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AC circuits contain a continuously varying current and voltage that oscillates sinusoidially with time. LC circuits produce an oscillating EMF/current. Rotation loops produce alternating EMFs/currents.
v = V cos t = V cos
v = instantaneous voltage V = maximum voltage
= angular frequency
v ab = v R = V cos t
i=
v V = cos t R R
So the current and voltage are both proportional to cost , i.e., they are in phase.
Phasors are vectors that rotate around the origin of the coordinate system. The projections of the phasors of V and I onto the t axis are the instantaneous values of V (v) and I (i) with respect to t. Since V and I are in phase their phasors rotate together. Notice in the diagrams above that while the values for voltage and current rise and fall together they have different values when plotted on the same set of axes. Why?
q = Cv = CV cos t
i= dq = CV sin t dt
cycle or 90 phase difference
Compare:
vc = V cos t ic = CV sin t
ic = CV cos t + 90 0
Note:
I max = CV (1) = CV I= V R
V 1 R I = 1 C C V I= Xc
The units of Xc are ohms.
Xc capacitive reactance
Capacitive reactance acts like resistance in this circuit. Consider what is happening in a capacitive circuit as the voltage applied to the capacitor increases from zero to some maximum value.
When there is only a small amount of charge on the capacitor it readily accepts more charge and lots of current flows. As the capacitor soaks up charge, the E field between its plates increases The potential between the plates increases The current decreases. When Vc reaches its maximum value, the current is zero.
vL = L di =
di = V cos t dt
V cos t dt L V
di = L cos t dt
i= V 1 sin t + C L V sin t + C L
i=
i=
Compare:
V sin t L
v L = V cos t
cycle or 90 phase difference
iL = iL =
I max =
V L
inductive reactance (ohms)
Define X L = L
I max =
V XL
As potential applied to the inductor rises the magnetic flux produces a current that opposes the original current. The voltage across the inductor peaks when the current is just beginning to rise, due to this tug of war.
In analyzing the RLC circuit well use phasor diagrams that include phasors for each individual element.
i = I cos(t ) Vtot is the voltage across all three components and is equal to the source voltage at that instant ( v = V cos t ) The phasor for Vtot is the vector sum of the three individual phasors for the
individual voltages.
maximum values
instantaneous values
For the resistor V = IR and current is always in phase with voltage For the inductor VL = IXL and voltage leads the current by 90 For the capacitor VC = IXC and voltage lags the current by 90 vab at any instant is equal to v R + v L + vC (voltage across all three = V
source)
Note:
(IR )2 + (IX L IX C )2
2
= I R 2 + (X L X C )
Define: X L X C reactance of a circuit
Z = R 2 + (X L X C ) = R2 + X 2
So:
Vtot = IZ
Note: same form as DC circuits
I=
V Z
The equations relating voltage and current amplitudes have the same form in AC and DC circuits. Z plays the role of R in AC circuits Z is a function of R, L, C and.
Z = R2 + X 2 Z = R 2 + (X L X C )
2
1 Z = R 2 + L C
The phase angle between the total voltage, V and the current I, , is defined (recalling that X = ( X L X C ) ):
tan =
y VL VC IX X = = = x VR IR R
The phase angle, , may be positive or negative depending on whether the overall voltage (the sum of the voltage phasors) leads or lags the current in the circuit (which is the same everywhere). Instantaneous voltages add algebraically while total voltage amplitudes add vectorially.
Example
Find a) impedance, b) maximum current, c) phase relationship between the current and voltage (construct a phasor diagram, assume that VR is in the first quadrant), d) peak voltage across each element, e) instantaneous voltage across each element.
a)
X L = L = 226 XC =
Z = R 2 + ( X L X C ) = 588
2
1 = 758 C
b)
Im =
c)
= tan 1
d)
Notice that the sum of these (314V) is greater than Vm (150 V). Peak voltages occur at different times for each element and must be added in a way that takes into account their phase difference.
e)
v R = V R sin t = 63.8v sin 377t v L = V L cos t = 57.6v cos 377t vC = VC cos t = 193v cos 377t
The average value of any quantity (fav) that varies with time f(t) over an interval from t1 t2 is:
f av =
1 t 2 t1
t2
f (t )dt
t1
Consider the time varying AC current given by i = I sin t . The period of this current is:
1 2 = f
Due to the symmetry of the sine function we may consider just a half cycle (the full cycle will give us zero. Why?) For a half cycle:
I ave =
t=
t =0
I sin tdt
I ave = I ave =
This is about
1 I (cos cos 0)
2I
Notice that for a complete cycle I ave = 0 . This is true but not very useful.
