VERSION 4.

2
Users Guide
Geomechanics Module
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Geomechanics Module Users Guide
19982011 COMSOL
Protected by U.S. Patents 7,519,518; 7,596,474; and 7,623,991. Patents pending.
This Documentation and the Programs described herein are furnished under the COMSOL Software
License Agreement (www.comsol.com/sla) and may be used or copied only under the terms of the license
agreement.
COMSOL, COMSOL Desktop, COMSOL Multiphysics, and LiveLink are registered trademarks or trade-
marks of COMSOL AB. Other product or brand names are trademarks or registered trademarks of their
respective holders.
Version: May 2011 COMSOL 4.2
Part No. CM021801
C O N T E N T S | 3
C o n t e n t s
C h a p t e r 1 : I n t r o d u c t i o n
Geomechanics Module Overview 6
Where Do I Access the Documentation and Model Library? . . . . . . 6
Typographical Conventions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
C h a p t e r 2 : G e o me c h a n i c s T h e o r y
General Geomechanics Theory 12
Sign Conventions for Stress and Strain Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Defining the Stress Invariants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Defining the Yield Surface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Defining Perfectly Plastic Material Models 17
Von Mises Criterion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Tresca Criterion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Plasticity Models for Soils 20
Mohr-Coulomb Criterion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Drucker-Prager Criterion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Elliptic Cap . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Matsuoka-Nakai Criterion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
Lade-Duncan Criterion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Theory for the Cam-Clay Material Model 27
About the Cam-Clay Material Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Volumetric Elastic Behavior . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
Hardening and Softening . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
Including Pore Fluid Pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
Failure Criteria for Concrete, Rocks, and Other Brittle Materials 32
Bresler-Pister Criterion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
4 | C O N T E N T S
Willam-Warnke Criterion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
Ottosen Criterion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
Hoek-Brown Criterion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
Generalized Hoek-Brown Criterion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
Stress-Strain Theory 39
Small Strain Assumption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
Plastic Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
Effective and Volumetric Plastic Strains. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
References for the Geomechanics Module 43
C h a p t e r 3 : T h e G e o me c h a n i c s M a t e r i a l M o d e l s
Working with the Geomechanics Material Models 46
Adding a Material Model to a Solid Mechanics Interface . . . . . . . . 46
Soil Plasticity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
Concrete. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
Rocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
Cam-Clay Material Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
Geomechanics Materials 54
The Output Materials Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
5
1
I n t r o d u c t i o n
Welcome to the Geomechanics Module Users Guide. This chapter provides a
Geomechanics Module Overview and the type of modeling you can achieve with
its extensive set of material models for geomechanics and soil mechanics. In
addition, it includes some general information about documentation and models.
The Geomechanics Module extends the capabilities of the Structural Mechanics
Module. For general information about structural analysis, see the Structural
Mechanics Module Users Guide.
6 | C H A P T E R 1 : I N T R O D U C T I O N
Ge ome c hani c s Modul e Ov e r v i e w
Note: The Geomechanics Module requires a Structural Mechanics Module license.
The Geomechanics Module is an optional package that extends the Structural
Mechanics Module to the quantitative investigation of geotechnical processes. It is
designed for researchers, engineers, developers, teachers, and students, and suits both
single-physics and interdisciplinary studies.
The Geomechanics Module includes an extensive set of fundamental material models,
such as the Drucker-Prager and Mohr-Coulomb criteria and the Cam-Clay model in
soil mechanics. These material models can also couple to any new equations created,
and to physics interfaces (for example, heat transfer, fluid flow, and solute transport in
porous media) already built into COMSOL Multiphysics and its other specialized
modules.
In this section:
Where Do I Access the Documentation and Model Library?
Typographical Conventions
Where Do I Access the Documentation and Model Library?
A number of Internet resources provide more information about COMSOL
Multiphysics, including licensing and technical information. The electronic
documentation, Dynamic Help, and the Model Library are all accessed through the
COMSOL Desktop.
Note: If you are working directly from a PDF on your computer, the blue links do
not work to open a model or documentation referenced in a different user guide.
However, if you are using the online help desk in COMSOL Multiphysics, these links
work to other modules, model examples, and documentation sets.
G E O M E C H A N I C S M O D U L E O V E R V I E W | 7
T H E D O C U ME N T A T I O N
The COMSOL Multiphysics Users Guide and COMSOL Multiphysics Reference
Guide describe all the interfaces included with the basic COMSOL license. These
guides also have instructions about how to use COMSOL Multiphysics, and how to
access the documentation electronically through the COMSOL Multiphysics help
desk.
To locate and search all the documentation, in COMSOL Multiphysics:
Click the buttons on the toolbar or
Select Help>Documentation ( ) or Help>Dynamic Help ( ) from the main menu
and then either enter a search term or look under a specific module in the
documentation tree.
T H E MO D E L L I B R A R Y
Each model comes with a theoretical background and step-by-step instructions to
create the model. The models are available in COMSOL as MPH-files that you can
open for further investigation. Use both the step-by-step instructions and the actual
models as a template for your own modeling and applications. SI units are used to
describe the relevant properties, parameters, and dimensions in most examples, but
other unit systems are available.
To open the Model Library, select View>Model Library ( ) from the main menu, and
then search by model name or browse under a Module folder name. If you also want
to review the documentation explaining how to build a model, select the model and
click Model PDF or the Dynamic Help button ( ) to reach the PDF or HTML version,
respectively. Alternatively, select Help>Documentation in COMSOL and search by name
or browse by Module.
If you have feedback or suggestions for additional models for the library (including
those developed by you), feel free to contact us at info@comsol.com.
C O MS O L WE B S I T E S
Main corporate web site: http://www.comsol.com/
Worldwide contact information: http://www.comsol.com/contact/
Online technical support main page: http://www.comsol.com/support/
COMSOL Support Knowledge Base, your first stop for troubleshooting assistance,
where you can search for answers to any COMSOL questions:
http://www.comsol.com/support/knowledgebase/
8 | C H A P T E R 1 : I N T R O D U C T I O N
Product updates: http://www.comsol.com/support/updates/
C O N T A C T I N G C O MS O L BY E MA I L
For general product information, contact COMSOL at info@comsol.com.
To receive technical support from COMSOL for the COMSOL products, please
contact your local COMSOL representative or send your questions to
support@comsol.com. An automatic notification and case number is sent to you by
email.
C O MS O L C O MMU N I T Y
On the COMSOL web site, you find a user community at http://www.comsol.com/
community/. The user community includes a discussion forum, a model exchange,
news postings, and a searchable database of papers and presentations.
Typographical Conventions
All COMSOL user guides use a set of consistent typographical conventions that should
make it easy for you to follow the discussion, realize what you can expect to see on the
screen, and know which data you must enter into various data-entry fields.
In particular, you should be aware of these conventions:
Click text highlighted in blue to go to other information in the PDF. When you are
using the online help desk in COMSOL Multiphysics, these links also work to other
Modules, model examples, and documentation sets.
A boldface font of the shown size and style indicates that the given word(s) appear
exactly that way on the COMSOL Desktop (or, for toolbar buttons, in the
corresponding tooltip). For example, the Model Builder window ( ) is often
referred to and this is the window that contains the model tree. As another example,
the instructions might say to click the Zoom Extents button ( ), and this boldface
font means that you can expect to see a button with that label (when you hover over
the button with your mouse) on the COMSOL Desktop.
The names of other items on the COMSOL Desktop that do not have direct labels
contain a leading uppercase letter. For instance, we often refer to the Main toolbar
the horizontal bar containing several icons that are displayed on top of the user
interface. However, nowhere on the COMSOL Desktop, nor the toolbar itself,
includes the word Main.
G E O M E C H A N I C S M O D U L E O V E R V I E W | 9
The forward arrow symbol > indicates selecting a series of menu items in a specific
order. For example, Options>Results is equivalent to: From the Options menu, select
Results.
A Code (monospace) font indicates you are to make a keyboard entry in the user
interface. You might see an instruction such as Enter (or type) 1.25 in the Current
density edit field. The monospace font also is an indication of programming code.
or a variable name. An italic Code (monospace) font indicates user inputs and parts
of names that can vary or be defined by the user.
An italic font indicates the introduction of important terminology. Expect to find
an explanation in the same paragraph or in the Glossary. The names of other user
guides in the COMSOL documentation set also have an italic font.
The Difference Between Nodes, Buttons, and Icons
Node: A node is located in the Model Builder and has an icon image to the left of it.
Right-click a node to open a Context Menu and to perform actions.
Button: Click a button to perform an action. Usually located on a toolbar (the Main
toolbar or the Graphics window toolbar, for example), or in the upper right corner
of a Settings window.
Icon: An icon is an image that displays on a window (for example, the Model Wizard
or Model Library) or displays in a Context Menu when a node is right-clicked.
Sometimes selecting an icon from a nodes Context Menu adds a node with the
same image and name, sometimes it simply performs the action indicated (for
example, Delete, Enable, or Disable).
10 | C H A P T E R 1 : I N T R O D U C T I O N
11
2
G e o me c h a n i c s T h e o r y
The Geomechanics Module contains new materials which are used in combination
with the Structural Mechanics Module to account for the plasticity of soils and
failure criteria in rocks, concrete and other brittle materials.
In this chapter:
General Geomechanics Theory
Defining Perfectly Plastic Material Models
Plasticity Models for Soils
Theory for the Cam-Clay Material Model
Failure Criteria for Concrete, Rocks, and Other Brittle Materials
Stress-Strain Theory
References for the Geomechanics Module
12 | C H A P T E R 2 : G E O M E C H A N I C S T H E O R Y
Ge ne r a l Ge ome c ha ni c s T he or y
Note: See also the Theory for the Solid Mechanics Interface in the Structural
Mechanics Users Guide for more information.
In this section:
Sign Conventions for Stress and Strain Analysis
Defining the Stress Invariants
Defining the Yield Surface
Sign Conventions for Stress and Strain Analysis
The theory of plasticity was initially developed in continuum mechanics where tensile
stresses are usually considered to be positive quantities and compressive stresses are
negative quantities. Under this convention, force and displacement components are
considered positive if directed in the positive directions of the coordinate axes. Tensile
normal strains and tensile normal stresses are treated as positive (Ref. 11).
Engineering analysis and design for soil and rock structures, however, are in most cases
concerned with compressive stresses (Ref. 1). Therefore, in geotechnical applications
the opposite sign convention is usually adopted because compressive normal stresses
are more common than tensile ones (Ref. 5).
The Geomechanics Module follows the sign convention of continuum mechanics as
stated in Ref. 1 (positive tensile stresses). This is consistent with the notation used in
the Structural Mechanics Module. This means the principal stresses often have a
negative sign, and are sorted as o
1
> o
2
> o
3
.
The convention used in Ref. 1 refers to the hydrostatic pressure (trace of the stress
Cauchy tensor) with a positive sign. The use of the first invariant of Cauchy stress
tensor I
1
(o) is preferred through this document, in order to avoid misunderstandings
with the convention in the Structural Mechanics Module (where pressure is positive
under compression, or equivalently, it has the opposite sign of the Cauchy stress
tensors trace).
G E N E R A L G E O M E C H A N I C S T H E O R Y | 13
Defining the Stress Invariants
The starting point for defining the theory of plastic deformation of soils is the
definition of the first, second, and third invariants for the Cauchy stress tensor o. These
invariants are defined as follows:
(2-1)
The first invariant I
1
is the trace of the tensor, the second invariant I
2
is the sum of the
principal two-rowed minors of the determinant of o, and the third invariant I
3
is the
determinant of o. (Ref. 1).
When o
1
, o
2
, and o
3
, represent the principal components of the stress tensor, these
invariants can be written as
The principal components of the stress tensor are the roots of the characteristic
equation (CayleyHamilton theorem)
which comes from calculating the eigenvalues of the tensor .
Note: The invariants I
1
, I
2
, and I
3
can be called in user-defined yield criteria by
referencing the variables solid.I1s, solid.I2s and solid.I3s.
Defining the deviatoric stress as the traceless tensor
introduces us to the first, second, and third deviatoric stress invariants
I
1
o ( ) o
ii
trace o ( ) = =
I
2
o ( )
1
2
--- o
ii
o
jj
o
ij
o
ji
( )
1
2
--- I
1
2
o:o ( ) = =
I
3
o ( ) det o ( )
1
3
--- o o ( ):o I
1
3
( ) I
1
I
2
+ = =
I
1
o ( ) o
1
o
2
o
3
+ + =
I
2
o ( )
1
2
--- I
1
2
o
1
2
o
2
2
o
3
2
+ + ( ) ( ) =
I
3
o ( ) o
1
o
2
o
3
=
o
1
o
2
o
2
o
3
o
1
o
3
+ + =

