE need more power for this service Process Gain is smaller, the coverage of the service is smaller
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For common services, the bit rate of voice call is 12.2kbps, the bit rate of video phone is 64kbps, and the highest packet service bit rate is 384kbps (R99). After the spreading, the chip rate of different service all become 3.84Mcps.
WCDMA Source Coding AMR (Adaptive Multi-Rate) voice coding Multi-rate: 8 kinds of coding rates Benefit multi-mode terminal design Adaptation: when cell load increases, the system will decrease speech rate of part of subscribers automatically so as to support more subscribers. AMR is compatible with current mobile communication system (GSM, IS-95, PDC and so on), thus, it will make multi-mode terminal design easier. The AMR codec offers the possibility to adapt the coding scheme to the radio channel conditions. The most robust codec mode is selected in bad propagation conditions. The codec mode providing the highest source rate is selected in good propagation conditions. During an AMR communication, the receiver measures the radio link quality and must return to the transmitter either the quality measurements or the actual codec mode the transmitter should use during the next frame. That exchange has to be done as fast as possible in order to better follow the evolution of the channels quality.
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WCDMA Channel Coding Purpose: Enhance the correlation among symbols so as to recover the signal when interference occurs. Types
Data service: Turbo code
During the transmission, there are many interferences and fading. To guarantee reliable transmission, system should overcome these influences through the channel coding which includes convolution and interleaving. The first is convolution that is used for anti-interference. Through the technology, many redundant bits will be inserted in original information. When error code is caused by interference, the redundant bits can be used to recover the original information. In WCDMA network, both Convolution code and Turbo code are used. Convolution code applies to voice service while Turbo code applies to high rate data service. WCDMA Interleaving Interleaving is used for continuous bit error correction
Figure 5.- Interleaving.

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Speech service: Convolution code
1/2
1/3
In channel coding, there is another technology named interleaving. Communications over radio channel are characterized by fast fading that can cause large numbers of consecutive errors. Most coding schemes perform better on random data errors than on blocks of errors. By interleaving the data, no two adjacent bits are transmitted near to each other, and the data errors are randomized.
Spreading and Despreading
Figure 6.- Spreading and despreading techniques.
Suppose bit sequence modulated with BPSK is adopted for the subscriber data, with a rate of R, and then 1 value is adopted for the bit of subscriber data. The spreading here means to multiply each subscriber data bit with the spreading code chip including N bits. Assume N=8, then data rate after spreading will be 8R, with same random attribute as the spreading code. We name its spreading factor as 8. And the broad band signal obtained after spreading will be sent to the receiving end via the radio channel.
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As the product of signal rate and factor 8 equals to the bandwidth spreading of subscriber data signal, CDMA system is also called the spreading system. During Despreading, the spread subscriber data will be multiplied, bit duration by bit duration, with the same 8 code chips that are used during the spreading of these bits. If only excellent synchronization can be realized between the spread subscriber signal and the Despreading code, the subscriber bit sequence can be retrieved. The Despreading operation restores the signal bandwidth to the original value R.
Spreading
Figure 7.- Spreading example.
By spreading, each symbol is multiplied with all the chips in the orthogonal sequence assigned to the user. The resulting sequence is processed and is then transmitted over the physical channel along with other spread symbols. In this figure, 4digit codes are used. The product of the user symbols and the spreading code is a sequence of digits that must be transmitted at 4 times the rate of the original encoded binary signal.
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Despreading
Figure 8. - Despreading example.
The receiver dispreads the chips by using the same code used in the transmitter. Notice that under no-noise conditions, the symbols or digits are completely recovered without any error. In reality, the channel is not noise-free, but CDMA system employs Forward Error Correction techniques to combat the effects of noise and enhance the performance of the system. When the wrong code is used for Despreading, the resulting correlation yields an average of zero. This is a clear demonstration of the advantage of the orthogonal property of the codes. Whether the wrong code is mistakenly used by the target user or other users attempting to decode the received signal, the resulting correlation is always zero because of the orthogonal property of codes.
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Spectrum Analysis of Spreading & Despreading
Figure 9.- Spreading and Despreading Spectrum analysis.
