Chapter No. 3.

Topic Environmental pollution Part B Introduction,

Sub Topic

Hrs

1 2

d. Soil pollution

Sources (industrial, urban, radioactive, agricultural, chemical and metallic pollutants, biological agents), mining effects and control measures.

Soil contamination is the presence of man-made chemicals or other alteration of the natural soil environment. This type of contamination typically arises from the rupture of underground storage tanks, application of pesticides, percolation of contaminated surface water to subsurface strata, leaching of wastes from landfills or direct discharge of industrial wastes to the soil. The most common chemicals involved are petroleum hydrocarbons, solvents, pesticides, lead and other heavy metals. This occurrence of this phenomenon is correlated with the degree of industrialization and intensity of chemical usage. The concern over soil contamination stems primarily from health risks, both of direct contact and from secondary contamination of water supplies. Mapping of contaminated soil sites and the resulting cleanup are time consuming and expensive tasks, requiring extensive amounts of geology, hydrology, chemistry and computer modeling skills. It is in North America and Western Europe that the extent of contaminated land is most well known, with many of countries in these areas having a legal framework to identify and deal with this environmental problem; this however may well be just the tip of the iceberg with developing countries very likely to be the next generation of new soil contamination cases. The immense and sustained growth of the People's Republic of China since the 1970s has exacted a price from the land in increased soil pollution. The State Environmental Protection Administration believes it to be a threat to the environment, to food safety and to sustainable agriculture. According to a scientific sampling, 150 million mi (100,000 square kilometres) of Chinas cultivated land have been polluted, with contaminated water being used to irrigate a further 32.5 million mi (21,670 square kilometres) and another 2 million mi (1,300 square kilometres) covered or destroyed by solid waste. In total, the area accounts for one-tenth of Chinas cultivatable land, and is mostly in economically developed areas. An estimated 12 million tonnes of grain are contaminated by heavy metals every year, causing direct losses of 20 billion yuan (US$2.57 billion). The United States, while having some of the most widespread soil contamination, has actually been a leader in defining and implementing standards for cleanup. Other industrialized countries have a large number of contaminated sites, but lag the U.S. in

executing remediation. Developing countries may be leading in the next generation of new soil contamination cases. Each year in the U.S., thousands of sites complete soil contamination cleanup, some by using microbes that eat up toxic chemicals in soil, many others by simple excavation and others by more expensive high-tech soil vapor extraction or air stripping. At the same time, efforts proceed worldwide in creating and identifying new sites of soil contamination, particularly in industrial countries other than the U.S., and in developing countries which lack the money and the technology to adequately protect soil resources. Microanalysis of soil contamination To understand the fundamental nature of soil contamination, it is necessary to envision the variety of mechanisms for pollutants to become entrained in soil. Soil particulates may be composed of a gamut of organic and inorganic chemicals with variations in cation exchange capacity, buffering capacity, and redox poise. For example, at the extremes, one has a sand component, a coarse grained, inert, and totally inorganic substance; whereas peat soils are dominated by a fine organic material, made of decomposing organic material and highly active. Most soils are mixtures of soil subtypes and thus have quite complex characteristics. There is also a great diversity of soil porosity, ranging from gravels to sands to silt to clay (in increasing order of porosity), pore size, and pore tortuosity (both in decreasing order). Finally there is a wide spectrum of chemical bonding or adhesion characteristics: each contaminant has a different interaction or bonding mechanism with a given soil type. On balance, some contaminants may literally drain through soils such as sand and gravel and move to other soils or deeper aquifers, while polar or organic chemicals discharged into a clay soil will have a very high adsorption. Thus most soil contamination is the result of pollutants adhering to the soil particle surface, or lodging in interstices of a soil matrix. Clearly the equilibrium reached is a dynamic one, where new pollutants may lodge on new soil particles and the action of groundwater movement may over time transport some of the soil contaminants to other locations or depths. Soil contamination results when hazardous substances are either spilled or buried directly in the soil or migrate to the soil from a spill that has occurred elsewhere. For example, soil can become contaminated when small particles containing hazardous substances are released from a smokestack and are deposited on the surrounding soil as they fall out of the air. Another source of soil contamination could be water that washes contamination from an area containing hazardous substances and deposits the contamination in the soil as it flows over or through it. Health effects The major concern is that there are many sensitive land uses where people are in direct contact with soils such as residences, parks, schools and playgrounds. Other contact mechanisms include contamination of drinking water or inhalation of soil contaminants

