The Effectiveness of South Africa's Truth and Reconciliation Commission: Perceptions of Xhosa, Afrikaner, and English South Africans

Author(s): Jay A. Vora and Erika Vora Source: Journal of Black Studies, Vol. 34, No. 3 (Jan., 2004), pp. 301-322 Published by: Sage Publications, Inc. Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/3180939 . Accessed: 08/10/2011 05:16
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THE EFFECTIVENESS OF SOUTHAFRICA'STRUTHAND RECONCILIATION COMMISSION Perceptionsof Xhosa, Afrikaner, and English South Africans
JAY A. VORA ERIKA VORA
St. Cloud State University

This articleempiricallyassesses the effectiveness of the Truthand Reconciliation Commission (TRC) of South Africa as perceivedby three ethnic groupsin South Africa, namely,Xhosa, Afrikaners,and English. It examines whetherthe participants each ethnic group viewed the TRC to be of effective in bringingout the truthand bringing about reconciliation.The articlealso examineswhetherthe TRCwas viewed as havinghada positive effect on SouthAfrica's society, economy,politics, andimage in the world. In addition,the perceivedoverallsuccess of the TRCis assessed. The Afrikanerparticipants perceivedthe TRC to be less effective thanthe English participantsand much less effective than the Xhosa participants. Finally, the article discusses potentialfuturebenefits that may be gained from the experiencesof SouthAfrica'sTRCto manageethnicandracialconflicts in otherpartsof the world. and Keywords: SouthAfrica; Truth Reconciliation Commission;apartheid; nonviolence

Although South Africa has a history of racial injustice and vast humanrights violations, it also has a legacy of finding revolutionary ways of addressing interethnic and interracialconflicts. In
AUTHORS' NOTE: We would like to thank S. W. Vatala,a lecturerin public administrationand management at the University of Port Elizabeth in South Africa, for assistance with collecting data for this study.
JOURNALOF BLACKSTUDIES, Vol. 34 No. 3, January2004 301-322 DOI: 10.1177/0021934703258988 C 2004 Sage Publications 301

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1906, MahatmaGandhi startedhis experimentof Satyagrahain South Africa to nonviolentlyprotestagainstethnic and racial discrimination.Satyagrahais the force that is born of truthand love ended,ArchbishopDesmondTutu (Gandhi,1997). Afterapartheid Truthand Reconciliation Commission led an experimentof the (TRC) from 1996 to 1998 to nonviolentlyaddressthe atrocitiesof effortsof in apartheid SouthAfrica.It is one of the mostremarkable peace makingin recenthumanhistory. In 1990, after the African National Congress was no longer banned,Nelson Mandelawas releasedafter27 yearsof prison,and exiled African National Congress memberswere grantedindemand nity. The White South Africanperpetrators Black South African victims faced one anotherto negotiatean InterimConstitution and a common futurefor theircountryto transitionfrom apartheid leadersmade to democracy.Scaredof revenge,the Whiteapartheid the firstdemocraticelections only possible if amnestywas granted. Thus, the final clause of the Constitutionreads as follows:
lays the securefoundationfor the The Adoptionof this Constitution people of South Africa to transcendthe divisions of strife of the past, which generatedgross violations of humanrights, the transprinciplesin violent conflicts anda legacy gressionof humanitarian of hatred,fear, guilt and revenge. These can now be addressedon but the basis that there is a need for understanding not for vengeance, a need for reparationbut not for retaliation,a need for ubuntu(theAfricanphilosophyof humanism)butnot for victimization. In order to advance such reconciliationand reconstruction, amnestyshall be grantedin respectof acts, omissions and offences associatedwith political objectivesand committedin the course of the conflicts of the past. (Krog, 1998, p. vi)

that It was this finalclause of the Constitution madethe elections for possible and laid the groundwork the TRC. Thus, the TRC was born of political compromise,like most truthcommissions. The TRC of South Africa is not an entirelynew concept facing up to historicaltruth.It learneda lot from priortruthcommissions past in manycountriesthatwere forced to examinetheirtraumatic Between 1974 and 1994, to while strivingfor transition democracy.