Traditional radio communication systems transmit data using the minimum bandwidth required to carry it as a narrowband signal. CDMA systems mix their input data with a fast spreading sequence and transmit a wideband signal. The spreading sequence is independently regenerated at the receiver and mixed with the incoming wideband signal to recover the original data. The Despreading gives substantial gain proportional to the bandwidth of the spread-spectrum signal. The gain can be used to increase system performance and range, or allow multiple coded users, or both. A digital bit stream sent over a radio link requires a definite bandwidth to be successfully transmitted and received.
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Correlation
Correlation is a measure of similarity of between any two arbitrary signals. EXAMPLE:
Figure 10.- Correlation. Correlation is used to measure similarity of any two arbitrary signals. It is computed by multiplying the two signals and then summing (integrating) the result over a defined time windows. The two signals of figure (a) are identical and therefore their correlation is 1 or 100 percent. In figure (b), however, the two signals are uncorrelated, and therefore knowing one of them does not provide any information on the other.
OVSF: Orthogonal Variable Spreading Factor, generated by Walsh matrix
Figure 11.- Walsh codes.

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WCDMA Spreading Code: OVSF
Walsh
Orthogonal codes are easily generated by starting with a seed of 1, repeating the 1 horizontally and vertically, and then complementing the -1 diagonally. This process is to be continued with the newly generated block until the desired codes with the proper length are generated. Sequences created in this way are referred as Walsh code. Spreading code uses OVSF code, for keeping the orthogonality of different subscriber physical channels. OVSF can be defined as the code tree illustrated in the following diagram. Spreading code is defined as Cch SF, k,, where, SF is the spreading factor of the
tree is SF spreading code, and the left most value of each spreading code character is corresponding to the chip which is transmitted earliest.
Purpose of OVSF For uplink, OVSF is used to separate different services of one connection For downlink, OVSF is used to separate different connections
For voice service (AMR), downlink SF is 128, it means there are 128 voice services maximum can be supported in one WCDMA carrier; For Video Phone (64k packet data) service, downlink SF is 32, it means there are 32 voice services maximum can be supported in one WCDMA carrier.
code, and k is the sequence of code, 0 k
SF-1. Each level definition length of code
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Why we need scrambling code? Distinguishing cells or users Downlink Scrambling code is used for distinguishing cells OVSF code is used for distinguishing users Uplink Scrambling code is used for distinguishing users OVSF code is used for distinguishing channels of one user In one network, usually a UE is surrounded by many base stations with cells. If UE wants to get service from system, first it should distinguish different signals from different cells. In WCDMA system, most of the cells use the same frequency, so UE can not get any information thought the frequency. Here scrambling codes are used. Different cells will be allocated different scrambling code.
WCDMA Scrambling Code: Gold Sequence Gold sequence is made by two m sequence. Advantage: No need to use GPS as the system clock, NodeB can work in asynchronous mode, and it is also convenient for indoor coverage Disadvantage: the interference between code is larger than m sequence For uplink, 224 long scrambles and 224 short scrambles. For downlink, 262,143 (218 - 1) scrambles, but only 8192 scrambles from 0 to 8191) are adopted at present. The length of scrambling code is 38400 chips.
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WCDMA Modulation Different modulation methods corresponding to different transmitting abilities in air interface R99/R4: adopt QPSK DL max data rate is 2.7Mbps QPSK: Quadrature Phase Shift Keying. Phase shift keying in which four different phase angles are used. 16QAM: 16 Quadrature Amplitude Modulation
Multi-path Environment
Figure 12.- Multi-path effects on UE. Radio propagation in the land mobile channel is characterized by multiple reflections, diffractions and attenuation of the signal energy. These are caused by natural obstacles such as buildings, hills, and so on, resulting in so-called multipath propagation. There are two effects resulting from multipath propagation: 1. The signal energy (pertaining, for example, to a single chip of a CDMA waveform) may arrive at the receiver across clearly distinguishable time instants.
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2. Also, for a certain time delay position there are usually many paths nearly equal in length along which the radio signal travels. A mobile communication channel is a multi-path fading channel and any transmitted signal reaches a receive end by means of multiple transmission paths, such as direct transmission, reflection, scatter, etc. The received signals are different in signal energy and time delay.
