Finalul

Transylvania University of Brasov Degree Project
Faculty of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science 2011

Study Program: Electrical Engineering and Computers

3

C O N T E N T S

Abstract (RO) 1
Abstract (EN) 2
Objectives 3
Disposition 4
CHAPTER 1 Theoretical Analysis of the EMI, PWM and Shielding
1.1 Introduction to EMI 5
1.2 Introduction to PWM 8
1.3 Shielding Effectiveness 11
CHAPTER 2 Platform Design
2.1 Block Diagram 12
2.2 Circuit Schematic 13
2.3 General Design 14
2.4 The IC 16
2.5 GDT 18
2.6 GDT Waveform Correction Table 19
2.7 GDT Calculus 24
2.8 Short Guide for Designing a GDT 25
2.9 Flyback Transformer 26
2.10 Unprotected Circuit Waveforms 27
2.11 Circuit Parts 37

4

2.12 PCB Construction 38
2.13 Faradays Cage 38
2.14 MOSFETs 39
2.15 Physical Construction 41

CHAPTER 3 Optimization of the Circuit by Different Means of Protection
3.1 Cable Shielding 45
3.2 Transformer Shielding 45
3.3 Shorten Paths 45
3.4 Hazards 46
CHAPTER 4 Laboratory Project
4.1 Laboratory Project Proposal 48
Conclusion 49
Bibliography 50
Appendix
1. List of Used Abbreviations
2. SG3525 datasheet
3. IRFP250 datasheet

5

Abstract
Scopul acestei lucrri este de a arta c prin aplicarea legilor de baz ale fizicii, arcul
electric considerat ca o ntrerupere n circuit ce i creaz propriul spaiu conductor dup
amorsarea sa, acioneaz ca o surs de perturbaie preponderant radiant. Ca urmare a fost
proiectat i realizat un sistem funcional, stabil i repetabil ce poate fi utilizat la studiul
interferenelor electromagnetice dintre acesta i o gam larg de circuite protejate sau
neprotejate.
Lucrrea de diplom este de o importan major datorit informaiilor teoretice
sintetizate i prezentate, care ajut un inginer n devenire s neleag riscurile ntmpinate la
construcia unui astfel de circuit, principiile de funcionare ale arcurilor electrice,
tranzistorilor cu efect de cmp de putere i a transformatoarelor de izolare galvanic i
comand a tranzistorilor, precum i cuplajele parasite ce pot influena funcionarea circuitelor
proiectate de acesta.
Explicnd i folosind procesele fizice - ionizarea i nclzirea termic n combinaie
cu modularea n lime a pulsurilor PWM, modificnd comanda tranzistorilor putem obine
prin intermediul sursei de perturbaie studiat (arcul electric n cazul acesta) un sunet
omnidirectional foarte clar reprodus, introdus de orice surs de semnal audio.
Sistemul proiectat este funcional i reprezint rezultatul unei munci depuse avnd
fonduri reduse i pe o perioad limitat de timp. Procesul de corecie, design i realizare a
circuitului nu a decurs ntotdeauna fr piedici. O sum de probleme au fost descoperite n
partea de verificare a sistemului i cele mai importante sunt prezentate n aceast lucrare.
Circuitul studiat este conceput ca o platform de laborator ce va folosi viitorilor
studeni n analizele de cuplaje parazite introduse de prezena arcului electric asupra
circuitelor digitale.


6

Abstract

The result of this work is a functional and stable repeatable system. The system can be
used for studying the EMI on a wide range of shielded or unshielded circuits.
The importance of the project is highly ranked due to the theoretical information
presented in here that allows a prospective engineer to understand the hazards encountered
when building a circuit of this type and also the principles of operation of the HV arcs, power
FET transistors and GDTs.
The object of this paper is to show that by applying the ordinary laws physics to the
arc considered as a gap in a circuit providing its own conductor by the volatilization of its
own material, all its principal phenomena can be accounted for, without the aid of a large
back EMF or of a negative resistance or of any other unusual attribute.
Also by combining physical processes like ionization and thermal heating in mixing
with a PWM circuit, modifying MOSFETs command we can obtain a very clear reproduced
sound coming from a wide range of audio players.
The functional system is the result of hard work. The progress of the design work for
the creation of the arc did not always go smooth. A lot of problems were discovered in the
system verification process, and the most important are reported in this paper.
However, in the end, a functional system appeared.