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for instance,at least 15 truthcommissionswere establishedin various countriessuch as Argentina,Bolivia, Chile, Uruguay,El Salvador, Rwanda, Ethiopia, Chad, Zimbabwe, Germany,the Philippines, and others (Haynor, 1994, 1996). In additionto facing the rule immense task of replacing a dictatorshipor an authoritarian with a democraticgovernment,these nations were extremelyvulnerable,andmanyof them werejust coming to gripswith the practice of governance(Kritz, 1995). Between 1979 and 1993, 11 Latin to Americancountriesfaced a transitionfrom authoritarian democratic forms of government.In all of these countries,the former gross,systematichumanrightsviolations,which regimesperformed resulted in the deaths, torture,and disappearanceof hundredsof thousands of their country's citizens. These countries were also attemptingto undergoimmense economic and social transformations. In many cases of transitionalgovernment,variouselements of the old regime have remainedin powerduringand afterthe process of political change (Christie,2000, p. 41). It is difficultto synthesize the truthcommissions of these countries. Too many differentand complex factors and circumstances are involved and are beyond the scope of this article. However, "SouthAfrica's Truthand ReconciliationCommissionis one that will likely have more far-reachingimplications than most of the others"(Christie,2000, p. 185). SouthAfrica's situationis unique. multilingual, SouthAfricais perhapsone of the most multicultural, andmultiethniccountriesin the world.The majorityof the population is Black and is composed of several ethnic groups, namely, Xhosa, Zulu, Pedi, Tswana,Sotho, andothers.The Whiteminority is primarilycomposed of two distinctgroups:the Afrikanerswho speakAfrikaansandaredescendedfromthe originalDutchsettlers who first came in 1652 to SouthAfrica and the English who came originally from Great Britain and whose main settlements were from 1820 on. There are also Colored (mixed race) people and Asians with primarilyEast Indianheritage.Historically,therehas been rivalrybetween the Xhosa and the Zulu, encouragedby the White regime to show the world thatBlacks were not readyto rule SouthAfrica.The White AfrikanersandEnglish fought each other

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to gain controlof the nation.Eventhoughtherewas a waranddeepand seatedhistoricalbitternessbetweenthe Afrikaners the English, both areWhite,andthe Whiteminorityshareda colonial andapartheid domination and super-exploitationof non-Whites in a predominantlyBlack South Africa. It was the Afrikaners who engineered and legally instituted apartheid(racialseparation)when the AfrikanerNationalistparty came into power in 1948. Black South Africans were prevented from living in the cities. They were not allowed to vote. Various jobs were reservedfor Whites only, and a form of educationdesignatedas Bantueducationwas implementedto producea subservient and obedientBlack laborforce. The TRC Reportstated,
Apartheidwas a grim daily reality for every black South African. For at least 3.5 million black South Africans it meant collective bulldozing,guttingor seizureof homes, expulsion,forcedmigration, the mandatory carryingof passes, forcedremovalsinto ruralghettos and increasedpovertyanddesperation.(TRC, 1998, Vol. 1, pp. 4546; Vol. 2, pp. 34-35)

laws were put on the statuebooks to control Hundredsof apartheid and disadvantageBlack South Africans from the cradle to the of grave. "Everystructure South Africa, the army,police services and the whole of the civil service were committedto the maintemeans"(Boraine, nanceanddefense of an evil system by abhorrent Levy, & Scheffer, 1994, p. vii). All truthcommissions might be considered compromises and deals worked out within the frameworkof political negotiations the surrounding transitions.SouthAfricawas faced not only with a froman oppresbut transition also with an immensetransformation sive minority-ruledracist regime to a democratic government. South Whatwere the optionsto carvea new andfree postapartheid it conductwartrialstreatingthe defeatedlike crimiAfrica?Should nals, as in the case of Germany'sNurembergTrials?Should it do nothing, like Angola, Namibia, and Zimbabwe? Should it, like Chile, provideblanketamnesty?

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THE TRC OF SOUTHAFRICA South Africa's TRC was the first independentbody established in South Africa's postapartheid (Asmal, 1997) and is, indeed, era one of the most remarkableefforts of peace making in our time. With the relatively new, democraticallyelected Black majority governmentin 1994, SouthAfrica moved towardalleviatingracial injusticesandcoming to termswith its recenttragicracisthistoryof the apartheid Besides establishinga constitutionthatincorpoera. ratedaffirmative action,the new government passedan act thatcreated the TRC to deal with racial injustice and gross humanrights violations of the past. The Commission ran parallelto the justice system and maderecommendations the courtstowardreconcilito ation.The Commissiontriedpainstakinglyto chisel a way, beyond the disturbinglydeep wounds and almost unbearablepain, for all ethnicvoices in SouthAfricato be heardwith dignity(TRC, 1998). Thus, the TRC was controversialand met with resentment.It was establishedas an independentbody that would operatefree from political interference.However, born in political compromise, it remained,by the very natureof its mandate,a political body like many othertruthcommissions (Shea, 2000, p. 7). In 1996, ArchbishopTutuacceptedthe challenge of leading the TRC to nonviolently addressracial injustice in South Africa. The TRC went throughimmense effortsin tryingto bringaboutnation buildingandhealingof the SouthAfricansociety throughreconciliation. Unlike the argumentthatnationbuildingdemandsthathistory be forgottenfor the past to be remadein the image of the present (Renan, 1990), the TRC firmlybelieved thatthe brutaltruthof South Africa's traumaticpast had to be revealed and acknowledged, no matterhow immensely painful the process, before not only a transitionbut a whole-scale transformation democracy to could be made (Tutu, 1999). The TRC recounted the violations of human rights in South Africa between 1960 and 1994 throughthe testimony of victims and perpetrators alike. The hearingswere held in town halls, civic with prayersand centers,andchurchesacrossthe country."Opened

