MargueriteRigoglioso,Stregoneria, 1 ForthisinquiryIsetouttoinvestigatethefollowingquestions:WhatisItalianwitchcraft? Hasit everbeenabonafidereligioussystem,ormerelyanincoherentamalgamofmagico religious practiceshandeddownfromanearlierera?Whatareitsoriginsandhowhasitmanifested throughouthistory?Wasit,infact,ademonicart?Isitpracticedtoday?Ifso,inwhat form?Has ItalianwitchcraftbeencarriedbyItalianimmigrantstotheshoresofAmerica?Ifso,how does AmericanstregoneriacomparewithItalianstregoneria? ThemethodologiesIhaveusedinconductingthisresearchincludehistoricaland hermeneuticalanalysis,aswellasnarrativeinterviews.

Forthelatter,Ispokewithan experton SicilianfolkmagicaswellasfourAmericansofItaliandescentwhocallthemselves streghe (witches)and,assuch,claimtobepracticingtheoldpreChristianreligionofItalythat hasbeen passeddowntothemthroughtheirfamilylines.Ialsospokewithacontemporary American clairvoyantwhoisnotofthestregatraditionbuthasprovidedsomegeneralinsightson the phenomenon.Forhistoricalandethnographicalbackground,Ihaveturnedmainlytothe workof scholarssuchasCarloGinzberg,CharlesG.Leland,FrederickElworthy,Gustav Henningsen,Peter Kingsley,andElsaGuggino.ThewritingsoftwocontemporaryItalianAmerican witches,Raven

GrimassiandLeoMartello,haveprovidedinformationonmoderndayItalianwitchcraft. IshouldnoteherethatthewordforwitchcraftinthemodernItalianlanguageis stregoneria.However,variouswriters,includingCharlesLelandandRavenGrimassi, refertoit asstregheria(oreventhemisspelledstregeria,),clamingthatthisistheterm historicallyused byitspractitioners.AsatthispointinmyresearchIhavenotyetconfirmedwhether witchesin Italyhaveinfactevercalledtheircraftstregheria,Iwillusethetermstregoneria.In addition, ethnologistElsaGugginomaintainsthatinSicilythewordstregaisuseddisparagingly to describesomeonewhopracticesmalevolentmagic;otherwordssuchasmagaareused instead todenotepractitionersofthehealingandmagicalarts.
1

Nevertheless,forsimplicityssakeItend usethewordstrega(anditsplural,streghe)throughoutthispapertomeanwitchin all

1

PersonalinterviewwithElsaGuggino,April6,2000.

Page 3 MargueriteRigoglioso,Stregoneria, 2 sensesoftheword.Alsoforsimplicityssake,Iusethefeminineformofthewordin Italianfor bothmenandwomen.

HistoricalandEthnographicalEvidencefortheExistenceofItalianWitchcraft InEcstasies:DecipheringtheWitchesSabbath,CarloGinzbergexaminestestimoniesin the Europeanwitchtrialsfromthe14ththrough17thcenturiesandteasesoutadeep substratumof popularbeliefsandpracticesthatamounttoahiddenshamaniccultureoperatinginItaly duringthat period.ArguingthatdiabolismwasaprojectiononthepartofCatholicinquisitors, Ginzberg determinesfromtrialrecordsthatanecstaticcultexistedatthetime,onecenteredonthe veneration ofafemaledeityorfemalespiritsvariouslynamedDiana,Herodiana,Herodias,Abundia, Richella, MadonnaOriente,laMatrona,theGoodMistress,theTeacher,theGreekMistress, the WiseSibilla,theQueenoftheFairies,andsoforth.Sheisadeityattimes surroundedby animals,intentonteachingherfollowersthevirtuesoftheearth.
2

Testimoniesindicatethat menandwomen,butaboveall,women,wouldrituallymeetwithherinshamanictrance, usuallyat night.Onegroup,thebenandantioftheFriuli,foughtduringsuchepisodesagainst malevolent witcheswhothreatenedthefertilityofthefields.Sometimesshapeshiftingintoanimals or insects,othertimesridingonanimalsbacks,theywouldendtheirjourneybyjoiningan otherworldlyprocessionofthedead.

3

Variousreferencestotoadsandointmentsinthetrial records,suggestsGinzburg,indicatethatpractitionersmayhaveinducedsuchtrancesby ingesting ortopicallyapplyinghallucinogenicsubstancesderivedfromtoadsskinorpsychoactive mushrooms. Wenowmovetothelate1800s.SelfstyledfolkloristCharlesLeland,inpokingaround the RomagnaregionofTuscany(betweenForliandRavenna),stumbleduponwhatpeople therecalled laVecchiaReligione,theOldReligion.Thistradition,heclaimed,isreallynotamere chance survivalofsuperstitionshereandthere...butacompletesystem.
4

Itspractitionersveneratedthe
2

CarloGinzburg,Ecstasies:DecipheringtheWitchesSabbath(NewYork:Random House,1991),p.131.
3

Ibid.,p.155.
4

CharlesG.Leland,EtruscanRomanRemains(Blaine,WA:PhoenixPublishing,Inc.,No dategiven),p.9.

Page 4 MargueriteRigoglioso,Stregoneria, 3 goddessDianaandherdaughter,Aradia(Herodias)thefemaleMessiah.

Inseveralremarkable volumes,mostnotablyEtruscanRomanRemainsandAradia:GospeloftheWitches, Leland compiledasmuchashecouldofthemythology,folklore,andspellsstillbeingutilizedby the stregheinthelastdecadesofthenineteenthcentury.Inhisworks,hetracestheoriginsof stregoneriabacktotheEtruscanperiod,showinghowthespiritentitiesstillbeing addressedbythe latterdaystreghepreservednamesandattributesoftheoldEtruscangods,suchasTinia, orJupiter, Faflon,orBacchus,andTeramo(inEtruscanTurms)orMercury.Lelandsbooksarea remarkable compendiumoflore,ceremonies,andincantationstoeffectcures,attractlove,remove evil influences,bringcertainthingstopass,evokespirits,insuregoodcropsoratravelers safereturn, divineevents,castharmuponenemies,andsoforth.Thepractices,henotes,remainedin thehands ofmysticfamilies,inwhichtheoccultartispreservedfromgenerationtogeneration, under jealousfearofpriests,culturedpeople,andallpowersthatbe.
6

Atraditionthatwas predominantlytheprovinceofwomen,theritesandsecretswerepassedoninfamiliesto younger femalemembersbyfemaleelders. Acenturylater,wefindItalianAmericanLeoLouisMartelloinhis1991book Witchcraft:

TheOldReligion,confirmingthenotionthattheOldReligionhasbeenpassedallthe waydown throughfamilylinestothepresentday.Hewrites,Thestrege[sic](Witches)inour familygo backforcenturies.MygrandmotherusedtoreadtheoldTarochideckofcards,from whichweget themodernTarot.Shewasthevillagestregaandbothenviedandhatedbypriests.

7

In1951, whenMartellohimselfwas18,hisextendedSicilianfamilyinNewYorkinitiatedhim intothe traditionaswell.ItalianstregoneriaandSicilianstregoneriainparticularMartello says,has survivedthroughoutthecenturiesbybecominganundergroundphenomenonduringand afterthe Inquistion.Thathisrelativesobservedhimfromafarforyearsbeforeinitiatinghimto makesure thathewoulddojusticetothetraditionandcouldbetrustedtomaintaincraftsecrets,he notes,is
5

CharlesG.Leland,Aradia:OrtheGospeloftheWitches(NewYork:SamuelWeiser, Inc.,1974),p.viii.
6

Leland,EtruscanRomanRemains,p.4.
7

LeoLouisMartello,Witchcraft:TheOldReligion(NewYork:CitadelPress,1991),p.33.