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Objectives:

- Obtaining a variable frequency electric arc of ~3 cm in length (2.8 cm) acting as a
perturbation source on its own circuit

- Modify the arc frequency of operation and study the waveforms of the key signals
driving the circuit

- Gate Drive Transformer correction

- Cancelling the perturbations by using different methods and electronic devices

- The physical construction of the PWM circuit

- Obtaining modulated audio into the perturbation device (electric low frequency arc
~37.5 kHz)

- Constructing and stabilizing a laboratory platform with the in-here circuit

- What GDT is and why is necessary

- How sensible are changes in its performances at high frequencies related to its design

- Synthesize the information in order to be useful for a prospective engineer, providing
guidance in understanding the studied phenomena


8

Disposition

This paper consists of three parts: one theoretical part about EMI, PWM and shielding,
one part about design and verification of a test platform for effectively seeing the corrected
waves in the circuit and some optimization methods.
The theoretical part consists of an explanation of EMI, PWM and shielding. It also
contains some useful formulas for theoretical calculation of some components used in the
circuit. The theoretical part guides the practical section and also providing extra theoretical
explanations regarding the studied component or block.
The design and verification part constitute a discussion of the thoughts initiating the
design and the proceedings leading to the completed test platform. The test system is used for
effectively seeing the principal waves present in the circuit.


9

CHAPTER 1 Theoretical Analysis of the EMI, PWM and Shielding

1.1 Introduction to EMI
EMI (electromagnetic interference) is the disruption of operation of an electronic
device when it is in the vicinity of an electromagnetic field (EM field) in the radio frequency
(RF) spectrum that is caused by another electronic device.
The internal circuits of personal computers generate EM fields in the RF range. Also,
cathode ray tube (CRT) displays generate EM energy over a wide band of frequencies. These
emissions can interfere with the performance of sensitive wireless receivers nearby. Moderate
or high-powered wireless transmitters can produce EM fields strong enough to upset the
operation of electronic equipment nearby. If you live near a broadcast station or in the
downtown area of a large city, you have probably experienced EMI from radio or television
transmitters. Cordless telephones, home entertainment systems, computers, and certain
medical devices can fail to work properly in the presence of strong RF fields.
Problems with EMI can be minimized by ensuring that all electronic equipment is
operated with a good electrical ground system. In addition, cords and cables connecting the
peripherals in an electronic or computer system should, if possible, be shielded to keep
unwanted RF energy from entering or leaving. Specialized components such as line filters,
capacitors, and inductors can be installed in power cords and interconnecting cables to reduce
the EMI susceptibility of some systems. This is especially important if modifications might
void an existing warranty, and it is imperative with medical devices of any kind.
[1]

Radio frequency (RF) is a rate of oscillation in the range of about 3 kHz to 300 GHz.


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Types of Electromagnetic Interference (EMI)
Radiated Electromagnetic interference (EMI) or radio frequency interference (RFI) is
two types, Narrowband interference and Broadband interference. Narrowband EMI
interference usually arises from intentional transmissions such as radio and TV stations, pager
transmitters, cell phones, etc. Broadband EMI interference usually comes from incidental
radio frequency emitters. These include electric power transmission lines, electric motors,
thermostats, bug zappers, etc.
[2]

Broadband EMI noise is stronger at low frequencies and diminishing at higher
frequencies, though this noise is often modulated, or varied, by the creating device in some
way. Broadband EMI/RFI noise is very difficult to filter it effectively once it has entered the
receiver chain.
Conducted electromagnetic interference is caused by the physical contact of the
conductors as opposed to radiated EMI which is caused by induction (without physical
contact of the conductors).
Electromagnetic Compatibility (EMC)
If there is no effect of the transmitters on the receivers it is called electromagnetic
compatibility, in short EMC.
Electromagnetic Compatibility (EMC) is defined as the ability of an equipment or
system to function satisfactorily in its electromagnetic environment without introducing
intolerable electromagnetic disturbances to anything in that environment.
[3]
EMI can be intentionally used for radio jamming, as in some forms of electronic
warfare, or can occur unintentionally, as a result of spurious emissions for example through
intermodulation products, and the like. It frequently affects the reception of AM radio in
urban areas. It can also affect cell phone, FM radio and television reception, although to a
lesser extent.
[4]


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Low-Frequency EMF (electromagnetic field)
Common sources of low frequency EMF are the power supply of industry, households
and railways. Major sources of low-frequency EMF exposure include distribution and use of
electric power and transportation systems.
Receivers cannot only be radio receivers but every electronic device like computers,
measurement devices, control units, pacemakers etc.
High-Frequency EMF
The major sources for HF EMF are telecommunication facilities and associated
devices such as mobile telephones, medical, commercial and industrial equipment, radars, and
radio and television broadcast antennas.
Ionizing radiation
The range of the ionizing radiation starts at wavelength shorter than visible light,
meaning UV-light (380 nm) and includes X-ray, alpha and gamma radiation. Ionizing means
that the radiation has enough energy to free electrons from their atoms or molecules (UV
light) or even to change the structure of the atomic nucleus as technical used in nuclear power
stations.
[5]

Maximum acceptable levels of EMI from electronic devices are detailed i.e. by the
FCC = Federal Communications Commission