Fading
Figure 13.- Slow and Fast fading effects.
Slow fading
In case shadow effect is caused by obstacles, and the receiving signal strength decreases but the field strength mid-value changes slowly with the change of the topography, the strength decrease is called slow fading or shadow fading. The field strength mid-value of slow fading takes on a logarithmic normal distribution, and is related to location/locale. The fading speed is dependent on the speed of the mobile station.
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Fast fading
In case the amplitude and phase of the combined wave change sharply with the motion of the mobile station, the change is called fast fading. The spatial distribution of deep fading points is similar to interval of half of wavelength. Since its field strength takes on Rayleigh distribution, the fading is also called Rayleigh fading. The amplitude, phase and angle of the fading are random. Fast fading is subdivided into the following three categories: Time-selective fading: In case the user moves quickly and causes Doppler effect on the frequency domain, and thus results in frequency diffusion, time-selective fading will occur. Space-selective fading: The fading features vary between different places and different transmission paths. Frequency-selective fading: The fading features vary between different frequencies, which results in delay diffusion and frequency-selective fading. In order to mitigate the influence of fast fading on wireless communication, typical methods are: space diversity, frequency diversity, and time diversity. Furthermore, with the moving of a mobile station, the signal amplitude, delay and phase on various transmission paths vary with time and place. Therefore, the levels of received signals are fluctuating and unstable and these multi-path signals, if overlaid, will lead to fading. The mid-value field strength of Rayleigh fading has relatively gentle change and is called Slow fading. And it conforms to lognormal distribution.
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Principle of RAKE Receiver
Figure 14.- The RAKE receiver architecture. The RAKE receiver is a technique which uses several baseband correlators to individually process multipath signal components. The outputs from the different correlators are combined to achieve improved reliability and performance.
Figure above shows a simplified block diagram of a Rake receiver. As you can see, a number of Rake fingers containing correlators are used to track the different multipath reflections from one scrambling code. The outputs from the fingers are fed into a combiner. One of three different types of combining processes is employed to produce an output that is the sum of the individual multipath components. In order to achieve this tracking, each finger simply correlates the signal with the same scrambling code but at a different phase shift. Since this is similar to using a different code, a finger could quite easily be used to track another base station. This is exactly what happens in the case of Soft or Softer handovers, which are explained later. The output from one finger is not fed into the combiner. This finger correlates the received signal with the scrambling code of known neighboring base stations in order to measure their power. This information is used to determine when to perform handovers. This finger is known as the Searcher Finger.
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To make it possible for the Rake receiver to track these various components it must have some way of measuring the signal levels and phases. This is achieved by the base station transmitting known pilot symbols in the transmitted data. The Rake receiver looks for these bits and uses them to determine the phase and signal strength of each component. When WCDMA systems were designed for cellular systems, the inherent widebandwidth signals with their orthogonal Walsh functions were natural for implementing a RAKE receiver. In WCDMA system, the bandwidth is wider than the coherence bandwidth of the cellular. Thus, when the multi-path components are resolved in the receiver, the signals from each tap on the delay line are uncorrelated with each other. The receiver can then combine them using any of the combining schemes. The WCDMA system then uses the multi-path characteristics of the channel to its advantage to improve the operation of the system.
Structure of RAKE Receiver
Figure 15.- RAKE Receiver Structure. For the digitized signals input to the baseband, Despreading and integration of subscriber data symbols is completed via the correlator and local Code Generator, specifics are as follows: Channel Estimator uses the pilot signal to estimate the channel status; Phase Rotator deletes the phase affection caused by the channel from the received signal according to the estimated channel status. The function of Delay
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Equalizer is to obtain the signal energy distribution at different delay positions via the matching filter, identify the multipaths with large energy, and allocate their time values to different receive paths of the RAKE receiver. The delay equalizer is to compensate the difference of symbol arriving time for each path. At last, the RAKE combiner adds the symbols after channel compensation to provide multipath diversity to withstand fading. From the aspect of realization, the processing of RAKE receiver can be based on either chip level or symbol level. The correlator, local code generator and matching filter belong to the chip level processing, and this is generally realized via ASIC device; Channel estimation, phase spinning and combination belong to symbol level processing, and this is realized via DSP. Though the realization methods and functions of the RAKE receiver between UE and BTS are different, the principles are complete the same.