Page 5

MargueriteRigoglioso,Stregoneria, 4 characteristicofstregafamilies.
8

Itisbecauseofthesecrecyenshroudingthetradition,he maintains,thatstregoneriaisnotmorewidelyknownthanitistoday. EnterRavenGrimassi.AnItalianAmericanwhoalsoclaimstocomefromastrega family, GrimassihastakenItalianstregoneriaoutofthebroomcloset,makingcertainaspectsof itavailable tothewiderpublic.Inhisseveralvolumes,includingthe1995WaysoftheStrega.Italian Witchcraft:ItsLore,MagickandSpells,GrimassipresentswhathecallstheAridian Tradition, originallyestablishedinNorthAmericaasabranchofTanarra[theformofstregoneriahe sayswas traditionallypracticedincentralItaly].
9

Theremarkablysystematizedreligionhepresents,a purportedblendingofseveralnorthernandcentralItalianstregoneriapractices,is,he notes,an attempttorestoretheoriginalTradition.

10

Assuch,thestregoneriahedescribeshasacoherent cosmology,mythology,andsetofspecificpractices.Whilesomehereditarystreghe complainthat aspectsofGrimassisstregoneriaareinauthentic,borrowtooheavilyfromLelands work,

ignorethemanyregionalvarietiesofstregoneria,andwronglyincorporateaspectsof American NewAgephilosophy,manyagreethatatleastsomeofthefolkloreandritualsheoffers areindeed groundedinstregatraditions.

11

AgrowingnumberofAmericansinterestedinpaganismare turningtostregonerialaGrimissitoguidethemintheirworkincovensorasindividual practitioners.GrimassihimselfheadsacoveninCalifornia. AndwhatofItalytoday?Hasthestregatraditionsurvivedinthatcountryandarethere thosewhoclaimtostillbepracticinglaVecchiaReligione?Mypreliminaryresearch indicatesyes. Fabrisia(whoprefersthatherlastnamenotbeused),ahereditaryItalianAmericanstrega whonow livesinTennessee,saysthatseveralmalewitchesfromtheBolognaareahave correspondedwith herviatheInternetsincediscoveringherWebsiteonItalianwitchcraft (www.Fabrisia.com).
8

Martello,WhatItMeanstoBeaWitch,Occult,January1974,p.4,andprivate interviewwithMartello,April 14,2000.

9

RavenGrimassi,WaysoftheStrega.ItalianWitchcraft:ItsLore,MagickandSpells(Saint Paul:Llewellyn Publications,1995),p.xviii.

10

Ibid.,p.xviii.

11

Informationrelayedduringinterviewswithmyinformants,April2000.

Page 6 MargueriteRigoglioso,Stregoneria, 5 Theyarehereditarywitchesandtellmethatwhattheypracticehasbeenpasseddownto them throughtheirfamiliesandhasntchangedsincethe1500s,shesays.

12

Farthersouth,inSicily,wefindthatpopularmagicisstillwidelyused.Averylarge numberofpeoplefromallclassesbelieveinmagicinSicily,ethnologistElsaGuggino says.

13

However,asmentionedearlier,shenotesthatpractitionersofmagictherearegenerally notcalled streghebecausethattermisunderstoodtosignifythediabolicalwitchimagethatis now widelyconsideredtohavebeencreationoftheCatholicchurch.Rather,theyareknown bya plethoraofnames,includingmaga,mago(themasculineversion),magara,maara,and soforth. ThemaghithatGugginohasobservedaregenerallyhiredbyotherstoperformavariety ofrituals thatwillassistinthephysicalandpsychichealingorprotectingoftheclientsthemselves ortheir lovedones.Theuseofthemalocchio,orevileye,aspellintendedtocauseharmto another

person(aswellasspellstocounteractit),isalsowidespreadandcommonlyconductedby maghiat theirclientsrequest.Asherworkabundantlydemonstrates,contemporarySicilianmagic ishighly syncretic,withmanyelementsofCatholicism(prayers,namesofsaints)enteringintothe spellsand rituals(somethingthatwashardlypresentinthestregoneriaofnorthernItalyduring Lelands time).WhilethemaghithatGugginodescribesarenotoftheNewAgevariety(the latterexist butdonotfallunderthescopeofherresearch),theyhavenotstatedtoGugginothatthey are practicingtheVecchiaReligione,either.Interestingly,Gugginohasnotfoundevidence forthe latter.GiventhatLeoMartelloandotherstregheofSiclianoriginprovidecompelling anecdotal evidencethattheOldReligionwasstilloperatinginSicilyatleastasrecentlyas35years ago, however,itmaywellbethatGugginohasnotbeenprivytothephenomenonbecausethe strega familieshavemaintainedtheirironcurtainofsecrecy.Clearlythisremainsaninteresting avenuefor furtherresearch. TheRootsofStregoneria
12

InterviewwithFabrisia,April2000.
13

InterviewwithElsaGugguno,April14,2000.

Page 7 MargueriteRigoglioso,Stregoneria, 6 HavingbrieflyestablishedtheexistenceofstregoneriaasaformofpreChristianreligion thathas survivedintothepresentdayinbothItalyandtheUnitedStates,Iwouldliketoexplorein amore indepthfashionthevariousconnectionsbetweenstregoneriaanditsantecedentsinthe Mediterranean,WestAsia,andAfrica. Perhapsthemostdramaticdocumentprovidingcluesinthisregardisthesocalled Gospel oftheWitches,whichLelandclaimstohaveobtainedfromaRomagnolostregahe referredtoas Maddalena.Hesaysofthisdocument,Idonotknowdefinitelywhethermyinformant derived partofthesetraditionsfromwrittensourcesororalnarration,butIbelieveitwaschiefly the latter.
14

Whileitsauthenticityisdisputedbysomescholars,manycontemporaryhereditary stregheembraceit,assertingthatitcontainsloreandritualsthattheyweretaughtbytheir families. TheGospel(inEnglishtranslation)beginslikethis: DianagreatlylovedherbrotherLucifer,thegodoftheSunandofthemoon,thegodof light (Splendor),whowassoproudofhisbeauty,andwhoforhispridewasdrivenfrom Paradise.

Dianahadbyherbrotheradaughter,towhomtheygavethenameofAradia(i.e. Herodias). Inthosedays...therichmadeslavesofallthepoor. DianasaidonedaytoherdaughterAradia.... Tistrueindeedthatthouaspiritart, Butthouwertbornbuttobecomeagain Amortal;thoumustgotoearthbelow Tobeateacheruntowomenandmen Whofainwouldstudywitchcraftinthyschool.... Andthoushaltbethefirstofwitchesknown.... Andwhenthepriestsorthenobility Shallsaytoyouthatyoushouldputyourfaith IntheFather,Son,andMary,thenreply: YourGod,theFather,andMariaare Threedevils... ForthetrueGodtheFatherisnotyours; ForIhavecometosweepawaythebad, Themenofevil,allwillIdestroy!.... NowwhenAradiahadbeentaught,taughttoworkallwitchcraft,howtodestroytheevil race (ofoppressors),she(impartedtoherpupils)andsaiduntothem: WhenIshallhavedepartedfromthisworld, Wheneveryehaveneedofanything, Onceinthemonth,andwhenthemoonisfull,
14

Leland,Aradia,pp.viiviii.

Page 8 MargueriteRigoglioso,Stregoneria, 7 Yeshallassembleinsomedesertplace, Orinaforestalltogetherjoin Toadorethepotentspiritofyourqueen, Mymother,greatDiana...

15

Votariesarethereafterenjoinedtobakecakesofmeal,wine,saltandhoneyintheshape ofa crescentmoon,tomeettogetherandeatwhilenaked,andtomakelove.Vervainandrue are mentionedasplantssacredtoDiana. Aradia,saysLeland,isHerodias,whowasregardedveryearlyoninstregoneriafolklore as beingassociatedwithDianaaschiefofthewitches.And,infact,thecarefullyresearched scholarly workofGinzburg,mentionedearlier,confirmsboththeassociationbetweenthesetwo figuresas wellastheirconnectionwithItalianwitchcraft,atleastasfarbackasthe14thcentury. Leland furthernotesthatHerodiasisanamethatcomesfromWestAsia,whereitdenotedan earlyformof Lilith.Bothfigures,hesays,hadIsisastheirprecursor.
16

ThelinkbetweenDianaandIsisis furtherunderscoredbythefactthattheysharedmanysacredattributes,includingthe crescentmoon (alsoasymbolforhorns)andthelotus.