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accompaniedby hymn singing, the humanrights violations hearings representedthe commission's and the country's attemptto restorehonoranddignityto victims andsurvivors,by giving thema platform from which to tell their highly emotive stories" (Shea, 2000, p. 4). and To forge a future,perpetrators victims had to honestly and squarely confront their past (TRC, 1998). Thus, the TRC was established to provide rehabilitation,reparation,and amnesty to perpetratorsof politically motivated crimes during the former The TRC encouratmosphereof political upheavaland apartheid. aged victims, offenders,andthe communityto be directlyinvolved in resolving conflict. In its quest to make peace with the past, the in dimensionof bothtraditions South TRClooked at the restorative values traditionandAfricantraditional Africa:the Judeo-Christian of ubuntu(the Africanconcept of humanism),which is rich in considerationfor compassionandcommunity(Mangaliso,2001). Neither concept is monolithic in its approach;both contain strong It sourcesof communalhealing andrestoration. is in this spiritthat and victims to face one anotherand the TRC asked perpetrators theirpainful past. A five-volume Truthand Reconciliation Commissionof South AfricaReportwas handedoverto PresidentMandelaat a nationally televised ceremonyon October29, 1998:
While seeking to establishresponsibilityfor many of the devastating wrongs suffered, the TRC sought the whole truth and, in so and doing, to reconcile victims and perpetrators, to help establisha just society. It was the firm belief of the TRC that unless a society no exposed itself to the truth,it could harbor possibilityof reconciliation, reunification,and trust.(TRC, 1998, p. 2)

The TRC "hadhelped to createthe space for words and not weapons. The space for the tender roots of a new democracy to take hold" (Hunter-Gault, 2000, p. x).

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PURPOSEOF THISSTUDY The authorsof this article were fortunateto observe the TRC hearingsfrom August to October 1998 and to witness the process. were Throughheadphones,simultaneousmultilingualtranslations madeavailableto the audience.The hearingroomwas indeedpregnant with deep emotion, bittertears,and the sound of crying. The purposeof this study was to assess the effectiveness of the TRC in South Africa as perceived by three South African ethnic groups, namely, the Xhosa, Afrikaners,and English. In this research,the TRC'sperceivedeffectivenesswas empiricallyassessed in a multidimensionalway. The first areaof assessmentwas whetherSouth Africans perceived the TRC to be effective in terms of its stated purposes of bringing out the truthand bringing about reconciliation. The second areaof assessmentwas at a macrolevel in termsof whetherSouth Africansperceivedthe TRC to have had a positive effect on their country's society, economy, politics, and image in the world.Finally,it assessed how the perceivedoverallsuccess of the TRC was relatedto its variouseffects on South Africa. To the extentthatthe TRC was perceivedto be effective, it behooves us to them into developinga learnfrom its successes and to incorporate new framework managinginterracial interethnic for and conflicts.

METHOD A questionnaire developedto learnaboutthe perceptionsof was in relationto the effectiveness of the TRC (see the South Africans appendix).Three faculty membersat a universityin South Africa reviewedthe questionnaire face validity.This studywas limited for to three South African ethnic groups, namely, Xhosa, Afrikaner, andEnglish.The Afrikaner the Englishgroupswere not merely and put togetheras White SouthAfricansversusBlack SouthAfricans (Xhosa), because the Afrikanersand the English do have deeprooted historical rivalry and strife, and because it was the Afrikanerswho were the architectsof the apartheid regime.Because all in the participants this study knew English, the questionnairewas

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in English.It was testedfor its understandability, involving six students at the university,to improvethe validity of our questions. The datawere collected from 158 participants a majorSouth at African university.Forty-twoparticipantsself-identified as Afrikaners(White South Africans of Dutch ethnic heritage).Seventy identified themselves as English South Africans (White South Africans of British ethnic heritage).Forty-six participantsidentified themselves as Xhosa (Black South Africans of Xhosa ethnic heritage).Males and females in the sample consisted of 48% and 52%, respectively.The data were analyzedfor patternsof perceptions using descriptivestatistics.Regression analysis was used to explain the participants' perceptionsof the overall success of the TRC.

FINDINGS The findings are presentedin two parts.The first partpresents comparative patternsof the threeSouthAfricanethnicgroups'perceptions of the effects of the TRC. The second part presents the findings on the overallperceivedsuccess of the TRC in relationto those effects.
COMPARATIVE PATTERNS OF PERCEPTIONS

Descriptiveanalyses of the datarevealedthatthe perceptionsof the three ethnic groups varied greatly in relation to how each viewed the effectiveness of the TRC (see Table 1). Any additional qualitative comments made by the participantsto explain their views were codified and categorized as they related to various questionsunderstudy.The subsectionsbelow presentthe findings as based on quantitative well as qualitativeanalyses.
a. Is the TRCEffective in Bringing Out the Truth?