Here I av =
We can set up our meter to give full-scale deflection with a steady current I0, or when the average value,
2I
= I o , or I = I 0
RMS root mean square Because the square of any quantity is intrinsically positive we avoid the problem of average values of sinusoidal quantities becoming zero over a complete cycle.
I rms = Vrms =
I 2 V 2
V RMS =
V 2
Power in AC circuits
In general power is related to voltage and current as:
P = Vi
In a resistive circuit:
Pave = I 2 rms R
Notice that this is the same as for a DC circuit. In a capacitive circuit:
Pave = 0
In an inductive circuit:
Pave = 0
Power in LRC combination circuits Recall that the current and voltage differ by a phase angle .
=0
= +90
one finds that the current varies with frequency as shown below.
I max = Z min
This peaking of current at a specific frequency is known as resonance. Electrical resonance is analogous to resonance in mechanical systems. As in mechanical systems there is a resonant frequency for any circuit: o - resonant frequency
At resonance:
XC = XL Z=R
o L =
1 o = oC 1
LC
f =
2 LC
Pave = I
2 rms
2 Vrms R= 2 R Z
Pave =
R 2 + (X L X C )
2 Vrms R 2
2 Vrms R
Pav =
R 2 2 + L2 2 o
2 2
At resonance 0 = , Pave is max and equal to Define the quality of the circuit:
2 Vrms R
Q0 =
0 L
R
Quality is important in tuning circuits. In practice one can use a capacitor to change frequency and adjust L and/or R to change sharpness.
Transformers
Advantages of AC over DC easier to step up and down easier to transmit can use high voltage and low current to reduce I2R losses in transmission lines.
Most transmission lines contain about 500kV that must be stepped down (converted to) lower voltages for household or office operation.
Iron core transformer Power out always less than power in due to:
Usually still better than 90% We consider only idealized transformers with no losses. Transformers work by having a different number of turns in the primary and secondary. In a transformer:
2 N2 V N and 2 = 2 = 1 N 1 V1 N 1
If V2 > V1 the transformer is a step up transformer and if V2 < V1 the transformer is a step down transformer.
It is apparent that:
V1 I 1 = V2 I 2
and:
I1 =
V1 N1 N 2 R
2
A transformer transforms current, voltage and resistance (impedance). An additional important function of transformers is impedance matching.
Example 1 Design an oscillator circuit with a steady period of about 1 x 10-6 seconds. The following parts (not all of which need be used) are available:
very low resistance wires two switches a 12 volt battery 9 pF, 1.2 F capacitors 2.620 H, 2.814mH inductors 100 , 4440 , 50 k resistors
Notice that resistors are not needed since we want an undamped (steady oscillations) circuit. With = 10 6 s , f = requirements.
1 2 LC
What are the maximum values of charge and current in the circuit?
Qm = CV
Qm = (9 pF )(12V )
10
I m = (2 ) 10 6 Hz 1.08 10 10 C
I m = 2fQm
)(
Qm = 1.08 10
I m = 6.79 10 A
Q = Qm cos wt
Q = 1.08 10 10 cos t
Example 2
R = 40
L = 185mH
C = 65 F
Vm = 150v
XC =
f = 50 Hz
1 C
= 2 50 Hz = 100Hz
XC =
1 65 10 6 F = 49 (100 )
Z = R 2 + (X L X C )
Z = 40 2 + (58.1 49 ) = 41
2
Im =
a)
Vm 150V = = 3.66 A Z 41
VR = I m R
V R = (3.66 A)(40 ) = 146V
b) Across the inductor:
VL = I m X L
V L = (3.66 )(58.1 ) = 213V
(Note: exceeds Vm = 150V)
c)
VC = I m X C
VC = (3.66 )(49 ) = 179V
d) (exceeds Vm)