17

Thus,fromthischainofassociationsalonewecantracetheoriginsofstregoneriatothe religionofancientEgypt,whichveneratedIsis.FurtherlinkswithAfricacanbeseenin thefactthat theRomanstatuesofDianaofEphesusaremadeofblackmarble,showingthattheywere intended torepresentthequeenofthewitchesinatleastoneofheraspectsthatofnurturing mother asablackgoddess.

18

AsLuciaChiavolaBirnbaumhasdemonstratedinherforthcomingbook, DarkMother,imagesoftheblackgoddessrevealadeeplyburiedracialmemoryof humankinds originsinAfricaandofourfirstdeityashavingbeenadarkAfricanMother.

19

IsisworshipmostlikelyservedasaprecursortostregoneriainItalymoredirectlyfrom the 1stcenturyB.C.tothe5thcenturyA.D.,whenitwasdeliberatelybroughtbackintomany countries

15

Ibid.,pp.16.
16

Ibid.,p.103.
17

FrederickElworthy,TheEvilEye:TheOriginsandPracticesofSuperstition(London: CollierBooks,1958),p. 355.

18

Ibid.,p.191.
19

SeeLuciaChiavolaBirnbaum,DarkMother:AfricanOrigins,Godmothers,andthe UncruelRevolution, forthcoming.

Page 9 MargueriteRigoglioso,Stregoneria, 8 inWesternEuropeundertheRomanempire.OneofthetemplestoIsiswasfounded duringthat periodintheItaliancityofBenevento,aplacementionednumeroustimesinthewitch trialsandin LelandsAradiaasalocalewherestreghemet.

20

Whetherthesemeetingsoccurredinthe phenomenalworldorinthetrancerealmisunclear.Regardless,themultiplereferencesto Beneventointheloreindicatethatitwasaparticularlyimportantcenterforstregoneria. In BeneventoandalloverItaly,thefocusonhealingthatwasanimportantpartoftheIsis religion

21

wascarriedintostregoneria,whosepractitionersusedherbsandmagictotreatpeoplefor

innumerableills. Stregoneriaalsoobviouslyderivedfromother,earliermysteryreligionsofthe Mediterranean.Asmentionedpreviously,LelandtracesstregoneriaintheRomagna regiontothe magicoreligiouspracticesoftheEtruscans,anonIndoEuropeanpeoplewhoseexistence inItaly hasbeendatedtosomewherearound1000B.C.E.Manyofthesepractices,including occult remediesfordisorders,werecarriedintotheearlyRomanperiod.AuthorssuchasCicero, Tacitus, Livy,andVirgilexplicitlystatethattheirdivinationandreligiouspracticesweredrawn from Etruscansources.Infact,EtruscanbooksofmagicwerepopularinRomantimes,andthe informationcontainedthereinwasnotjustreservedfortheelitebutsharedbythe common people.
22

ItissignificanttonotethatoneoftheattributesofDiana,aswithherGreekprecursor, Artemis,wasasprotectorofwomeninchildbirth.
23

Streghe,herpriestesses,thusalsohadan importantroleasmidwives,dispensingherbstohelpusheralongthebirthprocessand easethepain oflabor.ThetwomainherbscitedasbeingsacredtoDianaarerueandvervain.The cimadi rutaorsprigofrue,infactisasymbolthatwasandisstillpopularlywornasanamulet by streghe.Itconsistsofthreemainbranches(symbolizingthetriplenatureofthegoddess).

Atthe tipsofeachbranch(whichbifurcateintoatotalofeightsmallbranches)aresymbolssuch asthe crescentmoon,thelotus,thehand,andthekey(eachoneofwhichalonecanserveasa prophylactic

20

Martello,Witchcraft,p.85.
21

Birnbaum,DarkMother,p.19.
22

Leland,EtruscanRomanRemains,p.11.

Page 10 MargueriteRigoglioso,Stregoneria, 9 againsttheevileye

24

).Whilemuchiswrittenaboutthemanyhealingusesofrueandvervainand theirconnectionwithDiana,noneofthesourcesIhavefoundmentionthisinteresting fact,whichI discoveredindependentlybyconsultingGattoTrocchisMagiaemedicinapopolarein Italia:both wereusedasabortiveagents.

25

Indeed,sometimesmidwivesinsertedtherootoftherueplant directlyintotheuterustoinduceabortion.
26

Clearlythispieceofinformationhasbeensotaboo thatithasescapedthedetectionevenofgreatstregasleuthssuchasLelandhimself.In discovering it,Ihadtheinsight:Isthesprigofrueasymbolofwomenspowertotakeawaylife?If so,the wearingofitbystregheasasignofloyaltytotheircraftandtoDianacouldthushave beenasa defiant,subversivestatementindeedaboutwomenspower(particularlyduringthetime ofthe Inquisition)andonethatIsuspectremainslargelyburiedinthecollectiveunconscious, evenin themindsofmoststreghetoday.Thisisnotsurprising.Itistheawful,deathwielding aspectof theGoddessandourselvesthatwearestilltryingtocometotermswithonthe collectivelevel.It is,perhaps,thedarkestaspectoftheDarkMother.Thesprigofruemaythuswellbea signifierfor thechthonicmysteries,pointingtostregoneriaasapracticeultimatelychthonicinnature, itself. Furtherevidenceforthisnotioncanbefoundinthefactthattheloreandiconography surroundingDianaintheclassicalRomaneraisalsoconnectedtothatoftheGreek goddesses Demeter(herselfconsideredaformofIsis
27

),Persephone,andHecate,whosechthonicbased religionwaswidelypracticedinsouthernItalyandSicily.
28

Dianawascloselyassociatedwith

Hecateasqueenofthewitches,andinthisaspectwasconsideredadeitywhoserealms were nocturnal(henceherassociationwiththemoon)andunderworldly.

29

Wecanalsoseeechoesof themotherdaughter/descentmythofDemeterandPersephoneinthestoryofDianaand her daughterAradia,whodescendstoearthtohelphumankind.Further,oneoftheRoman names ofDianawasDianaTriformis,indicatingthatshewasconsideredatriplegoddesswho communed

23

Elworthy,p.350.
24

Ibid.,p.355.
25

GattoTrocchi,MagiaemedicinapopolareinItalia(Rome:NewtonCompton,1982),pp. 86,106.
26

Ibid.,p.106.
27

Birnbaum,DarkMother,p.14.
28

PeterKingsley,inAncientPhilosophy,MysteryandMagicandIntheDarkPlacesof Wisdom,characterizesthe Demeter/Persephonereligioninthisway.

Page 11 MargueriteRigoglioso,Stregoneria, 10 withheaven,earth,andhell.Assuch,shehadthreedistinctnames:inheaven...the Moon;upon theearthDiana;inhellProsperpine[theLatinnameforPersephone].

30

Shewasalsoconsideredin anotherthreefoldformasHecate/Diana/Prosperpine.
31

TheSicilianDifference InSicily,wefindanumberofpossiblecrossinfluencesthathaveledtotheparticular flavorof stregoneriapracticedthere.Firstofall,somescholarsspeculatethattheSikels(Ibelieve thisisthe EnglishtranslationoftheItalianSiculi),apeoplewhosettledinSicilyatleastasfar backas 1500B.C.E.,

32

mayhavebeenEtruscanmigrantswhoarrivedbysea.
33

Thelikelihoodthatthese migratingEtruscanswouldhavebroughttheirbeliefswiththemsuggeststhatSicilymay wellhave beensprinkledwiththesameseedsfromwhichnorthernItalianstregoneriaderived.The Greek inhabitantsofSicily,whobeganestablishingsettlementsontheislandinthe8thcentury

B.C.E., adoptedoneofthepreexistingsacredspotsoftheSikels,namelythecityofEnnaandits environs (includingLakePergusa),fortheirownreligiouspurposes.

34

Itisherethattheybroughttheir legendofDemeterandPersephoneandbuiltagreattempletotheirgraingoddess(the latterin480 B.C.E.

35

).Ithasbeensuggestedthatthereligionwaseasilyadoptedbytheindigenouspeople becauseitcloselyresembledSikelianbeliefsandpracticesinwhichthenetherworld heldfirst place.