All participantsperceived the TRC to be effective in bringing out the truth, however, in varying degrees. The Afrikanersperceived the TRCto be less effective in bringingout the truththanthe

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TABLE 1

Comparative Statisticsof Perceptions Regarding the Truthand Reconciliation Commission

Afrikaners (n = 42) M Bringingout the truth Bringing aboutreconciliation Legitimateto conduct hearings Effect on South Africa's society Effect on South Africa's economy Effect on South Africa's politics Effect on South Africa's image Should continue beyond deadline Successful SD English (n = 70) M 3.23 4.40** 3.19* 4.37** 4.69** 4.11* 3.64 4.24* 4.16* SD 1.42 1.55 1.44 1.59 1.49 1.62 1.53 2.05 1.51 Xhosa (n = 46) M 2.63** 3.41** 2.53** 3.22** 3.89 3.28** 3.04** 3.26** 3.50** SD 2.02 1.80 1.56 1.75 1.71 1.80 1.74 1.97 1.72

3.95* 1.67 4.52 1.60 3.86* 1.70 4.40 1.82 4.59 1.70 4.63 1.80 4.17 1.79 4.73 2.04 4.54 1.55

NOTE: The meandifferencecomparisontest shownunderthe Afrikaanscolumnis between AfrikaansandEnglish,underthe Englishcolumnit is betweenEnglishandXhosa, andunder the Xhosa column it is between Xhosa and Afrikaans. *p<.05. **p<.01.

English participants < .05) and much less effective thandid the (p Xhosa (p < .01) as shown in Table 1. The quantitative datarevealed no significant difference between the perceptionsof the English andthe Xhosa on the TRC'seffectivenessin bringingout the truth. Thirty-sevenparticipantsmade qualitativecomments explaining theirviews aboutthe effectivenessof the TRCin termsof bringing out the truth.A content analysis of those comments revealed thatall threeethnicgroupsperceivedthe TRCto be relativelyeffective in bringingout the truth,albeitin varyingdegrees.Five out of 6 English (86%) commentedthatthe TRC was effective in bringing out the truth;so did 9 out of 15 (60%) Afrikanerand 13 out of 16 (81%) Xhosa. Thus, a large majorityof the participantsin each the groupwho commentedon this subjectsupported findingsof the dataanalysis thatthe TRC was indeedperceivedto be quantitative effective in bringingout the truth.However,10participants that felt half-truthsand lies were used by the accused to stay out of jail. Their views are reflected in the following quotes:

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I would also tell anyversionof the truthto get out ofjail. (Afrikaner) The TRCacceptswhatpeople say,no matterwhat.The truthis often hidden and never comes out. (English) Not all the people arehonest,theyjust wantto be forgiven.(Xhosa)
b. Is the TRCEffective in Bringing About Reconciliation?

The TRC was not perceivedby each of the threegroupsto be as effective in bringingaboutreconciliationin contrastto how it was perceived in bringing about the truth.However, the quantitative analysis indicatedthat,comparedto the Xhosa, the Afrikanerand the English participants perceivedthe TRC to be significantly(p < .01) less effective in bringingaboutreconciliation(Table1). There were no significantdifferencesbetween the Afrikanerand the English groups'perceptionsin this regard. made qualitativecommentsexplainTwenty-sevenparticipants ing theirperceptionsof the TRC in bringingaboutreconciliation. All 7 Afrikanerswho offeredcomments(100%) indicatedthatthe TRC was not effective in bringingaboutreconciliation.However, 9 out of 12 English (75%) and only 3 out of 8 Xhosa (37%) indicated thatthe TRC was not effective in bringingaboutreconciliation. These percentagessupportedour findings in the quantitative and dataanalysisthatthe Afrikaners the Englishperceivedthe TRC to be significantly less effective in bringing about reconciliation thandid the Xhosa. Most of the 27 qualitativecommentson reconciliationwerejust that statements the participants the TRCwas or was not effective by in bringingaboutreconciliation.They did not explaintheirpercepcommentsrepresentthe tions. However,the following explanatory contrastingviews:
acts of forgiveness by relatives There have been some remarkable and families of victims. (English) Entirereconciliationis not possible due to the atrocitiescommitted. (English) Not everyone should be reconciled. (Xhosa)

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[TheTRC]seemstobe prolonging reconciliation the rather process thanactually contributing it. (Afrikaner) to It [reconciliation] not possible.Thereis too much violence. is (Afrikaner)
c. Is the TRCa Legitimate Body to Conduct the Hearings?

The analysis of the quantitativedata indicated that the Xhosa participants perceivedthe TRCto be the legitimatebody to conduct hearingsat a significantlyhigherlevel thanthe Afrikaners(p < .01) and the English (p < .05). The English group perceived the TRC to have significantlymore legitimacythandid the Afrikanergroup offeredqualitativeexplanatorycom(p < .05). Only 2 participants ments on the legitimacy of the TRC, and both of them were negative. One Xhosa participant indicatedthatthe TRC was "notrepresentative of all," and an English participantcommented that he "wouldlike to have seen some representation moreconservative of persons."
d. Does the TRCHave a Positive Effect on South Africa's Society?

Comparedto the Afrikanerand the English, the Xhosa participants perceived the TRC to have significantly more of a positive effect on SouthAfrica's society (p < .01). Therewas no significant difference between the Afrikanerand the English groups in their perceptionsof the TRC's limited effect on South Africa's society. There were very few explanatory,qualitative comments except that a Xhosa participantstated that "theTRC helps the society to heal their agony, pain, and the feeling of loneliness," whereas an English participantcommented,"If we are to createa stable society, how can we sanctionviolence for whateverreason violence is perpetrated?"
e. Does the TRCHave a Positive Effect on South Africa's Economy?