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1.2 Introduction to PWM
PWM or Pulse Width Modulation refers to the concept of rapidly pulsing the digital
signal of a wire to simulate a varying voltage on the wire. This method is commonly used for
driving motors, heaters, or lights in varying intensities or speeds.
A few terms are associated with PWM:
- Period - how long each complete pulse cycle takes
- Frequency - how often the pulses are generated. This value is typically specified in
Hz (cycles per second).
- Duty Cycle - refers to the amount of time in the period that the pulse is active or high.
Duty Cycle is typically specified as a percentage of the full period.
[6]

Figure (1.1)
[6]
Different duty cycles of PWM


13

Figure (1.2) shows how PWM works when an analog signal (like audio signal)
affects the PWM digital signal. In other words this allows at frequencies of sufficient
frequency to obtain a modulated digital signal of an analog one. Higher the sampling rate or
the frequency of the PWM higher the accuracy of the reproduced digital signal will be.
[6]

Figure (1.2)
[6]
Analog signal PWM modulated

Analog electronics
Analog circuitry can also be sensitive to noise. Because of its infinite resolution, any
perturbation or noise on an analog signal necessarily changes the current value.


14

Digital control
By controlling analog circuits digitally, system costs and power consumption can be
drastically reduced. What's more, many microcontrollers and DSPs already include on-chip
PWM controllers, making implementation easy.
In a nutshell, PWM is a way of digitally encoding analog signal levels. Through the
use of high-resolution counters, the duty cycle of a square wave is modulated to encode a
specific analog signal level. The PWM signal is still digital because, at any given instant of
time, the full DC supply is either fully on or fully off. The voltage or current source is
supplied to the analog load by means of a repeating series of on and off pulses. The on-time is
the time during which the DC supply is applied to the load, and the off-time is the period
during which the supply is switched off. Given a sufficient bandwidth, any analog value can
be encoded with PWM.
[7]

Common modulating frequencies range from 1 kHz to 200 kHz.


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1.3 Shielding Effectiveness
[8]

The need for shielding is because we do not want frequency sources to propagate their
radiation to unwanted places. To prevent occurrence from this, an enclosure must be put around the
radiating device. A schematic picture of this is presented in figure (1.3.1). It is very important to shield
all radiating sources because if not a very dirty environment of radio frequencies will occur.

Figure (1.3)
[15]

The shield makes an electromagnetic enclosure of the area of interest. Without the shield there
would exist a vector electric field strength E1 and a vector magnetic field strength B1 at point P. The
vector is fixed in its spatial orientation with its magnitude varying at the frequency f. With the shell at
place the electric field strength at point P will have the new value E2. The electric and magnetic field
at the point P are generally changed in direction and magnitude in the presence of the shell. An electric
shielding effectiveness, SE, and a magnetic shielding effectiveness, SM, are defined as:

S
L
= 2u log
10
E
1
E
2

S
M
= 2u log
10
E
1
E
2


16

CHAPTER 2 Platform Design
2.1 Block Diagram

Figure (2.1) The block schematic of the entire circuit

Voltage Stabilizer
12V
Supply Source
24V ac
~31.5V DC
PWM unit
GDT
Power Circuit
~27 kV
Audio Device Oscillator
Flip/Flop
Output A
Output B
Osc. Probe
Osc. Probe
Osc. Probe
Osc. Probe
Osc. Probe

17
2.2 Circuit Schematic

Figure (2.2) Entire circuit schematic

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2.3 General Design
The entire circuit design is based on the details provided in each component technical
data sheet. The main integrated circuit (IC) used because of the availability on the market and
also its low cost is a PWM circuit KA3525 the equivalent of the SG3525 also found in
Switched Mode Power Supplies.
This PWM IC has two outputs (pin 11 and pin 14) which can be connected to a GDT
as how figure (2.3.1) states it, to make a MOSFET driver that allows the usage of 2
MOSFETs in a half-bridge configuration in order to minimize the heat sink used. Output
signals are polarity reversed. The GDT is used in order to provide a galvanic insulation
because of the high voltage (HV) electric spikes, which may be reversed by wire in normal
conditions, into the IC.
A voltage limiter of 1A is used to protect the IC from voltage variations.
Capacitors are used in order to filter the DC signal at the input and output of LM also
when leaving unused pins of the IC in air.
The MOSFETs commutate DC in the primary coil of a flyback transformer, DC that
being switched charges 2 capacitors that help prevent the arc from extinguishing at lower
frequencies.
In this circuit between the outputs the GDT was connected and a 1 F capacitor for the
wave correction of the GDTs primary winding.
When the circuit is started a modified duty-cycle can be obtained by rotating the 10
k potentiometer. By using this input point of the IC, we can connect the analogous signal
that acts itself as a variable resistor due to the waves current characteristic to pass below zero
point, making the inputs impedance to rise and fall like the audio signal. This, applied to the
oscillator and PWM part of the circuit prolongs the duty cycle of the PWM, adding to the
already created command at a rate of 37.5 kHz (inaudible arc) the vibration of the audio
signal.