which have vaporized. There is a very large set of health consequences from exposure to soil contamination depending on pollutant type, pathway of attack and vulnerability of the exposed population. Chromium and many of the pesticide and herbicide formulations are carcinogenic to all populations. Lead is especially hazardous to young children, in which group there is a high risk of developmental damage to the brain and nervous system, while to all populations kidney damage is a risk. Chronic exposure to benzene at sufficient concentrations is known to be associated with higher incidence of leukemia. Mercury and cyclodienes are known to induce higher incidences of kidney damage, some irreversible. PCBs and cyclodienes are linked to liver toxicity. Organophosphates and carbamates can induce a chain of responses leading to neuromuscular blockage. Many chlorinated solvents induce liver changes, kidney changes and depression of the central nervous system. There is an entire spectrum of further health effects such as headache, nausea, fatigue, eye irritation and skin rash for the above cited and other chemicals. At sufficient dosages a large number of soil contaminants cause death. Ecosystem effects Not unexpectedly, soil contaminants can have significant deleterious consequences for ecosystems. There are radical soil chemistry changes which can arise from the presence of many hazardous chemicals even at low concentration of the contaminant species. These changes can manifest in the alteration of metabolism of endemic microorganisms and arthropods resident in a given soil environment. The result can be virtual eradication of some of the primary food chain, which in turn have major consequences for predator or consumer species. Even if the chemical effect on lower life forms is small, the lower pyramid levels of the food chain may ingest alien chemicals, which normally become more concentrated for each consuming rung of the food chain. Many of these effects are now well known, such as the concentration of persistent DDT materials for avian consumers, leading to weakening of egg shells, increased chick mortality and potentially species extinction. Effects occur to agricultural lands which have certain types of soil contamination. Contaminants typically alter plant metabolism, most commonly to reduce crop yields. This has a secondary effect upon soil conservation, since the languishing crops cannot shield the earth's soil mantle from erosion phenomena. Some of these chemical contaminants have long half-lives and in other cases derivative chemicals are formed from decay of primary soil contaminants.

Soil Pollution
1. What is Soil? - Thin layer of organic and inorganic material that covers the earth rocky in face.

Organic layer is made up of sand / silica and decayed remains of plants/animals. This top soil is the upper dark coloured layer. Inorganic layer is made up of rocks formed over several billions of years due to weathering of bedrock. Top soil Most important for agriculture. It has to be conserved for sustaining agriculture on earth.. Top soil pollution is a major problem due to entry of substances, chemicals and microorganisms that results in changes in the quality of soil. As a result it endangers agriculture, public health (due to entry of pathogenic microorganisms- bacteria, viruses, fungi, algae and protozoa) and the environment.

2. How does soil get polluted? - Soil gets polluted largely due to anthropogenic factors. - Sources of soil pollution are: a) Industrial wastes They are the major cause of soil pollution. On an average more than 50% of industrial raw materials end up as waste in one form or the other. Of these around 20% of the wastes could be extremely harmful to soil fertility. Newer industrial technologies generate newer types of toxic and non biodegradable wastes. Thermal, atomic and electric power plants contribute to soil pollution. Thermal power plants generate fly ash that pollutes soil, air and water. Industrial pollutants enter human food chain and cause serious health problems. Coal fired power plants produce sulphur dioxide which is trapped( not released to atmosphere) by means of addition of lime( calcium hydroxide) or lime stone forming what are called sludges which represent calcium salts and toxic elements such as As, Se, Hg, Pb and Cr- all detrimental to the environment. 2.Urban Wastes Urban wastes

Commercial Waste

Domestic Waste

Includes garbage, rubbish plastics, glasses, tin containers, fibre glass, paper, rubber, vegetable/ animal residues, oil drippings, fuel wastes, leaves, abandoned toys, paints/varnishes and metallic objects

3. Agricultural Sources a) Fertilizers : excessive usage of N.K.P leads to eutrophication b) Pesticides, Chlorinated hydrocarbons DDT, BHC, (Benzene hexachloride), Aldrin, Endrin, dieldrin, lindane, chlordane etc. Organic phosphates: Melathion, Parathion - These can get absorbed in root crops posing a health risk c) Soil conditioners, fumigants, and chemical agent - They are used to increase soil fertility to get higher yields and kill insects. These substances may contain several toxic metals such as Pb, As, Cd, Hg and Co which get introduced into the crops through the soil and ultimately enter the human food chain. d) Farm Wastes - Cattle, Pigs, Poultry contribute to soil pollution. Raw sewage from animal sheds has very high BOD > 200 ppm, COD > 400 ppm, N (40 ppm) Feed lot run-offs have BOD 1000 ppm, COD 8000 ppm and N 700 ppm Methods of treating domestic sewage cannot be applied to farm sewage. 4. Metallic Pollutants Most industries (textiles, dyes, paints and pigments, pharmaceuticals, oil, soap and detergents, cement, batteries, petroleum, paper and pulp, steel, glass, plastic and electroplating) dump their solid wastes on soil with disastrous consequences to living organisms. Fertilizers and soil conditioners leave behind traces of metal residues in soil. Hazardous metals As, Pb, Cd, Hg, Cr Minor changes in Ca, Na, K, Mg, Fe, Zn, V has effect on plant life/ agricultural Production.. 5. Biological agents Soil gets polluted by large quantities of human, animal and bird excreta. Biological agents naturally occurring in soil - bacteria, fungi, algae, protozoa and actinomytes, earthworms, mollusks (snails, clams, squid, octopuses, and anthropods (spiders, mites, insects, centipede, millipede and crustaceans- all contribute to soil fertility. - Biological agents excreted by man are enteric bacteria, protozoa and viruses. These pathogens are transmitted to soil by animals and from soil to man.