WCDMA Fast Power Control Control Fast Fading
Figure 16.- Power control.
The rate of power control can be up to1500 times per second, which is faster than that of fading, thus, it can overcome shadow fading and fast fading effectively Power control also decreases interference of system, and increase system capacity and quality. For UE, Power control can save power, and expand conversational time.
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4 Performance Enhancement Methods

HSDPA Key Techniques - Overview
Figure 17 . - HSDPA Key Techniques. GENERAL PRINCIPLES
HSDPA concept is based on a set of basic principles: 1 Shared channel transmission based on multi-code transmission where resources are shared in time & code domain 2 16QAM Modulation to increase the peak bit rate 3 Short TTI in order to support fast retransmission, fast link adaptation, fast scheduling and short round trip delay (Transmission Time Interval)(500 times/sec!) 4 Fast scheduling selects the user with best radio conditions 5 Fast link adaptations adapts for fast changes in radio conditions 6 Fast re-transmission with Soft combining if packets are corrupted. 7 Dynamic Power Allocations
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Figure 18 . - HSDPA Key Techniques AMC.
Figure 19 . - HSDPA Key Techniques HARQ.
Fast
hybrid
Automatic
Repeat
ReQuest
allows
UEs
to
rapidly
request
retransmissions of erroneously received transport blocks. The UE attempts to decode each transport block it receives, reporting to RBS its success or failure 5 ms after the reception of the transport block. The hybrid ARQ mechanism in RBS can rapidly respond to retransmissions requests. This leads to shorter Round Trip Times.
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The UE employs soft combining, that is: it combines soft information from previous transmission attempts with the current transmission to increase the probability of soft combining. This reduces error rates for retransmissions. This functionality is mainly sort of fine tuning the effective code rate and compensating for errors made by link adaptation mechanism.
Figure 20. - HSDPA Key Techniques - Fast scheduling. Fast Scheduling is about to decide to which terminal the shared channel transmission should be directed at any given moment. Its called channel-dependent scheduling because its dependent on the instantaneous channel condition. The basic idea is to transmit at the fading peaks of the channel in order to increase the capacity and to use the resources more efficiently. But this might lead to large variations in data rate of the users.
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The trade-off is between the cell throughput and fairness against users. In some cases, there might be a particular user who is perhaps on the cell border which might not be allocated the radio resources because he does not have good enough C/I. Remember that we dont have SHO for dedicated shared channel. So there are a number of scheduling algorithms which takes into consideration the trade-of between throughput and fairness. And the next slide will be about them. The scheduling strategy has a large impact on the system capacity and the end user performance. The variations in the radio-conditions should be utilized by a good scheduler. We have a couple of different schedulers. Round Robin scheduler allocates the channel to users sequentially. Quite simple but offers rather poor performance. Proportional Fair is the one which allocates the channel to the user with relatively best channel quality. It gives rather high throughput and rather fair, whereas Max C/I allocates the channel with absolutely best channel quality. It does not care about fairness at all. A practical scheduler should operate somewhere between the RR and the max C/I scheduler and exactly where it should operate is dependent on the traffic load and traffic type among the other things. The higher the system load, the more visible the difference between the different scheduling algorithm. But Proportional Fair scheduler is proposed for Interactive/Best Effort traffic and also to avoid that some users get no throughput. For streaming, traffic priorities can be taken into account. Streaming services before background services can be prioritized. Short term variations in the channel such as multipath fading and variations in interference level can be acceptable and go unnoticed for many packet-data applications. Long term variations such as the distance between terminal and the RBS are more restrictive. So the practical scheduler should be fair to long-term variations and should exploit short term variations.