3
I
1

2
I
2
I
3
+ 0 =
det o
ij
o
ij
0 =
o
ij
D
o
ij
1
3
---I
1
o
ij
=
14 | C H A P T E R 2 : G E O M E C H A N I C S T H E O R Y
(2-2)
As defined above J
2
> 0. In soil plasticity, the most relevant invariants are I
1
, J
2
, and
J
3
. I
1
represents the effect of mean stress, J
2
represents the magnitude of shear stress,
and J
3
is the direction of the shear stress.
Note: The invariants J
2
and J
3
can be called in user-defined yield criteria by
referencing the variables solid.II2s and solid.II3s.
O T H E R I NV A R I A N T S
It is possible to define other invariants in terms of the primary invariants. One common
auxiliary invariant is the Lode angle u
(2-3)
The Lode angle is bounded to 0 s u s t/3 when the principal stresses are sorted as
o
1
> o
2
> o
3
(Ref. 1).
Following this convention, u = 0 corresponds to the tensile meridian, and u = t/3
corresponds to the compressive meridian. The Lode angle is part of a cylindrical
coordinate system (the HaighWestergaard coordinates) with height (hydrostatic axis)
and radius .
Note: The Lode angle is undefined at the hydrostatic axis, where all three principal
stresses are equal (o
1
= o
2
= o
3
= I
1
/3) and J
2
= 0. To avoid division by zero, the
Lode angle is computed from the inverse tangent function atan2, instead of the
inverse cosine, as stated in Equation 2-3.
J
1
o ( ) o
ii
D
= 0 =
J
2
o ( )
1
2
---o
ij
D
o
ji
D
=
1
3
---I
1
2
I
2
=
J
3
o ( ) det o
D
( )
1
3
--- o
D
o
D
( ):o
D
( )
2
27
------I
1
3 1
3
---I
1
I
2
I
3
+ = = =
3u cos
3 3
2
-----------
J
3
J
2
3 2
------------ =
I
1
/ 3 = r 2J
2
=
G E N E R A L G E O M E C H A N I C S T H E O R Y | 15
Note: The Lode angle and the effective (von Mises) stress can be called in
user-defined yield criteria by referencing the variables solid.thetaL and
solid.mises.
The octahedral plane (also called t-plane) is defined perpendicular to the hydrostatic
axis in the HaighWestergaard coordinate system. The stress normal to this plane is
o
oct
= I
1
/3, and the shear stress on that plane is defined by .
The functionals described in Equation 2-1 and Equation 2-2 enter into expressions
that define various kind of yield and failure surfaces. A yield surface is a surface in the
3D space of principal stresses which circumscribe an elastic state of stress.
P R I N C I P A L S T R E S S E S
The principal stresses (o
1
, o
2
, and o
3
) are the eigenvalues of the stress tensor, and when
sorted as they can be written by using the invariants I
1
and J
2
and the
Lode angle 0 s u s t/3 (Ref. 1):
The principal stresses can be obtained by using the expressions in Table 2-1.
TABLE 2-1: PRINCIPAL STRESSES SORTED AS IN THE STRUCTURAL MECHANICS MODULE
PRINCIPAL
STRESS
EXPRESSION
o
1
solid.I1s/3+sqrt(4/3*solid.II2s)*cos(solid.thetaL)
o
2
solid.I1s/3+sqrt(4/3*solid.II2s)*cos(solid.thetaL-2*pi/3)
o
3
solid.I1s/3+sqrt(4/3*solid.II2s)*cos(solid.thetaL+2*pi/3)
t
oct
2/3J
2
=
o
1
o
2
o
3
> >
o
1
=
1
3
---I
1
4J
2
3
---------- u cos +
o
2
=
1
3
---I
1
4J
2
3
---------- u
2t
3
------
\ .
| |
cos +
o
3
=
1
3
---I
1
4J
2
3
---------- u
2t
3
------ +
\ .
| |
cos +
16 | C H A P T E R 2 : G E O M E C H A N I C S T H E O R Y
Defining the Yield Surface
A yield criterion serves to define the stress condition under which plastic deformation
occurs. Stress paths within the yield surface result in purely recoverable deformations
(elastic behavior), while paths intersecting the yield surface produces both recoverable
and permanent deformations (plastic strains).
In general, the yield surface can be described as
where f
c
can be a constant value (for perfectly plastic materials), or a variable for
strain-hardening materials. The yield surface F is a surface in the space of principal
stresses, for which the elastic regime (F < 0) is enclosed.
For brittle materials, the yield surface represents a failure surface, which is a stress
level at which the material collapses instead of deforms plastically.
Note: Some authors define the yield criterion as f (o) = f
c
, while the yield surface is a
isosurface in the space of principal stresses F = 0, which can be chosen for numerical
purposes as .
F f o ( ) f
c
0 = =
F f o ( )
2
= f
c
2
0 =
D E F I N I N G P E R F E C T L Y P L A S T I C M A T E R I A L M O D E L S | 17
De f i ni ng Pe r f e c t l y Pl as t i c Mat e r i al
Mode l s
For perfect elastoplastic materials, the yield surface is fixed in the 3D space of principal
stress, and therefore, plastic deformations occur only when the stress path moves on
the yield surface (the regime inside the yield surface is elastic, and stress paths beyond
the yield surface are not allowed).
In general, the yield criterion depends on various parameters. Most of the plasticity
models are based on isotropic assumptions, which require the yield function to be
independent of the chosen coordinate system. This introduces the concept of using the
stress invariants previously defined in Equation 2-1, Equation 2-2, and Equation 2-3.
In this section:
Von Mises Criterion
Tresca Criterion
Von Mises Criterion
The von Mises criterion suggests that the yielding of the material begins when the
second deviatoric stress invariant J
2
reaches a critical value. This criterion can be
written in terms of the elements of Cauchys stress tensor (Ref. 1)
or equivalently .
The von Mises criterion is implemented in the Structural Mechanics Module as
, where o
ys
is a user-defined yield stress level (yield stress in uniaxial
tension).
Note: The effective or von Mises stress ( ) is available in the variable
solid.mises.
J
2
1
6
--- o
11
o
22
( )
2
o
22
o
33
( )
2
o
33
o
11
( )
2
+ + ( ) o
12
2
o
23
2
o
13
2
+ + + k
2
= =
J
2
k =
3J
2
o
ys
=
o
mises
3J
2
=
18 | C H A P T E R 2 : G E O M E C H A N I C S T H E O R Y
Tresca Criterion
Tresca yield surface is normally expressed in terms of the principal stress components
Tresca criterion is a hexagonal prism with axis equally inclined to the three principal
stress axes. When the principal stresses fulfill o
1
> o
2
> o
3
, this criterion can be written
as
By using the representation of principal stresses in term of the invariants J
2
and the
Lode angle 0 s u s t/3, this criterion can alternatively be written as
or equivalently .
The maximum shear stress is reached at the meridians (u = 0 or u = t/3). Tresca
criterion can be circumscribed by setting the Lode angle u = 0, or equivalently, by a
von Mises criterion .
The minimum shear is reached at u = t/6, so the Tresca criterion can be inscribed by
setting a von Mises criterion . When dealing with soils, the parameter k is
also called undrained shear strength.
1
2
---max o
1
o
2
o
1
o
3
o
2
o
3
, , ( ) k =
1
2
--- o
1
o
3
( ) k =
1
2
---
4J
2
3
---------- u ( ) u
2t
3
------ +
\ .
| |
cos cos
\ .
| |
J
2
u
t
3
--- +
\ .
| |
sin k = =
J
2
u
t
6
---
\ .
| |
cos k =
3J
2
2k =
J
2
k =
D E F I N I N G P E R F E C T L Y P L A S T I C M A T E R I A L M O D E L S | 19
Figure 2-1: The upper and lower limits of Tresca criterion.
Note: Tresca effective stress is implemented in the Structural Mechanics Module with
the variable solid.tresca.
Figure 2-2: Classical yield criteria for metals. Left: Tresca criterion. Right: von Mises
criterion.
The von Mises and Tresca criteria are independent of the first stress invariant I
1
and
are mainly used for the analysis of plastic deformation in metals and ductile materials,
though some researchers use these criteria for describing fully saturated cohesive soils
(that is, clays) under undrained conditions.
u
u = t/6
Upper limit
Lower limit
20 | C H A P T E R 2 : G E O M E C H A N I C S T H E O R Y
Pl as t i c i t y Mode l s f or S oi l s
In this section:
Mohr-Coulomb Criterion
Drucker-Prager Criterion
Elliptic Cap
Matsuoka-Nakai Criterion
Lade-Duncan Criterion
Mohr-Coulomb Criterion
Mohr-Coulomb criterion is the most popular criterion in soil mechanics. It was
developed by Coulomb before Tresca and von Mises criteria for metals, and it was the
first criterion to account for the hydrostatic pressure. The criterion states that failure
occurs when the shear stress and the normal stress acting on any element in the
material satisfy the equation
here, t is the shear stress, c the cohesion, and | denotes the angle of internal friction.
With the help of Mohrs circle, this criterion can be written as
Mohr-Coulomb criterion defines an irregular hexagon pyramid in the space of
principal stresses, which generates singularities in the derivatives of the yield function.
t o | tan c + 0 =
1
2
--- o
1
o
3
( )
1
2
--- o
1
o
3
+ ( ) | c | cos sin + 0 =
P L A S T I C I T Y M O D E L S F O R S O I L S | 21
Figure 2-3: The Mohr-Coulomb criterion.
The Mohr-Coulomb criterion can be written in terms of the invariants I
1
and J
2
and
the Lode angle 0 s u s t/3 (Ref. 1, Ref. 9) when the principal stresses are sorted as
o
1
> o
2
> o
3
,
The tensile meridian is defined when u = 0 and the compressive meridian when u = t/3.
Rearranging terms, Mohr-Coulomb criterion reads
where , , and
.
In the special case of frictionless material, (| = 0, o = 0, k = c), the Mohr-Coulomb
criterion reduces to Trescas maximum shear stress criterion, (o
1
o
3
) = 2k or
equivalently .
Drucker-Prager Criterion
Mohr-Coulomb criterion causes numerical difficulties when treating the plastic flow at
the corners of the yield surface. The Drucker-Prager model neglects the influence of
the invariant J
3
(introduced by the Lode angle) on the cross-sectional shape of the
yield surface. It can be considered as the first attempt to approximate the
Mohr-Coulomb criterion by a smooth function based on the invariants I
1
and J
2