19

Figure (2.3) shows the connection of the IC outputs for driving 2 transistors in half
bridge configuration.

Figure (2.3)
[9]
Driving transistors into half bridge configuration

Total power consumption at 37.5 kHz:
o ~96 W (3A)

Total power consumption at 15 kHz:
o ~128 W (4A)


20

2.4 The IC
The circuit presented in its block diagram, figure (2.4) is a PWM circuit. The
principles of operation of the PWM circuits and its usages are described in the first part of this
paper.
By applying an oscillation variable in 15 kHz 37.5 kHz range, to the PWM section
and the Flip/Flop part of the circuit that alternately commands transistors we obtain an
modulation of controlled duty ratio at the two outputs that are phase-shifted.

Figure (2.4)
[9]
IC block diagram


21

Aside from chosen capacitors and other external elements in this circuit, the PWM
circuit has an internal oscillator that is calibrated using the formula:
f =
1
CT (u.7 RT + S RB)

Resulting operating frequency for this circuit is f = 37.5 kHz.

The approximate charging times and values for the driving components can be
obtained from figure (2.4)

Figure (2.4)
[9]
Calibration of oscillator frequency using R
T
and C
T


22

2.5 GDT
These devices provide electrical pulses for turning on and off semiconductors, such as
high-voltage power MOSFETS or IGBTs. They also are used for galvanic isolation. Gate-
drive transformers are essentially pulse transformers that are used to drive the gate of an
electronic switching device.
For the presented circuit a ring shaped ferrite core GDT 1:1:1 ratio was used due to
high frequencies used to obtain the arc.
The number of turns for the GDT was determined experimentally following a table
containing a typical set of incorrect waves that can be obtain when designing a GDT.
Usually when all details provided and detailed datasheets are available, a
mathematical calculus is more efficient when designing a GDT but when working with a
variable length electric arc, also generating a wide range of frequencies like in present case,
the most efficient and fastest way to determine the on-circuit parameters is to make use of the
workshop equipment and modify the GDT parameters considering the gathered information.


23

2.6 GDT Waveform Correction Table
[7]

The perfect waveform

- Flat tops and bottoms to the pulses
- Steep rising and falling edges
- Little overshoot at the switching
transitions
- No ringing after the transitions

Good gate drive waveform except for
overshoots

- Flat tops and bottoms to the pulses
- Steep rising and falling edges
- Considerable overshoot at the
transitions due to insufficient damping
resistance
- Some ringing after the transitions, but
not too bad.

Solution:

Increase series damping resistor slightly and
the overshoot should diminish.

24

Poor gate drive waveform with
excessive high-frequency ringing

- Large overshoot at the switching
transitions
- Prolonged high-frequency ringing due
to lack of any damping resistance
- Totally unusable because ringing takes
the MOSFET repeatedly into its linear
region

Solution:

Adding some damping resistance.
Reducing leakage inductance if possible.

Slightly over damped gate drive waveform

- Leading edges of pulses are curved due
to too much damping resistance
- Slow rise and falling edges mean
MOSFET spends longer than necessary
changing state
- This causes heating due to high
switching losses

Solution:

Decreasing the damping resistor, to make the
rising and falling edges faster

25

Massively over damped gate drive waveform

- Waveform looks like "shark's fins"
because of far to much damping
resistance
- Can also occur if the driver is totally
inadequate to drive high gate
capacitance
- Totally unusable because MOSFETs
would spend all their time in the linear
region
- This causes rapid overheating of the
MOSFETs

Solution:

Decreasing the damping resistor, or usage of a
more powerful gate drive IC.

Slightly sloping tops and bottoms to waveform

- The tops and bottoms of pulses droop
slightly towards zero
- Caused by low primary inductance.
Too few turns on the drive transformer
- This is not a problem as long as the
amount of droop is less than a couple
of volts
Solution:

Add a few more turns to the primary and
secondary windings to reduce the droop.

26

Excessively drooping tops and bottoms to
waveform

- The tops and bottoms of pulses slope
steeply down towards zero
- Far too low primary inductance. Either
too few turns or wrong core material
used
- Unusable because the MOSFETs
would start to turn off towards the end
of the pulses

Solution:

Use many more turns or choose a core type
with higher Specific Inductance.

Excessive low-frequency ringing

- Severe low frequency ringing due to
excessive leakage inductance in drive
transformer
- Totally unusable because ringing takes
the MOSFET back into its linear
region
Solution:

This cannot be corrected by increasing the
damping resistance. It would need too much
resistance, and the rising and falling edges
would be too slow. Must reduce the excessive
leakage inductance by redesigning the GDT.