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Figure 21 . - HSDPA Key Techniques CDM and TDM. Shared-channel transmission
In HSDPA, a new DL transport channel is introduced called high speed DL shared channel. The idea is that a part of the total downlink code resource is dynamically shared between a set of packet-data users, primarily in the time domain. The codes are allocated to a user only when they are actually to be used for transmission which leads to efficient code and power utilization. In HSDPA, maximum 15 channelization codes with Spreading Factor (SF) = 16 can be used for this new DL channel. Channelization codes are used enabling user data rates up to 4.32 Mbps (the system is capable of enabling 4.32 Mbps). The main benefit with DL shared channel transmission is to reduce the risk for codelimited capacity. Sharing codes in the code domain, in other words, code multiplexing, is also possible by employing different subsets of the complete channelization code set for different users. Sharing in the code domain is useful for providing efficient support of small payloads when the transmitted data does not require the full set of HS-DSCH codes configured in the cell. Useful when supporting terminals cannot despread the full set of codes.
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Number of codes which will be used in each cell is configured or slowly adapted by RNC according to # of resources needed for packet data services on HS channel and other services such as voice. Its the RBS which dynamically allocates the codes to the users every 2 ms.
Figure 22 . - HSDPA Key Techniques 16QAM.
HSDPA supports both QPSK and 16QAM. 16 QAM is optional in RBS, but mandatory in the UE except for 2 UE categories. It gives approximately double data rate as QPSK given a fixed code rate. It is more bandwidth efficient but of course requires better channel conditions.
16QAM 16 Quadrature Amplitude Modulation 16QAM (High Order Modulation) is more bandwidth efficient, i.e. can carry more bits per Hertz But is also less robust and typically requires higher energy per bit for a given error rate.
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Higher-order modulation can be used together with shared-channel transmission to support higher data rates and achieve higher capacity, assuming it is used only when the radio-channel conditions so allow. 16 QAM is good in bandwidth limited scenarios but not in power limited scenarios. Its basically good near to base station and low dispersive environments. A good example is micro and indoor cells. With the introduction of G-Rakes or dual antennas in UEs, higher modulation will be chosen more often by link adaptation. So in the future, higher modulation will be utilized more by means of advanced receivers in the terminals.
Smart Antenna
Figure 23.- Omni, directional and smart antenna coverages. Reduce interference Increase coverage and capacity Diversity technology means that after receiving two or more input signals with mutually uncorrelated fading at the same time, the system demodulates these signals and adds them up. Thus, the system can receive more useful signals and overcome fading.
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A mobile communication channel is a multi-path fading channel and any transmitted signal reaches a receive end by means of multiple transmission paths, such as direct transmission, reflection, scatter, etc. Furthermore, with the moving of a mobile station, the signal amplitude, delay and phase on various transmission paths vary with time and place. Therefore, the levels of received signals are fluctuating and unstable and these multi-path signals, if overlaid, will lead to fading. The mid-value field strength of Rayleigh fading has relatively gentle change and is called Slow fading. And it conforms to lognormal distribution. Diversity technology is an effective way to overcome overlaid fading. Because it can be selected in terms of frequency, time and space, diversity technology includes frequency diversity, time diversity and space diversity.
Figure 24.- Smart antenna features. Introduction to Diversity Technique
Diversity technique is used to obtain uncorrelated signals for combining Reduce the effects of fading fast fading caused by multi-path Slow fading caused by shadowing
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Improve the reliability of communication Increase the coverage and capacity Macroscopic diversity Soft handover and softer handover Reduce large-scale fading Microscopic diversity Time diversity Rake Receiver, Block interleaving Frequency diversity The user signal is distributed on the whole bandwidth frequency spectrum Space diversity Receive diversity Transmit diversity Polarization diversity Vertical polarization Horizontal polarization Diversity methods Time diversity Frequency diversity Space diversity Diversity technology means that after receiving two or more input signals with mutually uncorrelated fading at the same time, the system demodulates these signals and adds them up. Thus, the system can receive more useful signals and overcome fading. Diversity technology is an effective way to overcome overlaid fading. Because it can be selected in terms of frequency, time and space, diversity technology includes frequency diversity, time diversity and space diversity.
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Time diversity: block interleaving, error-correction Frequency diversity: frequency hopping, CDMA is also a kind of frequency diversity; the signal energy is distributed on the whole bandwidth. Space diversity: using twin receive antennas, RAKE receivers During a handover, the mobile station contacts multiple base stations and searches for the strongest frame, it is called macro diversity.
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