T
e
n
s
i
l
e

m
e
r
i
d
i
a
n
C
o
m
p
r
e
s
s
i
v
e

m
e
r
i
d
i
a
n
F
1
3
---I
1
|
J
2
3
------ 1 | sin + ( ) u 1 | sin ( ) u
2t
3
------ +
\ .
| |
cos cos
\ .
| |
c | cos + sin 0 = =
F J
2
m u ( ) oI
1
k + 0 = =
m u ( ) u t 6 ( ) cos 1 3 | sin u t 6 ( ) sin = o | 3 sin =
k c | cos =
F J
2
u
t
6
---
\ .
| |
cos k 0 = =
22 | C H A P T E R 2 : G E O M E C H A N I C S T H E O R Y
together with two material constants (which can be related to Mohr-Coulombs
coefficients)
This is sometimes also called extended von Mises criterion, since it is equivalent to
von-Mises criterion for metals when setting o = 0.
Figure 2-4: The Drucker-Prager criterion.
The coefficients in the Drucker-Prager model can be matched to the coefficients in the
Mohr-Coulomb criterion by
and
The symbol is related to either matching the tensile meridian (positive sign) or the
compressive meridian (negative sign) of Mohr-Coulombs pyramid.
The matching at the tensile meridian (u = 0) comes from setting
in Mohr-Coulomb criterion, and the matching at the
compressive meridian (u = t/3) from setting .
F J
2
oI
1
k + 0 = =
o
2
3
-------
| sin
3 | sin ( )
-------------------------- = k
2 3c | cos
3 | sin ( )
--------------------------- =
m 0 ( ) 3 | sin + ( ) 2 3 ( ) =
m t 3 ( ) 3 | sin ( ) 2 3 ( ) =
P L A S T I C I T Y M O D E L S F O R S O I L S | 23
Figure 2-5: The Drucker-Prager criterion showing the tensile and compressive meridians
(inner and outer circles), and the Lode angle compared to the cross section of
Mohr-Coulomb criterion in the t-plane.
In the special case of frictionless material, (| = 0, o = 0, ), the Drucker
-Prager criterion reduces to von Mises criterion .
When matching Drucker-Prager criterion to Mohr-Coulomb criterion in 2D
plane-strain applications, the parameters are
and
and when matching both criteria in 2D plane-stress applications, the matching
parameters are:
and
Elliptic Cap
Both Mohr-Coulomb and Drucker-Prager criteria portrait a conic yield surface which
opens in the hydrostatic axis direction. Normally, these soil models are not accurate
above a given limit pressure, since real life materials can not bear infinite loads and still
Tensile meridian
Compressive meridian
u
k 2c 3 =
J
2
2c 3 =
o =
| tan
9 12 |
2
tan +
------------------------------------ k =
3c
9 12 |
2
tan +
------------------------------------
o =
1
3
------- | sin k =
2
3
------- c | cos
24 | C H A P T E R 2 : G E O M E C H A N I C S T H E O R Y
behave elastically. A simpler way to overcome this problem is to add an elliptical
end-cap to these soil models.
The elliptic cap is an elliptic yield surface of semi axes as shown in Figure 2-6. The
initial pressure p
a
(SI units: Pa) denotes the pressure at which the elastic range
circumscribed by either Mohr-Coulomb pyramid or Drucker-Prager cone is not valid
any longer, so a cap surface is added. The limit pressure p
b
gives the curvature of the
ellipse, and denotes the maximum admissible hydrostatic pressure for which the
material start deforming plastically. Pressures higher than p
b
are not allowed
Figure 2-6: Elliptic cap model in HaighWestergaard coordinate system.
Note that the sign convention for the pressure is taken from the Structural Mechanics
Module: positive sign under compression, so p
a
and p
b
are positive parameters.
Figure 2-6 shows the cap in terms of the variables and .
Matsuoka-Nakai Criterion
Matsuoka and Nakai (Ref. 3) discovered that the sliding of soil particles occurs in the
plane in which the ratio of shear stress to normal stress has its maximum value, which
they called the mobilized plane. They defined the yield surface as
where the parameter = (t/o
n
)
STP
equals the maximum ratio between shear stress
and normal stress in the spatially mobilized plane (STP-plane), and the invariants are
applied over the effective stress tensor (this is the Cauchy stress tensor minus the fluid
pore pressure).
Matsuoka-Nakai criterion circumscribes Mohr-Coulomb criterion in dry soils, when
p p
b
p
a
q
q 3J
2
o ( ) = p I
1
o ( ) 3 =
F 9 9
2
+ ( )I
3
I
1
I
2
0 = =
P L A S T I C I T Y M O D E L S F O R S O I L S | 25
and | denotes the angle of internal friction in Mohr-Coulomb criterion.
Figure 2-7: The Matsuoka-Nakai criterion and Mohr-Coulomb criterion in the principal
stress space.
Lade-Duncan Criterion
The Lade-Duncan criterion was originally developed to model a large volume of
laboratory sample test data of cohesionless soils. This criterion is defined as
where I
1
and I
3
are the first and third stress invariants respectively, and k is a parameter
related to the direction of the plastic strain increment in the triaxial plane. The
parameter k can vary from 27 for hydrostatic stress conditions (o
1
= o
2
= o
3
), up to a
critical value k
c
at failure. In terms of the invariant I
1
, J
2
and J
3
, this criterion can be
written as
Lade-Duncan criterion can be fitted to the compressive meridian of Mohr-Coulomb
surface, by choosing