36

(JusthowcloselythelatterresembledEtruscanpracticesremainstobeinvestigated). FrederickElworthyevennotes,itisverypertinentlyaskedwhethertheLatin[namesfor these Greekgoddesses,]Ceres,Libera,andDiswereapproximationsinsoundtothenamesof the originaldeitiesofthehillofEnna.

37 29

Leland,EtruscanRomanRemains,p.151.
30

Elworthy,p.348.
31

Ibid.,p.349.
32

AltaMacadam,BlueGuide:Sicily(NewYork:WWNorton,1993),p.11.
33

Martello,Witchcraft,p.146.
34

Elworthy,p.335.
35

Macadam,p.182.
36

Elworthy,p.335.
37

Ibid.,p.336.

Page 12 MargueriteRigoglioso,Stregoneria, 11 ThequestionofancientnamesbecomesquiterelevanttoourdiscussionofSicilian stregoneria.ForLeoMartelloclaimsthatthenameoftheoriginalSikeliangoddessprior to DemeterandPersephone(whothemselvesbecameblurredandsometimes indistinguishable

38

)has beenpreservedbutisknownonlytoSicilianstreghe.Sicilianwitchcovens,hewrites, descendedfrom[theSikelian]tradition,stillusethenameoftheancientSikelian

goddess,onethat hasneverbeenrevealedorpublished.
39

IfMartellosassertionisaccurate,wecanseethatwhile SicilianstregoneriaretainsDianicelements,itappearstobeaspecificoutgrowthofthe Sikelian/GreekmysteryreligionthatcenteredonDemeterandPersephone(andtheir Sikelian precursor).MartellounderscoresthisideainadescriptionofhisSicilianstrega grandmother: MygrandmotherwasopenlyawitchbutsecretlyahighpriestessoftheOldReligion. Onceamonth,atthetimeofthefullmoon,shejoinedwithothersinworshipofthe mother goddessnearthefoothillsofvolcanicMountEtnaandtheoncesacredLakePergusa where Persephonewaskidnapped.Ennawasherhometown,butshemovedawaywhenshegot married.Atage16,shewasinitiatedintotheancientrightsoflavecchiareligione.Her familyweredirectdescendentsoftheSikelswhofoundedSicily.
40

MountEtnaisanotherspotthatisassociatedinmythologywithvariousgoddesses, including Demeter.AsIhavenotedelsewhere,

41

LakePergusawasconsideredtobeasacredlocaleby Sicilysancientinhabitantsmostlikelybecauseitsperiodicreddeningwasseenasa greatcosmic bloodmystery,onethatsymbolizedthemenstruationofthegoddessherself.Thusin Martellosstregagrandmotherwehaveevidenceforthedirectcontinuationofthemystery

religions fromancienttimesuntilatleasttheearly20thcentury. OtherevidenceregardingthecontinuationoftheDemeter/Persephonereligionbystreghe in themoderneracentersonloreregardingtwostatuesoftheMadonnaandChildinEnna inwhich thebabyisfemale.Martello,whowastoldbystregherelativestopeekunderthe swaddlingclothes ofoneofthestatueslocatedinasmallEnnesechurchduringhisvisittoSicilyin1964, relateswhat hesaysisthetruestoryhisfamilytoldhimaboutit:
38

PeterKingsley,AncientPhilosophy,Mystery,andMagic(NewYork:OxfordUniversity Press,1995),p.352.
39

Martello,WhatitMeanstoBeaWitch,p.3.
40

Ibid.GiventhatMountEtnaisseveralhoursawayfromLakePergusabycar,wecanonly assumethatMartellos grandmotherparticipatedinritualsatthesevariouslocalesatdifferenttimesinherlife (notonthesamenight,for example).

Page 13 MargueriteRigoglioso,Stregoneria, 12 ThesculptorwhomadetheMadonnawithafemaleJesusbelongedtolavecchiareligione .

..andinthiswaypaidtributetohisGoddesses,DemeterandPersephone.Shrewdlyhe realizedthatnoonewouldlooktoocloselyundertheswaddlingclothestodetermineif theirJesuswasmaleorfemale.Eventhethoughtwouldhavebeenconsidered sacrilegious.HecountedontheirtakingforgrantedthattheMadonnaschildwasamale Jesus.OldReligionistsknewbetterandhadmanyalaughoverit.

42

OfinteresthereisthestorythatBellezzaSquillacerecounts
43

regardingherinitiationinto thestregatraditionofherownfamily,whosemembersfeltastrongidentificationwith Sicily althoughtheyhailedfromthesouthernpartoftheItalianmainland.Sherecallsbeing threeorfour yearsoldandclimbingintothemangerofthelifesizednativitysceneinfrontofher churchinSaint Paul,MinnesotaatChristmastime.IpickedupthebabyJesusandsaid,Iknewit!Itsa girl! shesays.Mystreghegrandparentsjustlaughedandlaughedandlaughed.Itwasshortly after that,Squillacebelieves,thattheybegantoteachhertheoldways.WhileSquillacenotes thatthe storyofDemeterandPersephonewasoneofthemythsherfamilypasseddowntoher, shesays shewasunawareoftheexistenceofthefemaleJesusinSicilyuntilIbroughtittoher attention. PeterKingsley,anexpertonSicilianpreChristianreligions,describesthe Demeter/Persephone/Hecatereligionasonethatwasinthehandsofwomen.
44

Clearlyit retainedthatqualityasitevolvedintostregoneria,atraditionthatwasandisfemale dominatedin SicilyjustasithasbeenfurthernorthinItaly.Being,asmentioned,chthonicinnature,its focus wasontheUnderworld,ashamanicrealmofmysteryandterrorthatwasalsoa paradoxical placeonethathadtodowithbothdeathandhealing,darknessandlight.Initiationinto this religion,Kingsleynotes,involveddescentintoachamber,
45

acustomthathasbeencontinued intocontemporarytimesbySicilianstreghe.Martellotellsthestoryofhisowninitiation: [MySicilianrelatives]blindfoldedmeandtookmebycar,probablysomewhereeitheron LongIslandorinNewJersey.Wegotoutofthecarandtheyloweredmedowninto something.TheytoldmeIhadtostaythereuntiltheycametogetme....Imdownthere andIreacharoundandallofasudden,whatamIfeeling:dirt!....Iwasinanopen grave.

46 41

MargueriteRigoglioso,TheRapeoftheLake,Pandora,Spring1999.,pp.3033.
42

Martello,Witchcraft,p.138.
43

InterviewwithBellezzaSquillace,April9,2000.
44

Kingsley,IntheDarkPlacesofWisdom(Inverness,CA:TheGoldenSufiCenter,1999), p.97.
45

Kingley,AncientPhilosophy,Mystery,andMagic,p.246.
46

InterviewwithLeoMartello,April14,2000.

Page 14 MargueriteRigoglioso,Stregoneria, 13 SicilianAmericanstregaLoriBruno,60,whonowlivesinMassachusetts,tellsofa similar experience.WhenIwas18andagainwhenIwas51,IenteredacaveinCanada,she says. DuringthosenightsIexperiencedvisionsandjourneysinthedarkness.Thatwasmy initiation intomyfamilystradition.Itwasasymbolicburial.Anditwasagoingbacktothe Mother.
47

ItisinterestingtonotethattheSicilianAmericanstreghethemselveswhomIhavemet seemtohave whatcouldbeconsideredacertainunderworldyqualityaboutthem.BythatImean theyhavea nononsenseintensityandanairofmysteryandsecretivenessaboutthem,andthey maintaina concernwithcombatingnegativespiritforcesoperatingintheirenvironmentandin society.The fiercenessofSicilianstreghehasalsobeennotedbyMartelloandothers.Unlikemost other

Witchcrafttraditions,hewrites, theSicilianandsomeItalianbranchesdonothesitatetothreatenthedeities....This Sicilianqualityisnotoneofdisrespectofblasphemy.Itisoneofpositiveselfassertion,a recognitionofourowninnerdivinity,andasenseofpersonalpowerinourownlivesthat neithermannorGodnorGoddesscanundermine.