27

Resonant gate drive, (Sinusoidal)

At very high switching frequencies it is
possible to make use of the resonance caused
by the leakage inductance and MOSFET gate
capacitance. This technique is used to good
effect in RF amplifiers that operate in the
switching mode up to tens of Megahertz. At
first a sinusoidal waveform may not seem
ideal for driving a MOSFET gate. However, it
does have moderately fast rising and falling
edges where the sine wave passes through
zero.
This technique is only mentioned here for
completeness. It is not commonly used below
a couple of Megahertz. Square wave drive
always yields lower switching losses when
possible.


28

2.7 GDT calculus
Q factor was not of importance herein therefore a common ferrite core of ~ 640
r
was
used.
Ferrite dimensions:
- outer diameter 25
- inner diameter 15
- length 12
A 0.25 mm copper wire radius was used.
Number of turns 25
Circular loop inductance formula:
L
ccIc
N
2
Rp
0
p
_ln_
8R
o
] 2_
Where:
- N number of turns
- R radius of circle [m]
- A wire radius [m]
- p
relative permeability of the medium

- L inductance [H]
For an inductor the formula for impedance calculus is:
Z = ] 2 n I
- j = the square root of -1, and accounts for the phase relationship between the
impressed voltage and resultant current.
- f = frequency of applied voltage [Hz]
- L = inductance in Henries

29

An inductor using a core to increase inductance will have losses such as hysteresis and
eddy current losses in the core. At high frequencies there are also additional losses in the
windings due to proximity and skin effect. These are in addition to wire resistance, and lead to
a higher equivalent series resistance.
By applying the 2 above listed formulas for an ideal case we obtain:
- L = 0.00002507 [H]
- Z at 37500 Hz is somewhere around 5.89

2.8 Short guide and references for designing a GDT
[8]

1 core material selection based on operating frequency that will determine the amount of
inductance that is needed on the primary of the gate driver transformer
2 minimizing parasitic influence by using one of the available formulas for estimating
leakage inductance in the magnetic design (avoid having half turn winding because this
leads to leakage inductance)
3 calculate the number of turns used
4 calculate the wire gauge


30

2.9 The Flyback Transformer

A flyback transformer is a DC-DC converter. It takes a small voltage at a small
number of windings on the primary coil and creates a large voltage on a large number of
windings on the secondary coil. This works because when the low voltage is applied at the
primary coil, it is at a fairly high current ~3A, and creates a magnetic field. When the current
is removed, the magnetic field collapses in on the transformer core and all the energy is
dumped back into the windings of the transformer. This electrical energy is transferred to each
winding, and since the secondary coil has so many windings, the voltage created is very high.
When the magnetic field is collapsing and the energy is being dumped into the coil, the
transformer is said to be in a state of flyback, hence the name.
[14]

In this circuit a frequency above 20 kHz was necessary to obtain an above hearing
frequency arc and therefore a flyback transformer operating typically at around 15 kHz but
capable depending on the ferrite core to withstand switched inputs up to 50 kHz was used.
Experimentally was determined that the saturation point for the transformer used in
this circuit is at around 37 kHz.


31

2.10 Unprotected circuit waveforms

When working on the test board and not using grounding many of the wires act as
antennae. This affected the circuit by introducing noise into the supply wires therefore
affecting the output of the circuit and MOSFETs command.
Figure (2.5) shows the sinusoid waveform measured at the secondary of the
transformer with the main HV circuit unplugged. The power consumption was determined to
range between 200 mA and 400 mA depending on the frequency of the oscillator and was
observed to increase with the number of turns on the GDT which is connected between the
outputs of the IC.

Figure (2.5) Sinusoidal waveform of the output of 24V transformer

We can observe that, because of the high current charging drawn by the two 10 mF
capacitors, the voltage slowly drops due to incorrect (low value) capacitance used for the
capacitor placed in parallel with the rectifying bridge for the circuit. The capacitor charging
current is depicted in figure (2.6) and for this circuit has an initial value of around 6A for a
period of 0.04 s. Figure (2.7) shows the rectified voltage, with the HV circuit running, of the

32

supply source that has a value of approximately 31.5 V; exact mathematical value can be
determined by measuring the rms value at the ac output of the transformer multiplied by 2.

Figure (2.6)
[10]
Diagram for calculating the instant charging time of capacitors

Figure (2.7) Rectified voltage with running arc


33

Figure (2.8) Shows the no load DC rectified voltage
In figure (2.9) we can see that because of the high charging current for the two 10 mF
capacitors also the sinusoid waveform is affected (notice the distortions at the peak values of
the sinusoid). This also causes some perturbations in the network due to rapidly withdrawn
currents from the transformer.

Figure (2.9) 2 X 10 nF Capacitors drawing high current when charging

34

Figure (2.10) shows the first probe of the oscilloscope placed on the voltage limiter
output (output not filtered with the 1000 F capacitor). Due to the switching state of the
circuit and the radiated electromagnetic fields of the arc we can notice severely captured
peaks in the supply DC. These spikes appear when the transistors conduct and turn off and
have a frequency equal to the oscillator frequency. This needs to be avoided because due to
the varying of the DC the output amplitude of the IC changes and the sound of the modulated
signal picks up the noise created by the switching state of the transistors.