2 2
3
----------- | tan =
F kI
3
I
1
3
0 = =
F J
3
1
3
---I
1
J
2

1
27
------
1
k
---
\ .
| |
I
1
3
+ 0 = =
k 3 | sin ( )
3
/ |
2
1 | sin ( ) cos ( ) =
26 | C H A P T E R 2 : G E O M E C H A N I C S T H E O R Y
with | as the angle of internal friction in Mohr-Coulomb criterion.
Figure 2-8: Comparing the Mohr-Coulomb, Matsuoka-Nakai, and Lade-Duncan
criteria when matching the tensile meridian.
Note: The Lade-Duncan criterion does not match Mohr-Coulomb criterion (nor
Matsuoka-Nakai criterion) at the tensile meridian.
Mohr-Coulomb
Matsuoka-Nakai
Lade-Duncan
T H E O R Y F O R T H E C A M - C L A Y M A T E R I A L M O D E L | 27
T he or y f or t he Cam- Cl ay Mat e r i al
Mode l
In this section:
About the Cam-Clay Material Model
Volumetric Elastic Behavior
Hardening and Softening
Including Pore Fluid Pressure
About the Cam-Clay Material Model
The Cam-Clay material model was developed at the University of Cambridge in the
1970s, and since then it has experienced different modifications. The modified
Cam-Clay model is the most commonly used due to the smooth yield surface, and it
is the one implemented in the Geomechanics Module.
The Cam-Clay model is a so-called critical state model, where the loading and
unloading of the material follows different trajectories in stress space. The model also
features hardening and softening of clays. Different formulations can be found in
textbooks about these models (see Ref. 13, 14, and 15).
The yield function is written in terms of the variables and
, following the Structural Mechanics Module sign convention:
(2-4)
This is an ellipse in p-q plane, with a cross section independent of Lode angle and
smooth for differentiation. Note that p, q and p
c
are always positive variables.
The material parameter M > 0 defines the slope of a line in the p-q space called critical
state line, and it can be related to the angle of internal friction | in Mohr-Coulomb
criterion
q 3J
2
o ( ) =
p I
1
o ( ) 3 =
F q
2
M
2
p p
c
( )p + 0 = =
M
6 | ( ) sin
3 | ( ) sin
-------------------------- =
28 | C H A P T E R 2 : G E O M E C H A N I C S T H E O R Y
Figure 2-9: Modified Cam-Clay surface in the p-q plane. The ellipse circumscribes a
non-linear elastic region.
In the Cam-Clay model, hardening is controlled by the consolidation pressure p
c
,
which depends exponentially on the volumetric plastic strain c
pvol
(see Effective and
Volumetric Plastic Strains).
(2-5)
Note: The volumetric plastic strain is available in the variable solid.epvol and the
consolidation pressure in the variable solid.Pc.
Here, the parameter p
c0
is the initial consolidation pressure, and the exponent B
p
is a
parameter which depends on the initial void ratio e
0
, the swelling index k and the
compression index
The initial void ratio, the compression index and the swelling index are all positive
parameters and should fulfill , so .
q
p
p
C
p
C
/2
softening
hardening
Critical state line
non-linear elastic region
q = Mp
p
c
p
c0
e
B
p
c
pvol

=
B
p
1 e
0
+
k
--------------- =
0 k < < B
p
0 >
T H E O R Y F O R T H E C A M - C L A Y M A T E R I A L M O D E L | 29
Note: The void ratio e is the ratio between pore volume and solid volume. It can be
written in terms of the porosity | as e = |/(1|).
In this formulation, the compression index is the slope of the virgin isotropic
consolidation line, and k is the slope of the rebound -reloading line (also called
loading-reloading line) in the e vs ln(p) plane.
Figure 2-10: Slopes of the virgin isotropic consolidation line, and rebound-reloading line
in the e vs ln(p) plane.
Note: If you add an Initial Stress and Strain sub-feature to your Cam-Clay material,
you have to secure that the initial consolidation pressure p
c0
is equal or bigger than
one third of minus the trace of the initial stress tensor, otherwise your initial stress
state will be outside the Cam-Clay ellipse.
Volumetric Elastic Behavior
The stress-strain relation beyond the elastic range is of great importance in soil
mechanics. For additive decomposition of strains, Cauchys stress tensor is written as
here, c is the total strain tensor, o
0
and c
0
are the initial stress and strain tensors, c
th
is
the thermal strain, c
p
is the plastic strain, and C is the fourth-order elasticity tensor.
ln(p)

k
N
ln(p
refN
) ln(p
C0
)
e
o
ij
o
ij
0
C +
ijkl
c
kl
c
kl
0
c
kl
th
c
kl
p
( ) =
30 | C H A P T E R 2 : G E O M E C H A N I C S T H E O R Y
For a linear elastic material, the trace of the Cauchys stress tensor is linearly related to
the volumetric elastic strain (the trace of the elastic strain tensor) by the elastic bulk
modulus
here p
0
= trace(o
0
)/3 is the trace of the initial stress tensor o
0
, and K is the bulk
modulus, a constant parameter independent of the stress or strain.
Note: The elastic volumetric strain is available in the variable solid.eelvol.
The modified Cam-Clay model introduces a non-linear relation between stress and
volumetric elastic strain
with
and K
0
a reference bulk modulus. This formulation gives a tangent bulk modulus
K
T
= B
e
p. The reference bulk modulus is calculated from the initial consolidation
pressure p
c0
, and the void ratio at reference pressure N.
Hardening and Softening
The yield surface for the modified Cam-Clay model reads
The associated flow rule (Q = F) and the yield surface written in terms of these two
invariants, F(I
1
, J
2
), give a rate equation for the plastic strain tensor calculated from
the derivatives of F with respect to the stress tensor o
Note: Here,
p
means the plastic multiplier, see Plastic Flow.
The plastic strain rate tensor includes both deviatoric and isotropic parts. Note that
p I
1
o ( ) 3 p
0
Kc
elvol
= =
p p
0
K
0
e
B
e
c
elvol

= B
e
1 e
0
+
k
--------------- =
F q
2
M
2
p p
c
( )p + 0 = =
c

ij
p

p
cQ
co
ij
----------
p
cF
cI
1
--------
cI
1
co
ij
----------
cF
cJ
2
---------
cJ
2
co
ij
---------- +
\ .
| |
= =
c

ij
p
T H E O R Y F O R T H E C A M - C L A Y M A T E R I A L M O D E L | 31
and . We can use these relations for writing the
plastic flow as
The trace of the plastic strain rate tensor (the volumetric plastic strain rate ) then
reads
This relation explains the reason why there is isotropic hardening for p > p
c
/2 and
isotropic softening for p < p
c
/2.
In the Cam-Clay model, the hardening is controlled by the consolidation pressure
variable as a function of volumetric plastic strain, as written in Equation 2-5.
Hardening will introduce changes in the shape of the Cam-Clay ellipse, since its mayor
semi axis depends on the value of p
c
.
Including Pore Fluid Pressure
When you add a pore fluid pressure p
f
to the Cam-Clay material, the yield surface is
shifted on the p axis
The quantity p p
f
is normally regarded as the effective pressure, or effective stress.
cI
1
co
ij
o
ij
=
cJ
2
co
ij
o
ij
D
=
c

ij
p

p
cF
cp
-------
o
ij
3
------
cF
cq
-------
3
2q
-------o
ij
D
+
\ .
| |

p
M
2
2p p
c
( )
o
ij
3
------ 3o
ij
D
+
\ .
| |
= =
c

vol
p
c

vol
p
trace c

ij
p
( )
p
M
2
2p p
c
( ) ( ) = =
p
c
c
vol
p
( )
F q
2
M
2
p p
f
p
c
( ) p p
f
( ) + 0 = =
32 | C H A P T E R 2 : G E O M E C H A N I C S T H E O R Y
F ai l ur e Cr i t e r i a f or Conc r e t e , Roc ks ,
and Ot he r Br i t t l e Mat e r i al s
In this section:
Bresler-Pister Criterion
Willam-Warnke Criterion
Ottosen Criterion
Hoek-Brown Criterion
Generalized Hoek-Brown Criterion
Bresler-Pister Criterion
The Bresler-Pister criterion (Ref. 2) was originally devised to predict the strength of
concrete under multiaxial stresses. This failure criterion is an extension of the
Drucker-Prager criterion to brittle materials and can be expressed in terms of the stress
invariants as
(2-6)
here, k
1
, k
2
, and k
3
are material parameters.
This criterion can also be written (Ref. 17) in term of the uniaxial compressive strength
f
c
and the octahedral normal and shear stresses
and
so Equation 2-6 simplifies to
here, the parameters a, b, and c are obtained from the uniaxial compression, uniaxial
tension and biaxial compression tests. The octahedral normal stress o
oct
is considered
positive when tensile, and f
c
is taken positive.
F J
2
k
1
I
1
2
k
2
I
1
k
3
+ + + 0 = =
o
oct
= I
1
/3 t
oct
2J
2
/3 =
F
t
oct
f
c
--------- a b
o
oct
f
c
---------- c
o
oct
2
f
c
2
---------- + 0 = =
F A I L U R E C R I T E R I A F O R C O N C R E T E , R O C K S , A N D O T H E R B R I T T L E M A T E R I A L S | 33
Willam-Warnke Criterion
The Willam-Warnke criterion (Ref. 10) is used to predict failure in concrete and other
cohesive-frictional materials such as rock, soil, and ceramics. The same as for the
Bresler-Pister criterion, it depends only on three parameters. It was developed to
describe initial concrete failure under triaxial conditions. The failure surface is convex,
continuously differentiable and it is fitted to test data in the low compression range.
The material is considered perfect elastoplastic (no hardening), augmented by a brittle
failure condition (tension cut-off) in the tensile regime.
The original three-parameter Willam-Warnke failure criterion was defined as
(2-7)
here, f
c
is the uniaxial compressive strength, f
t
is uniaxial tensile strength, and f
b
is
obtained from the biaxial compression test. All parameters are positive. The octahedral
normal and shear stresses are defined as usual , and .
This can be written as
with .
The function r(u) describes the segment of an ellipse on the octahedral plane when
. By using the Lode angle u, the dimensionless function r(u) is defined as
Here, the tensile and compressive meridian r
t
and r
c
are defined in terms of the positive
parameters f
c
, f
b
, and f
t
:
F
3
5
---
t
oct
f
c
--------- r u ( )
1
f
t
---
1
f
b
----
\ .
| |
o
oct
1
\ .
| |
0 = + =
o
oct
= I
1
/3 t
oct
2J
2
/3 =
F J
2
5
2
---r u ( )
1
3_
------I
1
f
c

