Outline/Summary

Chapter 34: Animal Reproduction and Development

34.1 | Animal Development Begins with Reproduction A. Reproduction Is Asexual and Sexual Asexual reproduction does not require a partner and yields identical offspring. In sexual reproduction, two haploid gametes unite and form a zygote, the first cell of a new offspring. Fertilization may occur in the environment (external fertilization) or inside an animals body (internal fertilization). B. Gene Expression Dictates Animal Development Development requires differentiation, the formation of specialized cells. In pattern formation, the animal takes on its overall shape and structure. C. Development Is Indirect or Direct Animals that undergo indirect development have a larva stage that does not resemble the adult. Metamorphosis transforms the larva into an adult. In direct development, young animals resemble miniature adults. 34.2 | Males Produce Sperm Cells The reproductive systems of both males and females include gonads, which house the germ cells that give rise to gametes. Other sex organs deliver or nurture the gametes. Males and females have different secondary sex characteristics, traits that do not directly participate in reproduction. A. Male Reproductive Organs Are Inside and Outside the Body Developing sperm originate in seminiferous tubules within the paired testes. Also inside the testes are sustentacular cells that surround the seminiferous tubules and interstitial cells that secrete hormones. A pouch called the scrotum contains the testes. Sperm travel through the epididymis, vas deferens, and ejaculatory duct, and they exit the body with semen through the urethra (within the penis) during orgasm and ejaculation. The prostate gland, seminal vesicles, and bulbourethral glands add secretions to semen. B. Spermatogenesis Yields Sperm Cells Spermatogenesis begins with diploid spermatogonia, which divide mitotically to yield a stem cell and a primary spermatocyte. The first meiotic division produces two haploid secondary spermatocytes. In meiosis II, the secondary spermatocytes divide,

yielding four spermatids. The spermatids develop into spermatozoa, or mature sperm cells. A mature sperm cell has a flagellum and a head covered with a caplike acrosome. C. Hormones Influence Male Reproductive Function Gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) from the hypothalamus stimulates the anterior pituitary gland to release follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH). In males, these hormones affect the testes, triggering the release of testosterone necessary for sperm formation and the development of secondary sex characteristics. 34.3 | Females Produce Egg Cells A. Female Reproductive Organs Are Inside the Body Egg cells (and their nourishing follicle cells) originate in the ovaries. Each month after puberty, one ovary releases an egg cell into a uterine tube, which leads to the uterus. A blood-rich endometrium lines the inside of the uterus. The cervix leads to the vagina, which connects the uterus with the outside of the body. The vulva, or external genitalia, consists of the labia, clitoris, and vaginal opening. Breasts deliver milk to infants. B. Oogenesis Yields Egg Cells In oogenesis, oogonia divide mitotically to form two primary oocytes. In meiosis I, the cytoplasm of the primary oocyte divides unevenly as it splits into one large, haploid secondary oocyte and a much smaller polar body. In meiosis II, the secondary oocyte again divides unequally, yielding the large ovum and another small polar body. Meiosis in the female begins before birth and completes at fertilization. C. Hormones Influence Female Reproductive Function The ovaries secrete estrogen and progesterone, hormones that stimulate development of female sexual characteristics. GnRH, FSH, LH, estrogen, and progesterone control the ovarian cycle and the menstrual cycle. After ovulation, the ruptured follicle develops into the corpus luteum, which secretes hormones that prepare the body for pregnancy. If pregnancy does not occur, the endometrium is shed in menstruation. D. Hormonal Fluctuations Can Cause Discomfort Premenstrual syndrome, menstrual cramps, endometriosis, and hot flashes are associated with changing hormone concentrations. E. Contraceptives Prevent Pregnancy

 Contraception is the use of behaviors, barriers, hormones, spermicidal chemicals, or other devices that prevent pregnancy. 34.4 | Sexual Activity May Transmit Disease A sexually transmitted disease (STD) spreads via sexual contact. Viruses and bacteria cause most STDs, which may cause infertility. 34.5 | The Human Infant Begins Life as a Zygote A. Fertilization Joins Genetic Packages and Initiates Pregnancy In fertilization, a sperm cell burrows through the two layers surrounding a secondary oocyte. The two united cells constitute the diploid zygote. B. Preembryonic Events Include Cleavage, Implantation, and Gastrulation The preembryonic stage lasts from fertilization until the end of the second week of development. After fertilization, cleavage divisions produce the morula. Between days 3 and 6, the morula arrives at the uterus and hollows out, forming a blastocyst. An outer layer of cells (the trophoblast) and an inner cell mass form. Cells of the trophoblast secrete human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG), which prevents menstruation. Implantation occurs between days 6 and 14. During the second week, the amniotic cavity forms as the inner cell mass flattens, forming the embryonic disc. Ectoderm and endoderm form, and then mesoderm appears, establishing the three primary germ layers of the gastrula. C. Organs Take Shape During the Embryonic Stage The embryonic stage lasts from the second week through the eighth week of development. Chorionic villi extending from the chorion start to develop into the placenta. The yolk sac, allantois, and umbilical cord form as the amnion swells with fluid. Organs form throughout the embryonic period. The primitive streak forms the longitudinal axis around which new structures appear, including the notochord, neural tube, arm and leg buds, heart, facial structures, skin specializations, sex organs, and skeleton. D. Organ Systems Become Functional in the Fetal Stage Structures continue to elaborate during the fetal stage, which lasts from the ninth week of development until the baby is ready for birth. E. Muscle Contractions in the Uterus Drive Labor and Childbirth

 Labor begins as the fetus presses against the cervix. In a positive feedback loop, cervical stretching triggers the release of oxytocin, which stimulates uterine contractions that push the baby farther out, causing even more stretching. Eventually the mother expels baby and placenta. 34.6 | Birth Defects Have Many Causes Genetic abnormalities, dietary deficiency, or exposure to teratogens such as chemicals or viruses can cause birth defects. Each body structure has a different critical period, which is the time in development during which it is especially vulnerable to teratogens. 34.7 | Investigating Life: The Cross-Dressers of the Reef In many animal species, females store sperm from multiple males. Natural selection favors the males that produce the most sperm or that prevent other males from fertilizing the females eggs. In Australian giant cuttlefish (Sepia apama), some males disguise themselves as females, increasing their opportunities to mate.