48

PerhapsevenmorecompellinginthisregardisBellezzaSquillacesoutandoutassertion thatherstregherelativespreparedhertobecomeadeathpriestess.
49

Iwastaughtto understandthecemeteryandthedeathrites,tobeabletofacethefearofdeathsothatI couldgoto thatrealmoverandoveragain,shesays.Havingbeenpreparedforsucharole,shenotes, Iam calledtothedeathbedofallofmyrelativestoannointthem.TheywillnotdieuntilIget there.In addition,BellezzasayssheregularlyjourneystotheUnderworldinshamanictranceand worksin hernocturnaldreamstateforavarietyofends,includingobtainingwisdomfromthe divinerealm, effectinghealings,andinterveningtochangeeventsinthephenomenalworldsuchthat theymay haveamorepositiveoutcome.InoneofmydreamsIsawacaraccidentthatmybrother was goingtohave,sherecounts.Ichangedthingssothatthetruckdidnthithimheadon butjack knifedsothattheywouldbothendupinaditchandsurvive.Theaccidenthappenedjust thatwaya

47

InterviewwithLoriBruno,April6,2000.
48

Martello,Witchcraft,p.145.
49

InterviewwithSquillace.

Page 15 MargueriteRigoglioso,Stregoneria, 14 daylater.

50

ClearlywhatwehavehereisapriestessofPersephone,thegoddesswho,morethan beingjustthemaidenwhopickedflowersattheedgeofthelake,wastheQueenofthe Underworld, therulerofthedead.BellezzaisnodoubtoneinalonglineofpriestessesofPersephone whohave operatedinItaly,Sicily,andbeyondassacredmediatorsbetweenthisworldandtheone beyondthe veil. HistoricalevidencelinkingstregoneriainSicilytotheDemeterandPersephonereligion (or itsSikelianantecedent)isnotunequivocalbutstillsuggestive.Mymainhistoricalsource thusfar hasbeenachapterbyGustavHenningsenentitledTheLadiesfromOutside:An Archaic PatternoftheWitchesSabbath.Init,Henningsenexaminesapproximately70case recordsof

trialsofSicilianwitchesheldfrom1547to1701bythetribunaloftheSpanishInquisition in Palermo.Thetrialsinvolveddonnedifuori(womenfromtheoutside),astheywere called,atitle thatwasalternatelyappliedbothtowitchesthemselvesandtosupernatural,fairylike entitieswho accompaniedthemontheirnocturnalsojourns. HenningsendeterminesfromthetrialrecordsthataSicilianfairycultwasthrivingon the islandatleastduringthetimeoftheInquisition,ifnotevenearlier.Itwasledmainlyby women whoservedascharismatichealersandcuredillscausedbythefairies.Severalnightsa week, theywouldrushoutinspirit...andtakepartinthemeetingsandnocturnaljourneyings.
51

Interestingly,manyofthenamesusedtoaddressthefairieswereidenticaltothosethat northern Italianwitchesusedfortheirdeities(ascitedearlierinGinzberg),althoughHenningsen doesnot directlymentionDianaorHerodiasamongthem.Thestrikingsimilaritiespointtothe strongties thatmusthaveexistedbetweenSicilianandnorthernItalianwitchcraft,strengtheningthe notionthat thepracticesinbothplacesoriginallyderivedfromacommonsource(theEtruscans?). Andthefact thattwoofthenamesusedinbothplacesareTheGreekLadyandtheWiseSybil becomes particularlysignificantinthecaseofSicily.IstronglysuspectthattheGreekLadywas a

referencetotheancientgoddessesDemeterand/orPersephone.Ialsosuspectthatthe mentionof
50

Ibid.

Page 16 MargueriteRigoglioso,Stregoneria, 15 theWiseSybilreflectedanarchaicmemoryofthesybilatDelphi,whoLuciaChiavola BirnbaumdemonstrateswasassociatedwiththeRomanDianaofEphesus.

52

AnUnderworldofaDifferentSort:Stregoneria,theMafiaConnection,and Malta AdiscussionofSicilianstregoneriawouldnotbecompletewithoutaninclusionofLeo Martellos stunningbutcompellingassertionthatthephenomenonoftheSicilianmafiahasits originsinla VecchiaReligione.Hewrites: Sicily,becauseofitsconstantconquestbyothernations,becameacountryofsecret societies....Because[Sicilians]couldnotachievejusticebytheindifferentforeignrulers, whokeptchanging,eachnewconquerorbringinginawholenewsetofharshlawsand religiousideas,secretsocietieswithoathsofinitiation,bloodvows,andcodewordswere inaugurated.CenturiesagotheseweremadeupmainlyoftheOldReligionists...Their joy wasgivenfullreignonlywhentheyworshippedinthewoodsonmoonfillednightswhile armedsentriesguardedallpassestotheirmountainretreats.Atfirstdefendersofthe faith,

thepoor,andtheoppressed,someofthembecamepowermadandworkedforthefeudal lords.TheygraduallydroppedtheworshipoftheGoddessandbecameanallmale chauvinistsociety.Theyretainedsomeoftheritualsforinitiationpurposes,butdropped, andeventuallylost,boththeworshipandtheoriginsoftherites.Thereweremany schisms, splits,offshoots,andformationsofrivalsocieties.

53

Inparticular,Martellopointstoseveralimportantaspectsofmafiainitiationritualsthe kiss,the bloodoath,thevownevertorevealthesecrets,andtheuseoftheknife

54

asoriginatingin stregoneriarites. Tothemanycontemporarytheoriesaboutwherethewordmafiacomesfrom,Martello addstwomore,whichalsotieittotheOldReligion.Accordingtosomestreghe,hesays, the worditselfisananagramwhichmeansfaithfuladorationoftheMother.Itstemsfrom theLatin wordsmater,meaningmother,andfidelitas,faithfulness.

55

Evenmoreinterestingisthe secondtheoryheposits:thatthewordmafiaisacombinationandelisionofmafor mother

51

GustavHenningsen,TheLadiesfromtheOutside:AnArchaicPatternoftheWitches Sabbath,inBengt AnkarlooandGustavHenningsen,eds.,EarlyModernEuropeanWitchcraft:Centres&

Peripheries(Oxford: ClarendonPress,1990),p.195
52

Birnbaum,DarkMother,p.105.
53

Martello,Witchcraft,p.151.
54

Ibid.,p.153.
55

Ibid.

Page 17 MargueriteRigoglioso,Stregoneria, 16 (materinLatin;madreormammainItalian)andfiliafordaughter.

56

Themotheranddaughter inthiscasewouldbenoneotherthanDemeterandPersephone.Whiletheremaybeno conclusive proofforeitherofthesetheories,certainlytheyprovideaninterestingdimensiontoour discussion ofSicilianstregoneria. AnotherfascinatingassertionMartellomakesisthatMalta,anarchipelagojustsouthof Sicily,alsohasalivingwitchcrafttradition.Thestrege[sic]undergroundsofboth islandshave longmaintainedcloseties,

57

hesays.AsinSicily,witchcraftinMaltawouldhaveemergedfrom itsowntheancientGoddessreligion,forwhichthereisampleevidenceinthe archeologicalrecord aswellasinthelocallore.ThefactthattheMalteselanguagehasnowordforfather, notes Martello,bespeakstoitslongstandingtraditionofmatriarchy,whichnodoubtwaspart andparcel ofthegoddessculture.