\ .
| |
0 = + =
_ f
b
f
t
/ f
b
f
c
f
t
f
c
( ) =
0 u t 3 s s
r u ( )
2r
c
r
c
2
r
t
2
( ) u r
c
2r
t
r
c
( ) 4 r
c
2
r
t
2
( ) u 5r
t
2
4 r
c
r
t
+
2
cos + cos
4 r
c
2
r
t
2
( ) u r
c
2r
t
( )
2
+
2
cos
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- =
r
t
=
6
5
---
f
b
f
t
2f
b
f
c
f
t
f
c
+
--------------------------- -
r
c
=
6
5
---
f
b
f
t
3f
b
f
t
f +
b
f
c
f
t
f
c

-------------------------------------------
34 | C H A P T E R 2 : G E O M E C H A N I C S T H E O R Y
The function r(u) can be interpreted as the friction angle which depends on the Lode
angle (Ref. 10).
Figure 2-11: The deviatoric section of Willam-Warnke failure criterion.
Ottosen Criterion
The Ottosen criterion is a four-parameter failure criterion proposed for short-time
loading of concrete. It corresponds to a smooth convex failure surface with curved
meridians, which open in the negative direction of the hydrostatic axis. The trace in
the deviatoric plane changes from almost triangular to a more circular shape with
increasing hydrostatic pressure. The criterion is in agreement with experimental results
over a wide range of stress states, including both triaxial tests along the tensile and the
compressive meridian and biaxial tests (Ref. 18).
Ottosen criterion is commonly written as (Ref. 17, Ref. 18):
In this formulation, the parameters a>0, b>0, k
1
>0 and k
2
>0 are dimensionless, f
c
>0
is the uniaxial compressive strength of concrete (with a positive sign), and the function
(dimensionless) is defined as
r
c
r
t
r u
t/6
F
a
f
c
----J
2
u ( ) J
2
bI
1
f
c
+ + 0 = =
u ( ) 0 >
F A I L U R E C R I T E R I A F O R C O N C R E T E , R O C K S , A N D O T H E R B R I T T L E M A T E R I A L S | 35
The parameter k
1
is called the size factor. The parameter k
2
(also called shape factor) is
positive and bounded to 0 s k
2
s 1(Ref. 17, Ref. 18).
Typical values for these parameters are obtained by curve-fitting the uniaxial
compressive strength f
c
, uniaxial tensile strength f
t
, and from the biaxial and triaxial
data (for instance, typical biaxial compressive strength of concrete is 16% higher than
the uniaxial compressive strength). The parameters f
c
, f
b
, and f
t
are positive.
The compressive and tensile meridians (as defined in Willam-Warnke criterion) are
For concrete, the ratio lies between 0.54~0.58.
Note: Ottosen criterion is equivalent to Drucker-Prager when a=0 and =constant.
Hoek-Brown Criterion
Hoek-Brown criterion is an empirical type of model which is commonly used when
dealing with rock masses of variable quality. The Hoek-Brown criterion is widely used
TABLE 2-2: TYPICAL PARAMETER VALUES FOR OTTOSEN FAILURE CRITERION (Ref. 18).
f
t/
f
c
a b k
1
k
2

t

c
0.08 1.8076 4.0962 14.4863 0.9914 14.4725 7.7834
0.10 1.2759 3.1962 11.7365 0.9801 11.7109 6.5315
0.12 0.9218 2.5969 9.9110 0.9647 9.8720 5.6979
u ( )
k
1
1
3
--- k
2
3u ( ) cos ( ) acos
\ .
| |
J
3
0 > cos

k
1
t
3
---
1
3
--- k
2
3u ( ) cos ( ) acos
\ .
| |
J
3
0, < cos

=
r
c
=
1

c
----- =
1
t/3 ( )
-------------------
r
t
=
1

t
----- =
1
0 ( )
-----------

c
/
t
r
t
/r
c
=
36 | C H A P T E R 2 : G E O M E C H A N I C S T H E O R Y
within civil engineering and is popular due to the fact that the material parameters can
be estimated based on simple field observations together with knowledge of the
uniaxial compressive strength of the intact rock material. The HoekBrown criterion
is one of the few non-linear criteria widely accepted and used by engineers to estimate
the yield and failure of rock masses. The original Hoek-Brown failure criterion states
(Ref. 5)
where o
1
> o
2
> o
3
> 0 are the principal stresses at failure (as defined in geotechnical
engineering, this is, absolute value), o
c
is the uniaxial compressive strength of the
intact rock (positive parameter), and m and s are positive material parameters.
If the expression is converted into to the sign convention for principal stresses in the
Structural Mechanics Module, it becomes
with o
c
, m, and s positive material parameters. (In this case, note that o
1
< so
c
/m).
As developed originally, there is no relation between the parameters m and s and the
physical characteristics of a rock mass measured in laboratory tests. However, for intact
rock, s = 1 and m = m
i
, which is measured in a triaxial test.
For jointed rock masses, 0 s s < 1 and m < m
i
. The parameter m usually lies in the
range 5 < m < 30 (Ref. 7).
Hoek-Brown criterion can be written in terms of the invariants I
1
and J
2
and the Lode
angle 0 s u s t/3, so
TABLE 2-3: CHARACTERISTIC VALUES FOR DIFFERENT ROCK TYPES
m
ROCK TYPE
5 Carbonate rocks, dolomite, limestone
10 Consolidated rocks, mudstone, shale
15 Sandstone
20 Fine grained rocks
25 Coarse grained rocks
o
1
o
3
mo
c
o
3
so
c
2
+ + =
o
1
o
3
mo
c
o
1
so
c
2
+ + =
F 2 J
2
u
t
3
--- +
\ .
| |
o
c
mo
1
o
c
------------ s + 0 = sin =
F A I L U R E C R I T E R I A F O R C O N C R E T E , R O C K S , A N D O T H E R B R I T T L E M A T E R I A L S | 37
Generalized Hoek-Brown Criterion
The generalized Hoek-Brown criterion was developed in order to fit the Geological
Strength Index (GSI) classification of isotropic rock masses (Ref. 6). A new
relationship between GSI, m, s and the newly introduced parameter a was developed,
to give a smoother transition between very poor quality rock masses (GSI < 25) and
stronger rocks
In term of the invariants J
2
and the Lode angle this equals
where o
1
> o
2
> o
3
are the principal stresses (using the Structural Mechanics Module
conventions) of the effective stress tensor (this is, the Cauchy tensor minus the fluid
pore pressure).
The positive parameter m
b
is a reduced value of the material constant m
i
:
s and a are positive parameters for the rock mass given by the following relationships:
The disturbance factor D was introduced to account for the effects of stress relaxation
and blast damage, and it varies from 0 for undisturbed in-situ rock masses to 1 for very
damaged rock masses.
TABLE 2-4: DISTURBANCE FACTOR IN ROCK MASSES
D DESCRIPTION OF ROCK MASS
0 Undisturbed rock mass
0~0.5 Poor quality rock mass
o
1
o
3
o
c
m
b
o
1
o
c
-------------- s +
\ .
| |
a
=
0 u t 3 s s
F 2 J
2
u
t
3
--- +
\ .
| |
o
c
m
b
o
1
o
c
-------------- s +
\ .
| |
a
sin 0 = =
m
b
m
i
exp
GSI 100
28 14D
--------------------------
\ .
| |
=
s = exp
GSI 100
9 3D
--------------------------
\ .
| |

a =
1
2
---
1
6
--- exp
GSI
15
-------------
\ .
| |
exp
20
3
---------
\ .
| |

\ .
| |
+
38 | C H A P T E R 2 : G E O M E C H A N I C S T H E O R Y
Hoek-Brown generalized criterion can be written in terms of the invariants I
1
, J
2
and
the Lode angle 0 s u s t/3 to
0.8 Damaged rock mass
1.0 Severely damaged rock mass
TABLE 2-4: DISTURBANCE FACTOR IN ROCK MASSES
D DESCRIPTION OF ROCK MASS
F 2 J
2
u
t
3
--- +
\ .
| |
sin o
c