Figure (2.10) Input voltage without decoupling in contrast with transistors command signal

Figure (2.11) shows the previous explained output of the voltage limiter filtered by the
1000 F capacitor connected on the schematic between the output pin of the voltage limiter
and the ground respecting polarity. However we can see the second probe connected to the
input of the limiter and also the admission of the spikes in the rest of the bridge rectifier
circuit. This is to be corrected due to the lower amplitude of the spike than the previously
studied spikes with a 0.1 F capacitor. This also affects the normal operation of the circuit
and IC.

35

Figure (2.11) Input voltage with decoupling in contrast with input voltage without
decoupling

Figure (2.12) shows the first probe connected to the output of the IC and the signal
almost a perfect square. These tiny variations are present due to the poor quality of the
oscilloscope graphics. The second probe is attached to the output coil of the GDT where we
can observe that some spikes appear at the transitions between the ground level and the peak
voltage of the square signal. These perturbations are present in here because of the low value
series resistor at the output coil of the GDT. This can easily be corrected by adding some
surplus resistance in order to diminish the overshoots. However MOSFETs work with this
gate command too but if we need precisely modulation of the sound and highest quality we
should design the GDT as to be perfect flat tops and bottoms. Also we reduce also the heating
of the MOSFETs by giving them a correct command waveform.

36

Figure (2.12) Output signal from IC in contrast with signal from GDT output

Figure (2.13) shows a close-up image of the perturbations created due to the incorrect
GDT that in this case can be corrected by adding some damping series resistor that increases
the impedance of the circuit.

Figure (2.13) IC output signal in contrast with GDT output signal

37

Figure (2.14) shows a slight perturbation in the command signal of the MOSFETs at
the switching frequency of 37.5 kHz in the channel 1 of the oscilloscope. The line
represents the continuous current that also suffers very little from the effect of the
perturbations appeared in the first ns after the switching point perturbations not very visible
due to protections inserted into the circuit discussed and presented in the figure.

Figure (2.14) Perturbations in the command signal and also into the protected input voltage
at highest frequency

Figure (2.15) shows the perturbation that we can visualize on the oscilloscope that
appears at the lowest frequency this circuit can reproduce. It is an obvious rise in the time
period of the perturbation once the frequency got lower.

38

Figure (2.15) Perturbations in the command signal and also into the protected input voltage
at highest frequency

Figure (2.16) shows the oscilloscope probe 1 connected after the GDT and the second
oscilloscope probe connected before the GDT. We can observe that due to the incorrect
wiring of the GDT the output signal (1) is 2-3 times bigger in amplitude than the input signal.
This happened because the GDT is manufactured by hand and the number of turns was not
preserved exactly. At these high frequencies even a half of turn is responsible for great
deviation of the signal and depicted below is the measured proof of this theory.

39

Figure (2.16) IC signal before GDT and after

In figure (2.17) channel 1 shows the signal at one of the GDT outputs with the series
22 resistor depicting the signal as clear as it gets with the running arc in contrast with the
2
nd
probe of the oscilloscope connected to the same output of the GDT but without the series
damping resistor connected.

Figure (2.17) Signal with and without 22 damping resistor

40

Figure (2.18) shows the correctness of the two IC outputs that are polarity reversed.

Figure (2.18) Corrected GDT signals


41

2.11 Circuit parts

- 230 V ~ 630 mA to 12 V ~ 6 A and 24 V ~ 3.3 ferromagnetic core transformer
- 2 rectifiers
- 1 ka3525an (16 pin PWM IC)
- 1 2.2 f capacitor
- 1 2.2 k resistor
- 10 k potentiometer
- 1 3.3 F
- 2 x 0.1uF non-polarized capacitors
- 1 LM7812
- 1 1000 F capacitor
- 1 1 F
- 2 x 22 resistor
- 2 x IRFP250 transistor
- 2 x 10 mF polarized capacitors
- 1 flyback transformer
- 1 GDT ~ 27 turns, 3 wires
- 1 220 F capacitor
- 1 2200 F capacitor
- 3 heat sinks
- 2 inox steel electrodes
- wires
- 1 PCB with the command part of the circuit depicted above
- soldering iron
- wood
All of the above listed components were put together by taking into consideration existent
risks of component explosion in case of incorrect wiring of the circuit.


42

2.13 PCB Construction

Figure (2.19) Ready to print PCB
The PCB board comes coated in Cu on either one side or both. After designing the
circuit in some software program (plenty available) the schematic gets laser printed on heat
resistant paper after which by thermal transfer the blueprint of the circuit gets imprinted on
the copper plate. Next part of the process is to dip the plate into ferric chloride 40% solution
for a period of approximately 20 minutes, time in which the excess and unprinted copper
reacts and dissolves.