Relativelylow mean scores on the positive effect of the TRC on South Africa's economy (Table 1) indicated that the participants from all threeethnic groupsperceivedthe TRC to have little posi-

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tive effect on this area.However,both White groups,the Afrikaner and the English, perceived the TRC to have had significantly less (p < .01) of a positiveeffect on SouthAfrica'seconomy thandid the Xhosa. The participants madevirtuallyno qualitative commentson the TRC's effect on the economy. However,furtheranalysis of the qualitative datarevealedthatmanyparticipants expressedconcerns about the "wasteof money"in holding the TRC hearings.In fact, 17 participants Afrikaners,9 English, and 2 Xhosa) viewed the (6 TRC to be "a waste of money"therebysupportingthe findings of the quantitative data.Specific representative qualitativecomments were as follows:
It has economic implicationsin the sense thatit costs a lot to keep it going. (Afrikaner) Money could be betterinvestedin educatingpeople. (an Afrikaner and an English participant) It's a waste of money and resources.(Afrikaner) Money could be used for compensatingvictims. (an English and a Xhosa participant)
f. Does the TRCHave a Positive Effect on South Africa's Politics?

ratedthe TRC Comparedto the Xhosa, the English participants low (p < .05) in termsof its positive effect on South Africa's politics. The Afrikanerparticipants also perceivedthe positive effects of the TRCto be muchlower thanthe Xhosa group(p < .0 1). There were no qualitativecomments on this topic by any of the groups.
g. Does the TRC Give South Africa a Positive Image in the World?

An analysisof the quantitative dataindicatedthatthe Xhosa perceived the TRCto contribute a positive image of SouthAfricain to the world as comparedto the Afrikanergroup's perception(p < .0 1). The perceptionsof the Englishgroupdid not significantlydiffer fromeitherof these groupsin this regard.The English views of the TRC'spositiveeffect on SouthAfrica'simage in the worldwere slightly higherthanthe views of the Afrikanersand slightly lower than those of the Xhosa.

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Sixteen participantsmade qualitative,explanatorycomments. All 5 Afrikanerswho made any comments in this regard(100%) perceivedthe TRCto havenegativeeffects on SouthAfrica'simage in the world. However,2 out of 6 (75%) of the English and the 5 Xhosa participants who made comments (100%) viewed the TRC to have given a positive image of South Africa to the world. Some representative comments were as follows:
The TRC is a form of silent warwhich helps SouthAfricandemocracy to get recognitionin the world. (Xhosa) It [the TRC] is an example the world. (Xhosa) The TRC is used as a smoke screen to mislead the outside world aboutwhat is really going on in South Africa. (Afrikaner) The TRCpaintsa pictureof SouthAfricain the worstway possible, and the world believes it. (Afrikaner) The TRCgives a fundamental image to the restof the world,butit is a distortedimage. (English) The TRC is seen favorablyin othercountries.(English)

These views supported findingsof the quantitative the dataanalysis that the Xhosa group perceivedthe TRC to have had a much more positive effect on South Africa's society thanthe Afrikaners and a slightly more positive effect thanthe English.
h. Should the TRC Continue Hearings Beyond the Deadline (of October1998)?

In the Xhosa group'sperception,the hearingsshouldbe continued beyond the then-present deadline.This perceptionwas signifidifferentfrom the Afrikanergroup(p < .01) andthe English cantly group(p < .05). Therewere no significantdifferencesbetween the Afrikaner and the English groups in relation to this question. Althoughtherewere no qualitative commentsmadedirectlyon this topic, concerns over the waste of money, discussed in the above section on the TRC's effects on the economy, may be reflected in the quantitative findings here. In other words, the concerns of the Afrikanerand the English groups about "wasting money on the

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TRC" would explain their opinions that the TRC should not continue beyond the deadline.
ADDITIONAL INSIGHTS FROM THE QUALITATIVEDATA

A content analysis of the qualitative data revealed that several participants voiced concern that the TRC opened up old wounds and that it brought out anger. Three Afrikaner, 9 English, and 5 Xhosa participants expressed this concern. Those concerns are reflected in the following quotes: The TRC tries to correct the wrongs, but they are only opening wounds and letting people get hurtall over again. (Afrikaner) The TRC hearings and news reports bring out a lot of anger. (Afrikaner) It brings out a lot of needless pain and only generates anger. (Afrikaner) Thingsthathavehappenedin the pastcannotbe changed,so instead of opening old wounds, why don't they heal them withoutopening them? (English) The [TRC]hearingsalso cause the victims' families to relive their losses over and over again. (English) To me, the TRC only brings the hurtand angerback. (English) We all know that terrible things happened in the past, but why should we reopen old wounds and bring out anger?(English) The TRC has opened up many old wounds that have been left untreatedafter apartheid.These wounds need to be healed so that angerover the past can be workedthrough.(English) The TRCis not effective at all because, as far as I see, it bringsback the wounds of the victims and makes them angry.(English) The TRC did bring out the truthabout all the killings which hapBut penedduringthe eraof apartheid. socially andpsychologically, the families of the victims were traumatizedand the pain comes again when the truthcomes out. (Xhosa) The TRCbringsheartachesto people, and it is useless because bad people apply for amnesty.(Xhosa)