m
b
o
c
--------
I
1
3
-----
4J
2
3
---------- u ( ) cos +
\ .
| |
s +
\ .
|
| |
a
0 = =
S T R E S S - S T R A I N T H E O R Y | 39
S t r e s s - S t r ai n T he or y
In this section:
Small Strain Assumption
Plastic Flow
Effective and Volumetric Plastic Strains
Small Strain Assumption
The stress-strain relation beyond the elastic range is of great importance in soil
mechanics. In the case of small strains, the strain tensor can be additively decomposed
into elastic and inelastic components. For this case, Cauchys stress tensor is written as
where c is the total strain tensor, o
0
and c
0
are the initial stress and strain tensors, c
th

is the thermal strain, c
p
is the plastic strain, and C is the fourth-order elasticity tensor.
In the special case of zero initial strain and no thermal expansion, the elastic part of the
strain tensor simplifies to , so the strain tensor is normally additively
decomposed into elastic and plastic (inelastic) components
The total strain increment (also called total strain rate) is written as
where and represent the elastic and plastic strain rates. If c
el
or c
p
are large, the
additive decomposition might produce incorrect results, however, the additive
decomposition of strains is widely use for metal and soil plasticity.
Plastic Flow
The flow rule defines the relationship between the increment of plastic strain and
the current state of stress o
ij
for a yielded element subject to further loading. The
direction of the plastic strain increment is defined by the flow rule
o
ij
o
ij
0
C
ijkl
c
kl
c
kl
0
c
kl
th
c
kl
p
( ) =
c
ij
el
c
ij
c
ij
p
=
c
ij
c
ij
el
c
ij
p
+ =
c

ij
c

ij
el
c

ij
p
+ =
c

ij
el
c

ij
p
c

ij
p
40 | C H A P T E R 2 : G E O M E C H A N I C S T H E O R Y
Here is a positive multiplier (also called the consistency parameter or plastic
multiplier) dependent on the current state of stress and the load history, and Q is the
plastic potential.
Is it important to notice that the dot means the rate at which the plastic strain tensor
changes with respect to , and it does not represent a time derivative.
Figure 2-12: Plastic potential, plastic strain increment, and plastic multiplier.
The direction of the plastic strain increment is perpendicular to the surface (in the
principal stresses space) defined by the plastic potential at the current state
of stress (see Figure 2-12).
The plastic multiplier is determined by the complementarity conditions
(2-8)
where F is the user-defined yield surface, so the elastic regime is defined by F < 0.
If the plastic potential and the yield surface coincide with each other (Q = F), the flow
rule is called associated, and the rate in Equation 2-9 is solved together with the
conditions in Equation 2-8.
(2-9)
c

ij
p

cQ
co
ij
---------- =
cQ co
ij

Q
c

ij
p

cQ
co
ij
---------- =
c

ij
p
Q o
ij
c
ij
p
, ( )
F

F
s
>
=
0
0
0
c

ij
p

cF
co
ij
---------- =
S T R E S S - S T R A I N T H E O R Y | 41
For non-associated flow rule, the yield function does not coincide with the plastic
potential, and together the conditions in Equation 2-8 the rate in Equation 2-10 is
solved for a user-defined plastic potential Q (normally, a smoothed version of F).
(2-10)
The evolution of the plastic strain tensor (either Equation 2-9 or Equation 2-10)
is implemented at Gauss points in the plastic element ELPLASTIC.
Effective and Volumetric Plastic Strains
For isotropic, perfectly plastic materials, the plastic potential can be written in terms of
the invariants of Cauchys stress tensor (Ref. 1),
so the increment of the plastic strain tensor can be decomposed into
The increment in the plastic strain tensor includes both deviatoric and volumetric
parts, and it is symmetric given the following properties
(2-11)
The trace of the incremental plastic strain tensor, which is called the volumetric plastic
strain rate , relies only on the dependency of the plastic potential to the first
invariant I
1
(o), since and are traceless
For metals, under von Mises yield criterion and associated flow rule, the volumetric
plastic strain is always zero, since the plastic potential is independent of the invariant
c

ij
p

cQ
co
ij
---------- =
c

ij
p
Q o ( ) Q I
1
o ( ) J
2
o ( ) J
3
o ( ) , , ( ) =
c

ij
p
c

ij
p

cQ
co
ij
----------
cQ
cI
1
--------
cI
1
co
ij
----------
cQ
cJ
2
---------
cJ
2
co
ij
----------
cQ
cJ
3
---------
cJ
3
co
ij
---------- + +
\ .
| |
= =
c

ij
p
cI
1
co
ij
---------- o
ij
=
cJ
2
co
ij
---------- o
ij
D
=
cJ
3
co
ij
---------- o
ik
D
o
kj
D 2
3
---J
2
o
ij
=
c

vol
p
cJ
2
co
ij
cJ
3
co
ij

vol
p
trace c

ij
p
( ) trace
cQ
co
ij
----------
\ .
| |
3
cQ
cI
1
-------- = = =
42 | C H A P T E R 2 : G E O M E C H A N I C S T H E O R Y
I
1
(o). This is not the case for most materials used in geotechnical applications. For
instance, a nonzero volumetric plastic strain is explicitly used in the Cam-Clay material.
Another common measure of inelastic deformation is the effective plastic strain rate,
which is defined as
(2-12)
In the special case when the plastic potential Q is written in terms of the invariants I
1

and J
2
, the effective plastic strain rate reads
(2-13)
The effective plastic strain rate as defined in Equation 2-13, has both a deviatoric
and a volumetric components, compared to the effective (von Mises) stress
, which is independent of the hydrostatic component of stress.
Note: The effective plastic strain and the volumetric plastic strain are available in the
variables solid.epe and solid.epvol.
c

e
p
2
3
---c

ij
p
c

ji
p
=
c

e
p

2
3
--- 3
cQ
cI
1
--------
\ .
| |
2
2
cQ
cJ
2
---------
\ .
| |
2
J
2
+
\ .
| |
=
c