58

OnepieceofcontemporaryloreinMaltathatherelatesisparticularly fascinatinginthisregard.Thestoryconcernsanumberofgradeschoolchildrenandtheir teachers who,astheAugust1940issueofNationalGeographicreports,descendedintothe underground mazeoftemples,tunnels,andcatacombsinMaltaandneverreturned.Ofthisincident, Martello writes: ManySicilianandMalteseWitchessaythatthetruesecretsofHalSaflini[orthe Hypogeum,thelargeundergroundchamberinMaltathatwasusedforritualpurposesin ancienttimes,]havenotbeendiscoveredandthatthoseteachersandchildrenarenotdead butarenowpartofalivingraceofpeoplestillsurvivingintheirundergroundhomes,still worshippingtheancientdeities,andprotectedfromdiscoverybyvariousboobytrapsthat couldinitiatelandslidesshouldexplorersgettooclose.Theteachersandyoungchildren whowerelostinsuredthepropagationoftheirracenewbloodminglingwithold providingastrongerstockfortheirMalteseundergroundmatriarchy.
59

Whetherthisstoryhasanyphenomenologicaltruthtoitornot,itcertainlysuggeststhat the memoryofmatriarchyandthehungerforitinpresenttimesremainsstrongly embeddedinthe psycheofboththeSiciliansandtheMaltese.Attheveryleast,thepossibilityofthe existenceofa MaltesewitchcrafttraditionwithtiestoSicilianstregoneriaisanintriguingtopicfor futureresearch.

56

Ibid.
57

Ibid.,p.98.
58

Ibid.,p.100.

Page 18 MargueriteRigoglioso,Stregoneria, 17 StregoneriaToday ContemporaryItalianAmericanstregheechoMartellosclaimthatinSicily,Italy,and among ItalianAmericansintheUnitedStates,theoldreligionistshavesurvivedtothisdayby raisingtheir childrenpubliclyasCatholics,whileprivatelyanddeliberatelyteachingthemtheold beliefsand practices.OneofthemoredramaticstoriesinthisregardcomesfromLoriBruno.
60

Significantly, BrunocountsamongherancestorsGiordanoBruno,theItalianheretic.Giordanohimself consideredDianaanimportantdeity,heldthatwitcheswerethemidwivesofsocial reform,and maintainedthattheEgyptianreligionastransmittedintheHermeticliteraturewas superiorto Christianity.

61

Asaresultofhisradicalideas,hewasburnedatthestakeinItalyin1400.Lori BrunoalsoclaimsdescendancyfromGawhartheSicilian,whoshesayswasamilitary leader sentbythecaliphofBaghdadtoconquerEgyptin969A.D.Oneofherdistantgreat grandmothers,shenotes,alsolivedinSicilyinthe14thcenturyandbroughtthewrathof the Churchdownuponherselfforusingthepracticalandmagicalhealingknowledgeshehad learned fromSicilysArabcolonizerstotreatsufferersofthebubonicplague.Theyhungher upside downinthemarketplace,saysBruno,becausetheysaidshewasviolatingGodswill. Thus, alongwithstregoneria,thefearofauthoritieswashandedallthewaydowntoBrunos own generation.Inourstudies,wedontwriteanythingdown,shesays.Iwastaughtthat you dontleavepaperlyingaroundortheInquisitionwillgetyou. Bruno,whogrewupinBrooklyn,saysthatherfamilyspracticesinvolvedregularly calling ontheoldgods,includingDiana,Apollo,Hecate,Demeter,Persephone,andtheancient Siculian

goddess,onoccasionssuchasthefullmoonandotherholidays.Oneoftheritualsthey conductedwasapubertyriteinwhichagirlorboyof12yearsoldwaspassedthrougha sapling thathadbeensplitintwo.Someofthechildshair,alongwithanimageofagodor goddess,was insertedintothesplitandthenthetreewastiedbacktogethertogrowaroundandenclose the objects.IlaterfoundaphotographinLifemagazineofpeopledoingthatveryritualin Sicily,

59

Ibid.,p.101.
60

InterviewwithBruno.

Page 19 MargueriteRigoglioso,Stregoneria, 18 shesays.(Infact,IhavethatissueofLifeinmyfiles.)Otherritesincludedburyingred eggsin theeastatsunriseonEastermorning,andburyingsilvercoinswithhoneyintheground, shesays, tohonortheEarthMother.Meanwhile,Brunosayswithachuckle,Wewereallgood Catholics.Weplayedtheirgamerightinfrontofthem. ForBruno,thepracticeofstregoneriais,atcore,oneofservicetohumanity.The ultimate purposeofourcraftistomaketheworldabetterplacetolivein,tohelppeoplethrive andnot destroy,shesays.Forexample,sherecallsherstregherelativesengaginginmagical

interventions toattempttoinfluencetheoutcomeofWorldWarII.Irememberverydistinctlythat something secretwasdoneinSicilywithoneofourrelativestopreventHitlerfromcomingand hurtingour people.IalsoremembermymotherrecitingspecialprayerssothatHitlerwouldbe stoppedbefore gettingintoEngland.Sicilianstreghe,shesays,joinedtheResistance,aswell, participatingin activitiessuchasforgingbaptismalrecordstohelpJews.Today,Brunoherselfoffersher services asapsychictoherlocalpoliceforceinMassachusettstoassisttheminfinding perpetratorsand victimsofcrime.Sinceturning51(theageatwhichshesaysaSicilianstregamaybegin toteach), Bruno,now60,hasalsoheadedacovencalledtheLordandLadyoftheTrinacrian Rose (TrinacriabeingtheancientGreekwordforSicily).Bystartinganonfamilycoven,she has becomeoneofthefewSicilianstregheintheUnitedStatestogopublic.Throughit, sheis passingherteachingsdowntoSicilianandnonSiciliandescendedpeoplealikewho wishto committothestregapath.Inthefinalanalysis,shesays,stregoneriaisallaboutlove. Youcan learnallthetechniquesyouwant,butwithoutheart,themagicisntgoingtoflow. ForMinnesotaresidentBellezzaSquillace,55,comingtoconsciounessaboutthefactthat herfamilypracticedtheOldReligionhasbeenalong,ongoingprocess.
62

AsIstarted learningaboutpaganismyearsago,shesaid,Irealized:ThisiswhatIvebeenlivingall my life!Herfamilysownpractices,shenoticed,hadadecidedlyoldworld,Italianflavor andhad alwaysbeencarriedoutasamatterofcourse,withoutfanfare.Oftentheteachingswere enfoldedin

61

LorettaOrion,NeverAgaintheBurningTimes:PaganismRevisited(ProspectHeights,IL: WavelandPress, Inc.,1995),p.89.

62

InterviewwithSquillace.

Page 20 MargueriteRigoglioso,Stregoneria, 19 womensactivitiessuchascookingorsewing.Rollingaballofyarnforknitting,for example,was akintoenteringandexitingthemythologicallabyrinthormazeanactivitythat allowedoneto problemsolveonarightbrained,intuitivelevel.Onepersonhadtheskeinofyarnon eitherhand, theotherpersonwasmakingtheball,sheexplains.Arhythmwascreated,likethe swayingof theocean,asthearmswentupanddownandthehandsspiraled.Thiswastheentering ofthe maze,atimeinwhichthetwoofyouwouldtalkabouttheissuesathand.Bythetime

you finished,youhadnewinsightsintoyourlife.
63

SquillacerecallshowherrelativesalsotoldherstoriesaboutfiguressuchasMedeusa,the Sirens, Hecate,Demeter,andPersephone,aswellastheItalianwitchBefanaandSaintLucia. Thesestories servedasanothermethodofinstructioninproblemresolution,shenotes.Iwastaught thatthe Fatas,thefairies,wereshapeshifters.Theycouldtaketheformofabeautifulwomanor anold bumonthestreet.Thatmeantyoualwayshadtotreateveryoneyouencounteredwith respect, becauseyouneverknewwhomightbeaFata.Youcertainlydidntwanttooffendone. SquillacewasalsotaughtthatthefiercefemaleentitiesknownastheFuriescouldbe called uponforassistance,apracticesheherselfhasusedinextremesituations.Theyarecalled into rightaninjusticeperpetratedbysomeoneinapositionofauthorityortoavengethe matriarchy, sheexplains.Iveinvokedthemintwodifferentrituals.OnceIdidittohelpcatchaman who wasrapingandkillingwomen,andburningtheirbodiesinapark.Thenextdaytheman was arrested. Squillacerecallsotheroldfamilypractices,suchasusingfishfordivination.Youwatch afishin apondoratankandsay,Ifitswimsthisway,theanswertomyquestionisyes;ifit swimsthat

way,theanswerisno,sheexplains,addingthatsheisnowpassingsuchpracticesonto her younggranddaughters.Mirrors,shewasalsotaught,mustalwaysbeconsecratedbybeing buried beforetheyreused.Furthermore,theymustbeturnedorcoveredforaperiodoftime aftera persondies.IdidntputalotofstockinthisuntilaftermyfatherdiedandIkeptseeing his

63

Thisstoryisparticularlyintriguingbecauseitpointstothematriarchalunderpinningsof theGreekmythof Theseus,whoisaidedinhisjourneyintothelabyrinthbyAriadnesballofyarn.