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It only opens the scars that took years to heal, and in most cases, more undesiredinformationis given thatmakesit moredifficultfor the victim's family to grasp/forgivefor that matter.(Xhosa) Makes people angry,old sores arerevived,most perpetrators make it a joke, when to others [victim's family,] their hearts break. (Xhosa) These findings provide additional explanation for the perceptions of the Xhosa, Afrikaner, and English participants that the TRC was perceived to be relatively ineffective in bringing about reconciliation. Another finding from the qualitative data analysis was that there were frequent comments, mostly from the Afrikaner and the English participants, stating, "Let us forget the past and focus on the future." Eleven Afrikaners mentioned that the past should be forgotten so that South Africa could focus on its present and future. Nine English participants also expressed this opinion. However, only 1 Xhosa participant shared that view. Here are some of the comments: We should now forget about the past and all work togetheron our future.(Afrikaner) We should build on the future,not the past. (Afrikaner) What's done is done and cannotbe broughtback. (Afrikaner) Sometimes it is bestjust to let go, to leave the past and concentrate on the future.(Afrikaner) It is time to bury the past and get on with developing our nation. (Afrikaner) Specific happeningsbelong to the past. (Afrikaner) South Africa's government is living in the past-far too many things are blamed on the past. (English) People shouldn'tdwell on the past for so long. (English) I think we should forget the past and startanew. (English) We mustcontinuewith the futureandnot so muchthepast.(Xhosa)

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These comments may furtherexplain why both the Afrikaners andthe Englishperceivedthe TRCnot to have hada positive effect on South Africa's society or economy. The Xhosa group'sperception did not matchthatview.
THE PERCEIVED SUCCESS OF THE TRC

Overall,none of the threeethnicgroupsperceivedthe TRCto be highly successful as indicatedby relativelylow meanscores on this question (Table 1). However,the Xhosa participants perceivedthe TRC's success to be significantlyhigherthanthe perceptionsof the Afrikaners < .01) andthe English(p < .05). Therewas no signifi(p cant difference between the perceptionsof the Afrikanerand the Englishgroupsin this regard.To assess whatcontributed the perto ceived success level of the TRC,regressionanalysiswas conducted for each ethnic group. For the Afrikaners,variationsin theirperceptionsof the TRC's success were explainedby three independentvariables:theirperceptions of the TRC'spositive effect on SouthAfrica's society, the continuationof the TRC hearings,and the legitimacy of the TRC. The findings that the Afrikanerparticipantsexpressed negative views of the TRCin termsof its effect on SouthAfrica'ssociety, its legitimacy,and its continuationof hearingsexplain why they perceived the TRC's overall effectiveness to be low. The perceptionsof the English and the Xhosa participants,in relationto the success of the TRC'soverallsuccess, wereexplained by two independentvariables.These were theirperceptionsof the TRC's positive effect on South Africa's society and the TRC's effectiveness in bringingaboutreconciliation.The finding thatthe English viewed the TRC to be relativelyunsuccessfulis supported variables. by theirnegativeperceptionof bothof these independent On the otherhand, the Xhosa participants' relativelypositive perception of the TRC's overall success is explainedby theirperception thatthe TRCis relativelyeffectivein termsof its positiveeffect on South Africa's society and in bringingaboutreconciliation.

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DISCUSSION Was the TRC effective in bringing out the truth?Despite conwould tell half truthsand lies to cerns expressed thatperpetrators avoid punishment,the participantsof all three ethnic groups perceived thatthe TRC was, in fact, effective in bringingout the truth, albeit in varying degrees. This is congruentwith observationsby other authors. Shea (2000) statedthatthe TRC needs to be creditedwith bringera: ing out in the open the brutalitiesof the apartheid
It is no longerpossible for the averageSouthAfricanto sufferfrom selective amnesia or to deny the nature and extent of the gross humanrights violations that took place under the old regime and duringthe country'stransitionto democracy.(Shea, 2000, p. 6)

The truthcame out thatapartheid an appallinghumantragedy. was Boshoff (1988/1989), an Afrikanerwho admitedvoting for apartwas an appalling heid, statedthatthe truthcame out thatapartheid "theAfrikaners' Frankenstein: humantragedy.He called apartheid theirown creationhas degenerated into a monster"(Boshoff, 1988/ 1989, p. 13). In relationto reconciliation,our findings indicatethatthe TRC was perceivedto have been much less successful in bringingabout reconciliationthanin bringingout the truth.Reconciliationis much more difficult to accomplish when the wounds are immensely deep. It may be too muchto ask. One can neverforgethow difficult it mustbe to reconcile!Reconciliationhas to happenon the individual level. It is with each individual"wherethe seeds for societal transformation planted"(Shea, 2000, p. 7). In the words of are Hugo vanderMerwe(1998), "Itwouldbe a greatmistaketo equate political stability with genuine reconciliation"(p. 2). The TRC requiredthe victim's relativesto be fully satisfiedthatthe full truth was told andthe confession was genuine.The regretsof the accused needed to be sincereandthe evidence neededto be convincingthat the accused acted only because of ordersfrompolitical leadership. In addition,the TRC was developedanddesigned to conducthear-