e
p
o
e
3J
2
=
R E F E R E N C E S F O R T H E G E O M E C H A N I C S M O D U L E | 43
Re f e r e nc e s f or t he Ge ome c ha ni c s
Modul e
1. W.F. Chen and E. Mizuno, Nonlinear Analysis in Soil Mechanics: Theory and
Implementation (Developments in Geotechnical Engineering), 3rd ed., Elsevier
Science, 1990.
2. B. Bresler and K.S. Pister, Strength of Concrete Under Combined Stresses, ACI
Journal, vol. 551, no. 9, pp. 321345, 1958.
3. H. Matsuoka and T. Nakai, Stress-deformation and Strength Characteristics of Soil
Under Three Different Principal Stresses, Proc. JSCE, vol. 232, 1974.
4. H. Matsuoka and T. Nakai, Relationship Among Tresca, Mises, Mohr-Coulomb,
and Matsuoka-Nakai Failure Criteria, Soils and Foundations, vol. 25, no. 4, pp.123
128, 1985.
5. H.S. Yu, Plasticity and Geotechnics, Springer, 2006.
6. V. Marinos, P. Marinos, and E. Hoek, The Geological Strength Index: Applications
and Limitations, Bull. Eng. Geol. Environ., vol. 64, pp. 5565, 2005.
7. J. Jaeger, N. G. Cook, and R. Zimmerman, Fundamentals of Rock Mechanics, 4th
ed., Wiley-Blackwell, 2007.
8. G. C. Nayak and O. C. Zienkiewicz, Convenient Form of Stress Invariants for
Plasticity, J. Struct. Div. ASCE, vol. 98, pp. 949954, 1972.
9. A.J. Abbo and S.W. Sloan, A Smooth Hyperbolic Approximation to the
Mohr-Coulomb Yield Criterion, Computers and Structures, vol. 54, no. 3, pp. 427
441, 1995.
10. K. J. Willam and E. P. Warnke, Constitutive Model for the Triaxial Behavior of
Concrete, IABSE Reports of the Working Commissions, Colloquium (Bergamo):
Concrete Structures Subjected to Triaxial Stresses, vol. 19, 1974.
11. B. H. G. Brady and E. T. Brown, Rock Mechanics for Underground Mining, 3rd
ed., Springer, 2004.
12. H.A. Taiebat and J.P. Carter, Flow Rule Effects in the Tresca Model, Computer
and Geotechnics, vol. 35, pp. 500503, 2008.
44 | C H A P T E R 2 : G E O M E C H A N I C S T H E O R Y
13. A. Stankiewicz and others, Gradient-enhanced Cam-Clay Model in Simulation of
Strain Localization in Soil, Foundations of Civil and Environmental Engineering,
no.7, 2006.
14. D. M. Wood, Soil Behaviour and Critical State Soil Mechanics, Cambridge
University Press, 2007.
15. D. M. Potts and L. Zadravkovic, Finite Element Analysis in Geothechnical
Engineering, Thomas Telford, 1999.
16. W. Tiecheng and others, Stress-strain Relation for Concrete Under Triaxial
Loading, 16th ASCE Engineering Mechanics Conference, 2003.
17. W.F. Chen, Plasticity in Reinforced Concrete, McGraw-Hill, 1982.
18. N. Ottosen, A Failure Criterion for Concrete, Journal of the Engineering
Mechanics Division, ASCE, vol. 103, no. 4, pp. 527535, 1977.
45
3
T h e G e o me c h a n i c s M a t e r i a l M o d e l s
The Geomechanics Module has materials which are used in combination with the
Solid Mechanics interface to account for the plasticity of soils and failure criteria in
rocks, concrete, and other materials used in geotechnical applications.
In this chapter:
Working with the Geomechanics Material Models
Geomechanics Materials
46 | C H A P T E R 3 : T H E G E O M E C H A N I C S M A T E R I A L M O D E L S
Wor ki ng wi t h t he Ge ome c hani c s
Mat e r i al Mode l s
Note: See Geomechanics Theory for background information about these material
models.
In this section:
Adding a Material Model to a Solid Mechanics Interface
Soil Plasticity
Concrete
Rocks
Cam-Clay Material Model
The Output Materials Properties
Also see
Adding a Material Model to a Solid Mechanics Interface
Note: The Geomechanics Module requires a Structural Mechanics Module license.
1 Add a Solid Mechanics interface from the Structural Mechanics branch ( ) in the
Model Wizard.
2 In the Model Builder, right-click the Solid Mechanics node ( ) to add an Elastoplastic
Soil Model, Brittle Material Model, or Cam-Clay Material Model.
Note: Except for the settings described in this section, see The Solid Mechanics
Interface in the Structural Mechanics Users Guide for details.
WO R K I N G WI T H T H E G E O M E C H A N I C S M A T E R I A L M O D E L S | 47
Soil Plasticity
The Soil Plasticity node adds the equations for linear elasticity and plasticity, and the
interface for defining the elastic material properties and yield surface. Right-click to
add Thermal Expansion and Initial Stress and Strain features. The yield criteria are
described in the theory section:
Drucker-Prager Criterion
Mohr-Coulomb Criterion
Matsuoka-Nakai Criterion
Lade-Duncan Criterion
To display additional features for the physics interface feature nodes (and the physics
interfaces), click the Show button ( ) on the Model Builder and then select the
applicable option.
S H OW O R H I D E O P T I O N S F O R P HY S I C S F E A T U R E N O D E S
For most physics interface feature nodes, the Equation and Override and Contribution
sections are displayed on a feature node Settings window by default. You can also click
the Expand Sections button on the Model Builder to always show some sections in an
expanded view, or go to these menus to hide options as required. Click the Show
button ( ) on the Model Builder and then select Equation View to display the Equation
View node under all physics interface nodes in the Model Builder.
See the description for each physics interface for more links or go to Showing and
Expanding Advanced Feature Nodes and Sections for more information.
D O MA I N S E L E C T I O N
Select the domains where you want apply the feature and compute the displacements,
stresses, and strains.
MO D E L I N P U T S
Define model inputs, for example, the temperature field if the material model uses a
temperature-dependent material property. If no model inputs are required, this section
is empty.
To use a mixed formulation by adding the negative mean pressure as an extra
dependent variable to solve for, select the Nearly incompressible material check box.
48 | C H A P T E R 3 : T H E G E O M E C H A N I C S M A T E R I A L M O D E L S
Specification of Elastic Properties for Isotropic Materials
From the Specify list, select a pair of elastic properties for an isotropic material. Select:
Youngs modulus and Poissons ratio to specify Youngs modulus (elastic modulus) E
(SI unit: Pa) and Poissons ratio v (dimensionless). For an isotropic material Youngs
modulus is the spring stiffness in Hookes law, which in 1D form is
where o is the stress and c is the strain. Poissons ratio defines the normal strain in
the perpendicular direction, generated from a normal strain in the other direction
and follows the equation
Bulk modulus and shear modulus to specify the bulk modulus K (SI unit: Pa) and the
shear modulus G (SI unit: Pa). The bulk modulus is a measure of the solids
resistance to volume changes. The shear modulus is a measure of the solids
resistance to shear deformations.
Lam constants to specify the Lam constants (SI unit: Pa) and (SI unit: Pa).
Pressure-wave and shear-wave speeds to specify the pressure-wave speed
(longitudinal wave speed) c
p
(SI unit: m/s) and the shear-wave speed (transverse
wave speed) c
s
(SI unit: m/s).
For each pair of properties, select from the applicable list to use the value From material
or enter a User defined value or expression.
Each of these pairs define the elastic properties and it is possible to convert from one
set of properties to another.
Density
The default Density (SI unit: kg/m
3
) uses values From material. If User defined is
selected, enter another value or expression.
P L A S T I C I T Y MO D E L
Select a Yield criterionDrucker-Prager, Mohr-Coulomb, Matsuoka-Nakai, or
Lade-Duncan.
Drucker-Prager
If required, select the Match to Mohr-Coulomb criterion check box (see Mohr-Coulomb
Criterion). If this check box is selected, the default values for Cohesion c (SI unit: Pa)
o Ec =
c