Page 21 MargueriteRigoglioso,Stregoneria, 20 reflectioninthemirror.Idturnaroundandhewouldntbethere.NowIdontlookintoa mirror unlessitsbeenconsecrated,shesays. WhileSquillacesfamilyconsideredtheseactivitiesasnaturalasbreathing,theydidteach theiryoungchargethattheirmembersweredifferent,somehowsetapartfromthe mainstream, andthattheirdifferencesshouldnotbeadvertisedtoanyone.Theytoldme,Webelieve differently,butyoustillgotochurch.Yougoalong,sherecalls. Fabrisia,44,whogrewupinalargeItalianAmericancommunityinMassachusetts,also remembersthingsbeingdifferentforherfamily,aswell.
64

Weallwenttochurch,buttheold ItalianladiessaidAveDianainsteadofAveMaria,shesays.Fabrisiaalsorecallsher grandmotherturningthestatueofMaryawayfromwhatshewasdoingwhenshewasout inher herbgardenharvestingplantsforremediesandspells.Herpaternalgrandmother,great grandmother,andaunt,allofwhomwereborninnorthernItaly,identifiedthemselvesas streghe andtoldFabrisiatheywerepracticingtheirownreligion.Theybeganteachingherfrom a youngagethefamilytraditions,particularlytheknowledgeaboutherbs.Notsurprisingly, oneof theirfavoriteplantswasrue. Fabrisiaremembersthatitwastypicalforherfemalerelativestohangwindchimesall over theyard.Myauntbelievedthatwhenthechimesrangtheyannouncedthepresenceofa fairy, Fabrisiarecalls.Shealsoremembershereldersregularlyleavingfoodoutinthegardenas an offeringtothedeities.Oneritualtheytaughther,whichFabrisiausesregularly,invokes protection fromabadstorm.Yougotoeachdoorofthehouse,laypennyroyaldownasanoffering, and recite:WindsoftheEast,windsoftheWest,Ibegyougiveusrest.WindsoftheNorth, winds oftheSouth,Iaskyoupleaseblowaroundme,shesays.Ididthatritualonedaywhen a tornadosweptthroughourtowninMassachusetts.Isawmygasgrillgoupanddown without tippingover,andwecouldfeelthewindgoingaroundourhousewhileonthehouse

acrossthe streettheshuttersandshinglescamerippingoff.Wehardlyhadanydamageatall.Now anytime theresastormmykidssay,Ma,quick!Getthepennyroyal!

64

InterviewwithFabrisia.

Page 22 MargueriteRigoglioso,Stregoneria, 21 Itisinterestingtonotethatallofmyinformantsreferredtoacontroversycurrentlyraging in streghecirclesovertheuseofnakednessinrituals.Asmentionedearlier,theGospelof the witchespublishedbyLelandenjoinsparticipantstomeet,greet,eatandsubsequently makelove inskycladfashion.SeveralofthestreghetoldmethatRavenGrimassiscovenenactsthe Great Riteduringcertaincelebrations.Thatis,thehighpriestorhighpriestesshasritual sexual intercoursewithanothercovenmemberinfrontoftheentirecoven.WhileGrimassi apparently claimsthatthisritualisapartoftheoriginalstregoneriatradition,myinformantsalltell methey werenottaughtthatthiswasapartoftheVecchiaReligione. Severalofthemalsomentionaprophesy(whichGrimassialsotalksaboutinWaysofthe Strega)thathasbeenhandeddownbystreghe,statingthathumanitywouldpassthrough fourages:

theageofthemother,theageofthefather,theageoftheson,andtheageofthedaughter. SquillaceandFabrisiabelievethatwehavenoworwillverysoonbeenteringtheageof the daughter,atimeinwhichwomenandtheGoddesswillbehonoredagain. TheRoleofNegativeMagic BeforeIconcludethispaper,IshouldmentionthatduringtheItalianRenaissance, magicand witchcraftweretwostrandsofmagicalpracticethatsometimesranindependentlyof oneanother andsometimeswovetogether.PeterBurke,inhischapterWitchcraftandMagicin Renaissance Italy,pointsoutthatmagicwasanimportantpartoftheworldviewsofmajor Renaissance figuressuchastheaforementionedGiordanoBruno,MarsilioFicino,GiovanniPico,and others duringthe15thand16thcenturies.Theseintellectualsrevivedthemagicthatwaspraised bythe ancientwriterstheysorespected.
65

TheItalianmagicianwasgenerallyconsideredtobe someonewhousedritualsandspellsforgoodorevil,whereasthewitchreferredto people mainlywomenwhodidharmbysupernaturalmeanswithoutritualsandspells,and sometimes withoutmeaningtodoso.Whilesomewouldholdthatmagicbelongedtotheeducated and witchcraftbelongedtothecommonpeople,Burkearguesthatthisdistinctionwas,in fact,

Page 23 MargueriteRigoglioso,Stregoneria, 22 blurred.Moreover,thedistinctionbetweenmagicandwitchcraftwasalsofrequently blurred; thatis,magicianswereoftenthoughttobewicked,andwitchestousespellsand rituals,he notes.

66

WhatcontributedtothisblendingwastheworkofHughofSt.Victor,whointhe12th centuryhaddividedmagicintofiveparts.Oneofthemwasmaleficium,whichhe definedasevil deedsdonebythehelpofdemons.Burkenotesthatinthewitchtrialsofthe15thand 16th centuriesinnorthernItaly,maleficiumwasoneofthemostcommonaccusations. Interestingly,therevivalofmagicalpracticesamongthemaleeliteinItalyalso corresponds withthepeakofthewitchhuntthere.

67

Whilemenwerenotexemptfromthispurge(witness GiordanoBruno),itwasthewomenpractitionerswhoweremainlytargeted.Many feministauthors inrecentyearshaverightlypointedtothefactthatthiswasanattemptbythemalepower structure tofurtherdiminishwomenspowerandroleinthepsychicarts,healing,andmidwifery. Whatislittlediscussed,however,iswhetherwomenwitchesactuallyengagedinnegative magic

designedtoharmothers,and,ifso,whatthismeansforwomentodayasweattemptto reclaimour power. Anyscholarofwitchcraftwillsoondiscoverthattheuseofmagictobringharmupon anotherhasindeedhistoricallybeenwidelypracticedbystreghealloverItalyandSicily. Whileitis difficulttodeterminewhichadmissionsofevildoinginwitchtrialrecordsreferto authentic practicesandwhicharetheresultofintimidationortortureonthepartoftheauthorities, wedohave aplethoraofethnographicalevidencepointingtotheuseofmalevolentspellsonthepart ofstreghe. CharlesLelanddevotesawholechapterofEtruscanRomanRemainstoevil incantationsthathe stateswerecommonlyusedamongtheRomagnolopeopleeveninthelate1800s.Among themare spellstostopamanfromlovinganotherwoman,tocausemaritalstrifebetweenacouple, tobring misfortuneuponahousehold,andeventokillaperson.WhileIamstillgathering evidenceasto theefficacyofsuchspells,Ihavethusfarfoundatleastonefairlycontemporarystory thattellsofa witchinSanPancrazio(ofthelegendaryRomagnaregion)attheturnofthe19thcentury whois
65

PeterBurke,WitchcraftandMagicinRenaissanceItaly:GianfrancescoPicoandhis Strix,inSidneyAnglo, ed.,TheDamnedArt:EssaysintheLiteratureofWitchcraft(London:Routledge&Kegan Paul,1977),p.33.

66

Ibid.,p.34.

Page 24 MargueriteRigoglioso,Stregoneria, 23 believedtohavesucceededatkillingapriestbyuseofaspell.