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ings with social and judicial focus. It did not have psychological and personalfocus, which might have facilitatedreconciliation. The designers of the TRC believed that bringing out the truth would providehealing medicine for sore wounds of past atrocities in South Africa's apartheidera. At the least, those wounds would not get infected, and infections would not spreadthroughoutthe society. The tide of conflict would be abatedbefore it overflowed and turned into a monstrouslyunpredictableand uncontrollable scarSouthAfrica's sociplague thatmight destroyor permanently commentsfrom ety for futuregenerations.However,the qualitative all ethnicgroupsin this studyindicatedthatthe TRCwas perceived to have opened old wounds withoutpropersupportfor healing and with a high potential for generatinganger and revenge, because people had to relive those terribleevents all over again. Althoughtherewere significantdifferencesamongthe threeethnic groups, each of them had the lowest mean score on the legitimacy of the TRCcomponent.This is a significantfinding,because withoutthatperceivedlegitimacy,the effectivenessof the TRChad to be hampered. One of the most interestingfindings of this study was that only the Xhosa participants stronglyagreedthatthe TRC had a positive effect on South Africa's society and that South Africa's society is betteroff because of the TRC. The TRC's openness to the public andits workof operatingin the interestof society as a whole might have contributedto this positive perception.Though the wounds aredeep andvery difficultto heal, SouthAfricamightbe ableto put behind a significant amountof interracialanimosity of the aparttensions to heid era.The TRCmightcontribute releasinginterracial in fair,open, andnonviolentways. However,becausethe Afrikaner andthe Englishgroupsdid notperceivethe TRCto havehadas positive an effect on society as the Xhosa groupperceived,the former (Whitegroups)mightbe expectingtroubleaheadin termsof social strife.In theirview, the TRC opened old woundsthatmight trigger social unrest. felt All threegroupsof participants thatthe TRC did not have a positiveeffect on SouthAfrica'seconomy.However,the Afrikaner

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and the English expressed strongconcerns aboutthe wasteful and misdirecteduse of money. They would rathersee the money used on educationandjob creation.These concernswere also reflected in theirviews thatthe TRChearingsshouldnot be extendedbeyond its deadline. Although the Xhosa and English groups perceivedthe TRC to have a relatively positive effect on South Africa's politics, the Afrikanersdid not supportthatperceptionas strongly.This may be explainedby the fact thatmany Afrikanershad opposed the TRC. The ex-prime minister and ex-president of South Africa, P. W. Bhuto, had snubbedthe TRCby refusingto appearat the hearings. The formerAfrikanerapartheid regime's belief in White superiority and its right to commit political atrocitiesagainst non-Whites view that the TRC might help explain the Afrikanerparticipants' did not have a positive effect on SouthAfrica'spolitics. Havinglost rule of the country,they might have fearedpolitical instabilityand felt disenfranchised. The Xhosa participants believed that the TRC had given South Africaa positive image in the world.However,no Afrikaner participant sharedthis view at all, although some English participants did. This may be expected, because the admissions of atrocities duringthe apartheid regime were officially admittedand recorded in the public hearingsfor the whole worldto know.This musthave been extremelyuncomfortable the perpetrators, say the least. for to All threeethnic groupsperceivedthe overall success of TRC to be relatedto its effect on South Africa's society. However,the two Whitegroupsperceivedthe TRCto have little positive effect on the country's society and, hence, rated its overall success to be relatively low. These two groupsdid not considerthe short-term effects of the TRC in terms of bringing out the truthand bringing about reconciliationto be important its overall success. They considfor ered the long-termeffect on society to be a majorexpectationand criterionfor its overallsuccess. These participants' perceptionsthat the TRC opened up old wounds of the past and thatthe TRC hearings were a waste of money were of greatconcernto the long-term stabilityof South Africa.