uc
l l
=
WO R K I N G WI T H T H E G E O M E C H A N I C S M A T E R I A L M O D E L S | 49
and the Angle of internal friction | (SI unit: rad) are taken From material. If User defined
is selected, then enter other values or expressions.
If the Match to Mohr-Coulomb criterion check box is NOT selected, then the default
Drucker-Prager alpha coefficient o (dimensionless) and Drucker-Prager k coefficient k (SI
unit: Pa) are taken From material. Select User defined to enter other values or
expressions.
If required, select the Include elliptic cap check box (see Elliptic Cap). Enter a value or
expression for the semi-axes of the elliptic cap (SI unit: Pa).
Mohr-Coulomb
The default Angle of internal friction | (SI unit: rad) and Cohesion c (SI unit: Pa) are
taken From material. Select User defined to enter other values or expressions.
Under Flow potential select either Drucker-Prager matched at compressive meridian,
Drucker-Prager matched at tensile meridian or Associated.
If required, select the Include elliptic cap check box (see Elliptic Cap). Enter a value or
expression for the semi-axes of the elliptic cap (SI unit: Pa).
Matsuoka-Nakai
If required, select the Match to Mohr-Coulomb criterion check box. If this check box is
selected, the default Angle of internal friction | (SI unit: rad) is taken From material.
Select User defined to enter other values or expressions.
If the Match to Mohr-Coulomb criterion check box is NOT selected, then the default
Matsuoka-Nakai mu coefficient (dimensionless) is taken From material. Select User
defined to enter other values or expressions.
Lade-Duncan
If required, select the Match to Mohr-Coulomb criterion check box. If this check box is
selected, then enter a value or expression for the Angle of internal friction | (SI unit:
rad). Alternatively, select From material.
If the Match to Mohr-Coulomb criterion check box is NOT selected, then the default
Lade-Duncan k coefficient k (dimensionless) is taken From material. Select User defined
to enter other values or expressions.
G E O ME T R I C N O N L I N E A R I T Y
To add the equations for a geometrically nonlinear elastic solid, select the Include
geometric nonlinearity check box. This is useful for modeling large deformations.
50 | C H A P T E R 3 : T H E G E O M E C H A N I C S M A T E R I A L M O D E L S
Concrete
The Concrete node adds the equations for linear elasticity, and the interface for defining
the elastic material properties and failure surface. Right-click to add the Thermal
Expansion and Initial Stress and Strain features. The failure criterion are described in the
theory section:
Bresler-Pister Criterion
Willam-Warnke Criterion
Ottosen Criterion
Note: The settings for Domain Selection, Equations, Model Inputs, Linear Elastic Model,
and Geometric Nonlinearity are the same as for the Soil Plasticity.
To display additional features for the physics interface feature nodes (and the physics
interfaces), click the Show button ( ) on the Model Builder and then select the
applicable option.
S H OW O R H I D E O P T I O N S F O R P HY S I C S F E A T U R E N O D E S
For most physics interface feature nodes, the Equation and Override and Contribution
sections are displayed on a feature node Settings window by default. You can also click
the Expand Sections button on the Model Builder to always show some sections in an
expanded view, or go to these menus to hide options as required. Click the Show
button ( ) on the Model Builder and then select Equation View to display the Equation
View node under all physics interface nodes in the Model Builder.
See the description for each physics interface for more links or go to Showing and
Expanding Advanced Feature Nodes and Sections for more information.
C O N C R E T E MO D E L
Select a Concrete criterionBresler-Pister, Willam-Warnke, or Ottosen.
Bresler-Pister
The defaults for the Uniaxial tensile strength o
t
, Uniaxial compressive strength o
c
, and
Biaxial compressive strength o
b
(SI unit: Pa) are taken From material. Select User defined
to enter other values or expressions.
WO R K I N G WI T H T H E G E O M E C H A N I C S M A T E R I A L M O D E L S | 51
Willam-Warnke
The defaults for the Uniaxial tensile strength o
t
, Uniaxial compressive strength o
c
, and
Biaxial compressive strength o
b
(SI unit: Pa) are taken From material. Select User defined
to enter other values or expressions.
Ottosen
The defaults for the Uniaxial tensile strength o
c
, Ottosens parameters a and b, Size
factor k
1
, and Shape factor k
2
are taken From material. Select User defined to enter other
values or expressions.
Rocks
The Rocks node adds the equations for linear elasticity, and the interface for defining
the elastic material properties and failure surface. Right-click to add the Thermal
Expansion and Initial Stress and Strain features. The failure criterion are described in the
theory section:
Hoek-Brown Criterion
Generalized Hoek-Brown Criterion
Note: The settings for Domain Selection, Equations, Model Inputs, Linear Elastic Model,
and Geometric Nonlinearity are the same as for the Soil Plasticity.
To display additional features for the physics interface feature nodes (and the physics
interfaces), click the Show button ( ) on the Model Builder and then select the
applicable option.
S H OW O R H I D E O P T I O N S F O R P HY S I C S F E A T U R E N O D E S
For most physics interface feature nodes, the Equation and Override and Contribution
sections are displayed on a feature node Settings window by default. You can also click
the Expand Sections button on the Model Builder to always show some sections in an
expanded view, or go to these menus to hide options as required. Click the Show
button ( ) on the Model Builder and then select Equation View to display the Equation
View node under all physics interface nodes in the Model Builder.
See the description for each physics interface for more links or go to Showing and
Expanding Advanced Feature Nodes and Sections for more information.
52 | C H A P T E R 3 : T H E G E O M E C H A N I C S M A T E R I A L M O D E L S
R O C K MO D E L
Select a Rock criterionOriginal Hoek-Brown or Generalized Hoek-Brown.
Original Hoek-Brown
The defaults for the Uniaxial compressive strength o
c
, and Hoek-Browns parameters m
and s are taken From material. Select User defined to enter other values or expressions.
Generalized Hoek-Brown
If required, select the Use generalized Hoek-Brown check box (see Generalized
Hoek-Brown Criterion).
The defaults for the Uniaxial compressive strength o
c
, Geological strength index GSI,
Disturbance factor D, and Intact rock parameter m
i
are taken From material. Select User
defined to enter other values or expressions.
Cam-Clay Material Model
The Cam-Clay Material Model adds the equations and interface for defining the material
properties for the modified Cam-Clay material model (see Theory for the Cam-Clay
Material Model). Right-click to add the Thermal Expansion and Initial Stress and Strain
features.
Note: The settings for Domain Selection, Equations, Model Inputs, and Geometric
Nonlinearity are the same as for the Soil Plasticity.
To display additional features for the physics interface feature nodes (and the physics
interfaces), click the Show button ( ) on the Model Builder and then select the
applicable option.
S H OW O R H I D E O P T I O N S F O R P HY S I C S F E A T U R E N O D E S
For most physics interface feature nodes, the Equation and Override and Contribution
sections are displayed on a feature node Settings window by default. You can also click
the Expand Sections button on the Model Builder to always show some sections in an
expanded view, or go to these menus to hide options as required. Click the Show
button ( ) on the Model Builder and then select Equation View to display the Equation
View node under all physics interface nodes in the Model Builder.
See the description for each physics interface for more links or go to Showing and
Expanding Advanced Feature Nodes and Sections for more information.
WO R K I N G WI T H T H E G E O M E C H A N I C S M A T E R I A L M O D E L S | 53
C A M- C L A Y MA T E R I A L MO D E L
To use a mixed formulation by adding the negative mean pressure as an extra
dependent variable to solve for, select the Nearly incompressible material check box.
From the Specify list, define the elastic properties either in terms of Poissons ratio or
Shear modulus.
The defaults for the Poissons ratio v (unitless) or Shear modulus G (SI unit: Pa), Density
(SI unit: kg/m
3
), M parameter M, Swelling index k, Compression index , and Void
ratio at reference pressure N are taken From material. Select User defined to enter other
values or expressions.
You can also match the slope of the virgin consolidation line (the Cam-Clay M
parameter) to the Angle of internal friction, in that case, select Match to Mohr-Coulomb
criterion, and then select the Angle of internal friction | (SI unit: rad) either or From
material or User defined.
Enter a value or expression for the Reference pressure for N PrefN (SI unit: Pa), the
Initial void ratio e
0
and the Initial consolidation pressure Pc
0
(SI unit: Pa).
54 | C H A P T E R 3 : T H E G E O M E C H A N I C S M A T E R I A L M O D E L S
Ge ome c hani c s Mat e r i al s
The Output Materials Properties
The material property groups (including all associated properties) listed in
Table 3-1can be added to models from the Material page. See Material Properties
Reference in the COMSOL Multiphysics Users Guide for information about other
material properties, including those for Solid Mechanics.
TABLE 3-1: GEOMECHANICS MODELS MATERIALS
PROPERTY GROUP AND PROPERTY NAME/VARIABLE SI UNIT
MOHR-COULOMB
Cohesion cohesion Pa
Angle of internal friction internalphi rad
DRUCKER-PRAGER
Drucker-Prager alpha coefficient alphaDrucker 1
Druker-Prager k coefficient kDrucker Pa
MATSUOKA-NAKAI
Matsuoka-Nakai mu coefficient muMatsuoka 1
LADE-DUNCAN
Lade-Duncan k coefficient kLade 1
OTTOSEN
Ottosen a parameter aOttosen 1
Ottosen b parameter bOttosen 1
Size factor k1Ottosen 1
Shape factor k2Ottosen 1
HOEK BROWN
Hoek-Brown m parameter mHB 1
Hoek-Brown s parameter sHB 1
Geological strength index GSI 1
Disturbance factor Dfactor 1
Intact rock parameter miHB 1
YIELD STRESS PARAMETERS
Uniaxial tensile strength sigmaut Pa
Uniaxial compressive strength sigmauc Pa
G E O M E C H A N I C S M A T E R I A L S | 55
Biaxial compressive strength sigmabc Pa
CAM-CLAY MATERIAL MODEL
Swelling index kappaSwelling 1
Compression index lambdaComp 1
Initial void ratio e0 1
TABLE 3-1: GEOMECHANICS MODELS MATERIALS
PROPERTY GROUP AND PROPERTY NAME/VARIABLE SI UNIT
56 | C H A P T E R 3 : T H E G E O M E C H A N I C S M A T E R I A L M O D E L S
I N D E X | 57
I n d e x
A absolute values 36
additively decomposed 39
alpha coefficient 49
angle of internal friction 20, 26, 49
B biaxial compression 33
biaxial data 35
biaxial tension 50
Bresler-Pister criterion 32
bulk modulus 48
C calcite 36
Cam-Clay material model (node) 52
Cam-Clay model 27
carbonate rocks 36
Cauchy stress tensor 13
Cayley-Hamilton theorem 13
ceramics 33
circle, Mohr 20
clays 19
cohesion 20, 49
cohesionless soils 25
cohesive-frictional materials 33
complementarity conditions 40
compressive meridians 14, 2122, 3334
compressive stresses 12
concrete 3234
concrete (node) 50
consistency parameters 40
contacting COMSOL 8
continuum mechanics 12
crystal cleavage 36
D deviatoric plane changes 34
deviatoric stress 13, 17
disturbance factor 37
documentation, location 7
dolomite 36
Drucker-Prager criterion 21
ductile materials 19
E effective plastic strain rate 42
effective stress tensor 37
elastic modulus 48
elastic properties, specifying 48
elastic volumetric strain variable 30
elastoplastic materials 16, 33
emailing COMSOL 8
F failure surfaces 16
flow rule 39
fluid pore pressure 24
friction, angle 20, 26, 49
frictionless materials 21, 23
G generalized Hoek-Brown criterion 37
geological strength index (GSI) 37
geometric nonlinearity 49
H HaighWestergaard coordinates 14
hexagonal prism 18
Hoek-Brown criterion 35
Hookes law 48
hydrostatic axis 14
hydrostatic pressure 12, 20
hydrostatic stress 25
I Internet resources 6
isotropic materials 17, 48
isotropic rocks 37
K k coefficient 49
knowledge base, COMSOL 7
L Lade-Duncan criterion 25
Lam constants 48
limestone 36
Lode angle 14, 18, 21, 33, 36
58 | I N D E X
M marble 36
Matsuoka-Nakai criterion 24
meridians, tensile and compressive 14,
21, 3334
metal plasticity 39
metals 19, 22, 41
mixed formulation 47, 53
mobilized planes 24
Model Library, accessing in COMSOL 7
Mohr-Coulomb criterion 20
MPH-files 7
mu coefficient 49
multiaxial stress states 32
N nearly incompressible material 47, 53
O octahedral normal stress 32
octahedral plane 15
opening the Model Library 7
Ottosen criterion 34
over-consolidation pressure 28
P perfectly elastoplastic materials 17
plastic multiplier 40
plastic strain tensor variables 41
plasticity 39
plasticity, theory 12
Poissons ratio 48
pressure, wave speed 48
principal stresses 15
R rock mass 37
rock types 36
rock yield criteria 20
rocks 35
rocks (node) 51
S saturated cohesive soils 19
shape factors 35
shear modulus 48
shear stresses 14, 20, 32
shear-wave speed 48
sign convention 12
size factors 35
soil deformation theory 29, 39
soil plasticity 14, 39
soil plasticity (node) 47
soil yield criteria 20
spatially mobilized planes (STP) 24
stress invariants 13
T technical support, COMSOL 8
tensile meridian 14
tensile meridians 2122, 26, 3334
tensile normal strains and stresses 12
The Cam-Clay Material Model node adds
the equations and interface for de-
fining the material properties for the
modified Cam-Clay material model.
Right-click to add the Thermal Ex-
pansion and Initial Stress and Strain
features. 52
Tresca effective stress variable 19
Tresca yield criterion 18
triaxial conditions 33
triaxial data 35
typographical conventions 8
U undrained shear strength 18
uniaxial compression 34, 36
uniaxial compressive strength 32
uniaxial tension 17, 50
user community, COMSOL 8
V variables
elastic volumetric strain 30
Tresca effective stress 19
volumetric plastic strain 28
volumetric plastic strain rate 41
volumetric plastic strain variable 28
von Mises criterion 1718, 22, 41
W web sites, COMSOL 7
I N D E X | 59
Willam-Warnke criterion 33
Y yield functions 17, 20
yield surfaces 16, 21, 40
Youngs modulus 48
60 | I N D E X
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