2.14 Faradays Cage
A Faraday cage or Faraday shield is an enclosure formed by conducting material or by a mesh
of such material. Such an enclosure blocks out external static electric fields. Faraday cages are
named after the English scientist Michael Faraday, who invented them in 1836.
[5]

This is a necessity in this circuit due to high electric, magnetic and electrostatic field created
by the high voltages when arming the arc.


43

2.15 MOSFETs

Although the MOSFETS work in a half bridge configuration and alternately turn on
and off the do need heat sinks because of the high current switching. The heat results from the
power losses.
We take a quick look at MOSFETs, particularly and how they work. In basic terms,
the MOSFET is a voltage controlled current source, with a voltage difference from gate to
source causing a current to flow from drain to source.
N-channel MOSFET schematic symbol:

Figure (2.20) MOSFET circuit representation
Varying the gate voltage will vary the current in the devices drain.
The following table (2.1) contains values from the MOSFETs datasheet:
Gate-Source Voltage Operating Mode
+V
GS
max and above Gate breaks down, device damaged
+4V to V
GS
max On
+4V to +2V Linear
+2V to V
GS
max Off
-V
GS
-max and below Gate breaks down, device damaged

Table (2.1)
[8]
Operation modes of the MOSFET

44

When ON, the MOSFET appears as a low value resistor (typically less than 1 ohm)
shown in the datasheet as the RDS-ON value (on resistance from drain to source), which is
also dependant on temperature as well as gate voltage. In this low resistance state a large
amount of current can flow through the device.
When OFF, the device appears as a high value resistor and very little current flows
from D -> S. We ideally want to keep the device operating in either the ON or the off states.
When in the linear region, the MOSFET acts like a resistor and can dissipate large
amounts of power. For switching circuits, we want to avoid operating in this region as it
causes heating of the device.
Gate voltages are given limits in the device datasheets (V
GS
max), usually +/ 15V
relative to the source. Exceeding this voltage can damage the device, causing a short circuit
between gate and drain (or source).
Often in designs, back-to-back Zener diodes can be mounted across gate-source
terminals to protect against over voltage on the gate. If you have a good GDT design, these
should not be necessary, although some people include them to be safe.
[13]


45

2.16 Physical construction

The circuit began as a sum of cables connected on a test platform, cables which acted
as antennas and gave interference into the circuit as well as connecting measuring apparatus
to the key points. In figure (2.21) we can see the laying cables on a test table.

Figure (2.21) First state of the circuit


46

Figure (2.22) shows the PCB after the corrosion process in FeCl
3
. The process consists
in designing the circuit using available software, printing on a single or double sided copper
coated plate and then sunk for a period of approximately half an hour in FeCl
3
.

Figure (2.22) PCB after corrosion


47

Figure (2.23) shows the PCB after mounting the command circuit parts. These parts
were separated on a PCB from the rest of the circuit because none of these components
needed active cooling so the length of the paths was maintained short in order to diminish
their effect as antennas. In this picture we can observe the pins which were separated from the
circuit making room for the oscilloscope probes to be attached.

Figure (2.23) Fixed components on completed PCB


48

Figure (2.24) shows the running arc enclosed in a metal grounded Faraday Cage used
for protection of the external electromagnetic fields and also not to radiate in the environment
electromagnetic waves.

Figure (2.24) Faraday caged electric arc


49

CHAPTER 3 Optimization of the Circuit by Different Means of Protection
1.1 Cable Shielding
[10]

A shielded or screened cable is an electrical cable of one or more insulated conductors
enclosed by a common conductive layer. The shield may be composed of braided strands of
copper (or other metal), a non-braided spiral winding of copper tape, or a layer of conducting
polymer. Usually, this shield is covered with a jacket. The shield acts as a Faraday cage to
reduce electrical noise from affecting the signals, and to reduce electromagnetic radiation that
may interfere with other devices. The shield minimizes capacitively coupled noise from other
electrical sources. The shield must be applied across cable splices.
Microphone or "signal" cable used in setting up PA and recording studios is usually shielded
twisted pair cable, terminated in XLR connectors. The twisted pair carries the signal in a
balanced audio configuration.

1.2 Transformer Shielding

The supply source which is a transformer should also be shielded. Being in the vicinity
of the low powered unprotected circuit this component acts as a perturbation source inducing
the 50 Hz sinusoidal wave especially into the GDT which is also a 1:1:1 transformer.
1.3 Shorten Paths
By printing the circuit board, the length of the paths was minimized allowing an
ammeter to be connected without creating audible perturbations in the arc.