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LIMITATIONS AND IMPLICATIONS

The findings of this researchcannot be extended to all ethnic groupsin South Africa, because the study includes only threeethnic groups of South Africa, its sample size is small, and the sampling is convenience based. The transferability the conceptof SouthAfrica'sTRCto manof age racialconflictsin otherpartsof theworldis limitedby theuniqueness of South Africa's experience.Apartheidwas unique in that a small minority population committed state-sponsoredand statecrimes againstthe largemajoritypopulationover a relasupported tively long periodof time. Politicalpowerwas transferred fromthe Whiteminorityto the Black majorityin a remarkably peacefulway. Therearemanycharacteristics SouthAfricathataresimilarto of many other parts of the world. For example, in South Africa, the atrocities had been committed over generations, but there was political will and social supporttowardresolving interethnicconflicts. Some of these conditions may exist in other nations. For example, the United States encompasses a vast culturaldiversity and has, from its inception, a long history of interracial and interethnictension. South Africa's TRC may provide an excellent frameworkfor managingthese long-time conflicts in a relatively peaceful and equitableway. Many atrocities have been committed around the world by humanbeings againsthumanbeings. These atrocitiesare often the result of economic, political, and/or social inequities over a long period of time. Greed, racism, and prejudicehave led to human genocide, ethnic cleansing, deportations,terrorism,and confiscation of personalproperty.No matterwho might gain in the short term, violence of human beings against human beings seems to have continued over many generations.Variouspolitical systems and schemes in many partsof the world have attemptedin vain to overcomethathumanhistory.SouthAfrica'sTRCoffereda nonviolent approachto breakthe cycle of violence, racism, and atrocities. The jury is still out regardingthe long-term success of the TRC. However,there are indicationsof futurepositive effects of the TRC towardbreakingthe horrificcycle of racialviolence.

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Although there may be many lessons to be learnedfrom South Africa'sTRC,further researchneeds to be conductedon this experiment of humanpotential. One of the most importantlessons we can learnfrom SouthAfrica'sTRCis thatthereis a need for ubuntu (the African philosophy of humanism),but not for victimization, and a need for understanding, not for vengeance, in managing but interracialand interethnicconflicts.

APPENDIX Your Perception of the Truth and Reconciliation Commission (TRC)

In your view, (please circle one) a. The TRC is effective in bringing out the truth. b. The TRC is effective in bringingabout reconciliation. c. The TRC is the legitimatebody to conduct the hearings. d. The TRC has a positive effect on South Africa's society. e. The TRC has a positive effect on South Africa's economy. f. The TRC has a positive effect on South Africa's politics. g. The TRC gives South Africa a positive image in the world. h. The TRC should continue hearings beyond the presentdeadline. i. Overall,the TRC is successful. Commentsto supportyour responses: Strongly Agree Strongly Disagree

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3

4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4

5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5

6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6

7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7

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REFERENCES
Asmal, K. (1997). Reconciliationthroughtruth:A reckoningof apartheid'scriminalgovernance. Cape Town, South Africa:David Philip Publishers. and Boraine,A., Levy, J., & Scheffer,R. (Eds.). (1994). Dealing withthepast: Truth reconciliation in SouthAfrica. Cape Town, South Africa: IDASA. Veertigverlorejare [Fortylost years]. Die Boshoff, J. L. (1988/1989, December/January). Suid-Afrikaan, 13. p. Christie,K. (2000). TheSouthAfrican TruthCommission.New York:Palgrove. India:Navajivan Gandhi.Ahmedabad, Gandhi,M. K. (1997). Theselectedworksof Mahamta PublishingHouse. Hayner,P. (1994). Fifteen truthcommissions-1974-1994: A comparativestudy. Human Rights Quarterly,16(4), 597-655. researchquestions.ThirdWorldQuarHayner,P. (1996). Commissioningthe truth:Further terly, 17(1), 19-31. Hunter-Gault, (2000). Foreword.In D. Shea (Ed.), TheSouthAfricanTruthCommission. C. Washington,DC: United States Instituteof Peace. Kritz, N. (1995). Transitionaljustice: How emerging democracies reckon with former regimes.Washington,DC: United States Instituteof Peace Press. South Africa:RandomHouse, Inc. Krog, A. (1998). Countryof my skull. Johannesburg, Mangaliso,M. Z. (2001). Building competitiveadvantagefrom Ubuntu:Managementlessons from South Africa. TheAcademyof ManagementExecutive,15(3), 23-33. Renan,E. (1990). Whatis a nation?In H. K. Bhaba(Ed.), Nation and narration(pp. 8-22). London:Routledge. Commission:Thepolitics of reconciliation.WashShea, D. (2000). TheSouthAfricanTruth ington, DC: United States Instituteof Peace. and TruthandReconciliationCommission.(1998). SouthAfrica, Truth ReconciliationComSouth Africa: S. Crawford. mission Report(Vols. 1-5). Johannesburg, Tutu,D. M. (1999). No future withoutforgiveness.New York:Doubleday. to VanderMerwe,H. (1998, November8). Threatening holdjustice to ransomagain.Sunday Independent, 3. p.

Jay A. Vora,Ph.D., is a professor of managementand internationalbusiness at St. Cloud State Universityin Minnesota.He has published and conducts researchon culturalperspectivesof of management humandiversity,comparativemanagement, spirituality in human motivation, learning organizations, comparative national and infrastructures, strategicmovementsin a small business. studiesatSt. CloudState UniverPh.D., is aprofessorof communication ErikaVora, comsity in Minnesota.Herpublicationsand researchare in thefield of intercultural munication,especially in reducingracismand prejudice;managingconflict across philosophies of MahatmaGandhiand MartinLutherKing, cultures;and nonviolent Jr She has lecturedas a visiting scholar in Africa, Asia, Europe,and Australia.