68

Morerecently,ethnographerLuisa DelGiudice,inherpaperCursedFlesh:FaithHealers,BlackMagicand(Re Membering)Death inaCentralItalianTown,discusseshowanumberofpeopleinherancestraltownof Terracina maintainedthattheuseofblackmagicwasresponsibleforthedeathofher37yearold brother inlawin1988.

69

IfweturnnowtoSicily,wenotethatGustavHenningsenhasobservedthatnoonethere waskilled bytheInquisitionforbeingawitch,contrarytowhathappenedintherestofEuropefrom the14th through17thcenturies.Thereason,hesays,isthattheInquisitionandtheChurchwere forthe mostpartunsuccessfulatpersuadingthelocalpeopletocharacterizethedonnedifuori as demonicinnature.

70

Atthesametime,negativemagicwasregularlyusedbywitches

71

and remainswidespreadontheislandeventoday.ElsaGugginosbooksonSicilianmagic,in fact,are pepperedwithstoriesofwitcheswhoevencalluponthedevil,himselfintheirwork. Theyviewhim asmerelyoneofmanyentitiestheycaninvoketobothhealandharm. Onceweopenthedoortotheunderstandingthatstreghehaveregularlyusednegative spirits (includingthedevil)andharmfulspellsintheirwork,webegintopeekintoavery spookyroom, indeed.Itisaroom,infact,thatcanstartlookingremarkablysimilartotheonepainted bythe Catholicchurchduringthewitchtrials.Forwemustinevitablyask:Ifnegativemagicis andhas beenused,wheredoessuchapracticebeginandend?Canweentirelydismisssomeof themore sensationalisticaccusationsderivedfromthewitchtrials,suchasthatwitchesritually sacrificed children? Lookingatthisissueofchildsacrifice,historyalonestronglysuggests(andsomescholars wouldsayclearlydemonstrates)thathumanandchildsacrificemaywellhavebeen practicedin manydifferentculturesfromveryancienttimesonward.Spiritualfeministsbalkatthis, particularly
67

Ibid.,p.33.
68

SeeTeresaPicarrazzi,ed.,Lus.TheLight.ErmannaMontanariPerformsNevioSpadoni (WestLafayette,IN: BordigheraPress,1999).

69

LuisaDelGiudice,CursedFlesh:FaithHealers,BlackMagicand(ReMembering) DeathinaCentralItalian town,inQuadernidiStoria:AntropologiaeScienzedelLinguaggio(forthcoming).

70

Henningsen,p.205.
71

Ibid.,p.195.

Page 25 MargueriteRigoglioso,Stregoneria, 24 whensuchaccusationsaremadeagainstsocietiesthatweregoddessorientedandperhaps women centered.Wewouldratherthinkthatsuchactivitiesaretheproductofthemale imaginationthan ourownactions.However,apowerfulclairvoyantIspokewith,whowishestoremain anonymous, makesthefollowingremarkablestatement:

72

Asaclairvoyant,peoplecometomeformanydifferentreasons.Somepeoplecometome fromtheirChristianperspective;otherpeoplecometomethroughtheirblackmagic perspective.Throughtranceandpsychicmeans,IhaveaccesstothoselifetimesinwhichI learnedhowtousebothsidesdarkerforces,lighterforces,whateveryouwanttocallit.

I haveveryclearandvividmemoriesofeatingchildrenandbeingincirclesofpeople,men andwomen,witches,warlocks,whathaveyou.Theywerecalledbyanumberofdifferent names.Ihaveveryvividexperiencesofsnatchingchildren.AndIhaveveryvivid memories ofuskillingoneanotheriftherewasanybreachoftrust. Thepurposeofeatingthebabieswastoempowerourselveswithlife,tonourish ourselves. Justasmanyancientandcontemporarycultureshaveusedtheplacentaasfood,Ithink thesepeoplecametotheawareness,maybeascannibalsdo,thateatingthebodyand blood ofnewbabiesprovidesonewithlifegivingforce.ItissimilartothepracticesofNative Americansandothersinwhichtheyrituallydrinkthebloodoreatthefleshofcertain animalstoincorporatethequalitiesofthoseanimalsintotheirownbeing.Eventoday, many peoplestillparticipateinabsorbingthelifeforceofsmallchildreneitherbyfeedingoff their energy,engagingwiththemsexually,orjustbybeingaroundthem.Theysimplywanta partofthatnewlifeforce.Earlierinourhistory,therewerepeopleinwhatwere becoming civilizedcommunitieswhowerestillpracticingthosespiritualbeliefsinaveryembodied way.Andtheywerenotintouchwiththeheartchakrasuchthattheycouldexperiencethe paintheywereinflictingonothers.Theywerejustoutthereinthatexperienceofpower, or force,orbloodlust.... WhenIgointotrance,Igetvividimagesofpracticesthatwereverydarkbeing conducted

bywomeninwitchcraftcircles.Eventothisday,Ihavealotofclientsforwhomtheir work isbasedentirelyonShecursedme,Icurseher.Andtheybecomeentirelyengagedinthe exchangeofpunishmentofoneanother....Awomancametomeandaskedmetocurse the boyfriendofherdaughter,whogotthegirlpregnantat17.Iwouldntgetinvolved.My practiceistogetoutofthesegames.Butshewasnthappywiththatandwenttosomeone elsetotaketheboyout.And,loandbehold,thatboywaskilledinacaraccidentonthe springequinoxofthesameyearhissonwasborn.Shecalledupandsaid,Ivedone somethinghorrible.Butbehindherremorsewasalevelofsatisfactionthatshedgotten whatshewanted. Iincludethewordsofmyclairvoyantinformantherenottoofferconclusiveproofthat Italianstreghehaveengagedinchildsacrifice.Idosomerelytohelpusopenourthinking andnot closeoffpossibilitiesabouthowwomenandmenmayhaveusedandmisusedtheir spiritualpowers inthepastandmaybecontinuingtodosotoday.Ihavebroughtupthediscussionof stregoneriasnegativesideasaconclusiontothispaperbecauseasascholarwhohopesto contributetotheevolutionofhumanityandasafeministengagedinhelpingwomen cometotrue
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empowermentIbelieveitwouldbeirresponsibleofmetodootherwise.Whileitis importantto perpetuate,reclaim,andrestorethestregatradition,asmanyofusarenowdoing,itis alsoimportant thatwedosowithoutnaivete.IntheworldviewthatIandmanyothershold,magical practicescan influencethephenomenalworld.Thestrega,likeanyshamanicpractitioner,encountersa whole rangeofpowerfulenergiesandentitiesandmustnavigateamongthemwithwisdomand maturity. S/hemustalsomakedecisionsregardingwhats/heencountersdecisionsthatcanhavea significantimpactonthelivesofothers.Thosewhowouldengagewithstregoneria, eitherasclients orpractitioners,needtobeawareofthefactthatthetraditionisamultifactedonethat dealsinboth thelightandthedarkness. Moreover,aswomencometogreaterempowermentbyadoptingrolesasstregheor priestesses,itisimportantthatwedonotglossoverthedamage,harm,andsufferingthat maywell havebeenperpetratedbythosewhohavegonebeforeusorthatweourselvesmayhave engagedin duringpreviousincarnations.Iamnotsuggestingthatwereverttoablamingthe victim mentalitytowardwomen,whichwouldfurtheroppressus.NoramIsuggestingthat women becomesicklysweetGlendaGoodwitchesincompensationforrealorimaginedpast misconduct. Rather,IamsuggestingthatweacknowledgeourownShadowonboththeindividual and

collectivelevelandthatwetakecaretomanageitappropriately,asCarlJungwould haveusdo. ForIbelievethatcomingtotruepoweraswomenmeanstakingresponsibility,without excuses,for boththegoodandthebadthatwearecapableofandthatwehaveengagedinthroughout theages. Byholdingtotheviewthatstregheofthepast,howeveroppressed,hadchoicesand shouldbeheld fullyaccountableiftheyusedtheirpowersfornegativeends,weremindourselvesthat we,too, howeveroppressed,havechoices.Indoingso,wechallengeourselvestoreachamore evolvedlevel ofconsciousness.Fromthere,theroadtotrueliberationopensupbeforeus.