50

1.4 Hazards
Important information regarding hazardous connections made in the circuit
- Never make connections between the transistors heat sinks because the common
connection will be common drain; this will create a short circuit at around 3A and will
probably affect the supply source due to the bypass fuse which has a greater value than
recommended 0.63A therefore allowing the flow of greater currents in the
transformers secondary winding

- When using a portable apparatus which has a radio AM/FM function do not create a
connection between the apparatus and the cage or the heat sinks and the apparatus
because spikes of high voltage run through this components; part of them will be
radiated in air and part of them will flow through wires and the high sensibility of the
apparatus antennae will allow a short circuit between these parts to be created
therefore destroying the apparatus

- When working al lower frequencies a time of approximately 30 s should not be
overdue because the end of the electrodes will get very hot and eventually deform due
to the excess heat

- Under no circumstances should be made connections on the circuit exposed other than
connecting the probes of the oscilloscope to the specially designed pins.

- If cooler is malfunctioning the device should not be turned on for longer than 1 minute

- Powerful short-circuit will be made if for example the audio jack is touched by either
one of the radiators or other metallic parts


51

- The grounding circuit with respect to other components contains strong currents and
therefore between this part of the circuit and other components or other apparatus
should not be made any connections for operators safety and apparatus as well

- The electric HV arc closes between pin 5 and the HV wire coming at the other end of
the flyback transformer therefore other connections of one of its pins is useless and
therefore the risk of electrocution is only present at the connection of the two
electrodes

- Powerful heat is transferred through convection from the arc especially at low
frequencies to the surrounding air. Temperatures can reach 1000+ Celsius degrees


52

CHAPTER 4 Laboratory Project

4.1 Laboratory Project Proposal

By making use of the built platform in a controlled environment I can propose some
laboratory project titles like:
- Study of the coupling and decoupling of the arc over the oscilloscopes

o This can be achieved by making use of the frequency potentiometer to give the
arc a lower frequency so that it can be blown up by a student.
It will be studied the interference obtained when arming and disarming
the arc seen even on an oscilloscopes CRT.

- Study of the interference produced by the switching transistors

o This can be achieved by placing oscilloscope probes at the gates of the
MOSFETs and observing the perturbations which appear at the rising and
falling edges of the modulated pulses.

- Study of the electrostatic field (without Faradays Cage) created by the 15 kHz blown
electric arc

- Study of the conducted interferences and difference between them by connecting and
disconnecting the protective Faradays Cage from the grounding system.


53

Conclusion

After this laborious work we can conclude that all equipments especially power
equipments and switching devices generate perturbations which are more likely to be
conducted perturbations than radiated ones.
Most affected are the equipments that are not provided with a grounding system or a
protective cage in case the elements contained in the circuits have coils capacitors or long
connection paths.
After the study of this circuit we have seen that protection exist ranging from the
simplest electronic components like capacitors or capacitors connected with resistors creating
filtering either high pass, low pass or band pass. In addition to this presented elements, some
other exist:
- Ferrite Beads
- Faradays Cage
- Shielded cables
By having a relatively low impedance of the GDT we can assure a quality
transmission of the output signals to the gates of the MOSFETs therefore optimizing their
operation by steeply rising the command signal to the open gate to source ON voltage
eliminating losses by means of heat dissipation.
As an audio speaker we can notice that the quality of the signal is very high,
practically not existing any mass in the speaker the frequency response is instant.
All of these performances are obtained at a high power cost therefore we can notice
the very low sub 0.1 efficiency of the circuit.


54

Bibliography

1. http://searchmobilecomputing.techtarget.com/definition/electromagnetic-interference
2. http://electronicsbus.com/emi-electromagnetic-interference-rf-noise-radio-frequency-
interference/
3. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electromagnetic_interference "summary about EMI
word"
4. Conf. Dr. Ing. ACIU LIA, "introduction in EMC"
5. "Faraday, Michael - ninemsn Encarta". Archived from the original on 31 October
2009.
6. http://www.acroname.com/robotics/info/concepts/pwm.html
7. http://www.netrino.com/Embedded-Systems/How-To/PWM-Pulse-Width-Modulation
8. IRFP250 datasheet
9. SG3525 datasheet
10. http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/electric/capchg.html
11. http://www.richieburnett.co.uk/temp/gdt/gdt2.html
12. A Guide to Designing Gate-Drive Transformers; By Patrick Scoggins, Senior
13. http://thedatastream.4hv.org/gdt_gate.htm
14. 14 Dixon, Lloyd H, Magnetics Design Handbook, Section 5, Inductor and Flyback
Transformer Design, Texas Instruments, 2001
15. Shielding Methods for Radio Frequencies, Anton Brink; Department of Electroscience
Electromagnetic Theory Lund Institute of Technology Sweden, 2001
16. http://www.boeing.com/commercial/aeromagazine/aero_10/loop_textonly.html
17. http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/electric/capchg.html


Appendix

List of used abbreviations:

GDT Gate Drive Transformer
HV High Voltage
IC Integrated Circuit
HF High Frequency
PWM Pulse Width Modulation
LM Limiter
MOSFET Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field Effect Transistor
PCB Printed Circuit Board
CRT Cathodic Ray Tube

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Transylvania University of Brasov Degree Project

Faculty of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science 2011

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