6. -

Mining Surface mining or open pit mining generates large quantities of wastes (top soil, rocks) leads to loss of land for grazing, soil erosion, sedimentation and soil pollution. Effluents from mines may be highly acidic or alkaline or metal-rich containing cyanide containing pollutants depending on the circumstances.

7. Salt Stress in Soil - Due to evaporation of water salinity increases. - TDS > 2100 mg/l makes soil unsuitable for growing crops except for the most salt-tolerant crops. 8. Radio active elements - Nuclear explosion or face out from nuclear tests or dumping of nuclear wastes - Radiation wastes contain such as radio nuclides as Sr-90. Cs- 137, I-129. - All emit of radiation. 9. Effects of soil pollution 1. Leads to ground water pollution 2. Hazard to public health due to entry of chemicals and/or microorganisms into food chain. 3. Generate fowl odour, cause air pollution and impact on clean and healthy living.

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Environmental Technology Questions for study

(marks in parenthesis)

Why is water pollution of such grave concern?(5) What is the difference between contamination and pollution of water?(5) What are point and non-point sources of water pollution?(5) What are the types(sources) of water pollution?(10) Explain the various constituents in polluted waters or Give an account of water pollutants?(10) 6. Explain the role of oxygen demanding pollutants in determining water quality?(10) 7. Distinguish between BOD,CBOD and NBOD.(5) 8. Define the terms BOD and COD.(5) 9. What is meant by BOD5200 C and what is its significance?(5) 10. Under what situations is a COD test more useful than a BOD test?(5) 11. Write an explanatory note on pathogens likely to be present in polluted waters.(10) 12. Explain the phenomena of eutrophication and its effect on aquatic life.(5) 13. Define TDS. What is its significance in terms of water pollution?(5) 14. What is water salinity? How is it caused? What is its effects? 15. Write an explanatory note on infectious diseases brought about by polluted water based on their transmission mechanisms?(10) 16. What are the heavy metals likely in polluted water and their effects on health.(5) 17. Major nutrients in waters are C, N and P. Of these only P is considered as limiting nutrient. Why?(10) 18. What is the physiological effect of high nitrates in drinking water?(5) 19. What is the cause for thermal pollution and what is its effect on water(5).

1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

20. Define pesticides. Name four types of pesticides based on their action on specific pests. Describe the effects of any one type of chemical pesticide. (10) 21. What are volatile organic compounds? How do they enter into drinking water supplies? Explain the importance of any one VOC.(10) 22. Write a short note on the impact of radionuclides and oil pollutants in water.(10) 23. What is sewage and waste water? Why should they be treated before discharge into a river or an ocean. (5) 24. Explain the significance of primary, secondary and tertiary treatment of sewage. (10) 25. Give an account of the primary treatment of sewage. 26. Give an account of the secondary treatment of sewage. (5) (10)

27. What is trickling filter and rotating biological compactor? Give an account of their performance in sewage treatment. (10) 28. Give a brief description of oxidation ponds or lagoons and comment on their performance. (5) 29. Does secondary treatment remove all BOD from a sewage stream? Explain. (10) 30. A city sewage is to be treated to obtain water for recycling. Explain the type of treatments you would recommend to make the water recyclable. (10) 31. Write short notes on: (5 marks each) a) Activated sludge process b) Nitrification and denitrification c) Trickling filter d) Rotating biological compactor 32. Explain how activated sludge helps in reducing BOD? 33. What is osmosis and reverse osmosis? 34. What is the difference between dialysis and electrodialysis? (5) (5) (5)

35. What is the difference between spring natural water, purified water and packaged drinking water. (5) 36. Explain the principle of electrodialysis. (5)

37. Explain how desalination of sea water is done by reverse osmosis. (10) 38. Explain why?: (2 marks each) a) U.V radiation and ozone treatment are given in bottled water manufacture? b) Phosphate is a limiting nutrient in water and not carbon or nitrogen. c) Radionuclide, radon, in water is posing a serious hazard. d) Among pesticides, organochlorine compounds are hazardous. e) The protozoan, Cryptosporidium parvum is not a threat in ground waters. f) Tertiary or advanced treatment is necessary to reduce BOD maximally. g) TDS is indicative of salinity of waters. h) Ionic form of lead, Pb++ is more dangerous than mercury, Hg++. i) CBOD occurs first followed by NBOD. j) Removal of nitrogen completely from waters can only be done by nitrifying and denitrifying bacteria. 39. What is eutrophication and why is it undesirable? (5)

40. A BOD520OC test was performed after suitable dilution of the sewage sample. The DOi was 15 mg/L but the DOf was zero. What does it indicate