Meiosis I * interphase - replication and bivalent pairs.

* prophase - spindle fibres begin to form and chiamata- crossing over of bivalents. * metaphase - chromosomes line up at equator and attach via centromeres to spindle fibres and nuclear *membrane disappears * anaphase - spindle fibres pull chromosomes to poles * telophase - nuclear membranes reform. * cytokinesis - may occur Meiosis II * prophase - centrioles divide and move to poles * metaphase - chromosomes line up at equator and attach and nuclear membranes disappear. * anaphase - chromotids pulled to opposite poles * telophase - nuclear membrane reforms * cytokinesis - cytoplasm divides equally resulting in haploid gametes. Aims of the H.G.P. Begun in 1990, the Human Genome Project was a venture set forth to help scientists and biotechnicians understand revolutionary new ways to diagnose, treat, and someday prevent the thousands of disorders that affect us. A genome is all the DNA in an organism, including its genes. These genes carry information for making proteins. These proteins determine, among other things, how the organism looks, how well its body metabolizes food or fights infection, and sometimes even how it behaves. DNA is made up of four similar chemicals (called bases and abbreviated A, T, C, and G) that are repeated millions or billions of times throughout a genome. The human genome has 3 billion pairs of bases. The particular order of As, Ts, Cs, and Gs is extremely important. The order determines all of life's diversity, even dictating whether an organism is human or another species. The HGP will involve the following * Identify all the approximately 30,000 genes in human DNA. * Determine the sequences of the 3.2 billion chemical base pairs that make up human DNA. * Store this information in databases. * Address the ethical, legal, and social issues that may arise from the project. Once the ~30,000 genes have been identified, the 3.2 billion bases that make these genes will need to be sequenced by some 1,100 biologists, computer scientists and technicians at 16 labs in 6 countries. It is hoped that society will benefit from the vast amount of information and knowledge that will soon follow. Advantages and Disadvantages Advantages Some current and potential applications of genome research include: * Molecular medicine * Energy sources and environmental applications

* Risk assessment * Bio-archaeology, anthropology, evolution, and human migration * DNA forensics (identification) * Agriculture, livestock breeding, and bio-processing If we were to know what each and every gene in our DNA did, it would lead to revolutionary new ways to diagnose, treat, and someday prevent the thousands of disorders that affect us everyday. We would have: * Improved diagnosis of disease * Earlier detection of genetic diseases * Improved Treatment for certain diseases From the HGP, Microbial Genome Program has been created which has done research to create to energy sources, biofuels, and various other environmental applications. Genome research can also help risk assessors assess health damage and risks caused by exposure to radiation and cancer-causing toxins. This will information can hopefully reduce the likelihood of heritable mutations. DNA forensics now plays a vital role in many high profile court cases. DNA sequencing can help identify potential suspects whose DNA may match evidence left at crime scenes. Disadvantages But decoding the DNA sequencing poses daunting moral dilemmas. With knowledge of our genetic code will come the power to re-engineer the human species. Biologists will be able to use the genome as a parts list and may well let prospective parents choose their unborn child's traits. Scientists have solid leads on genes for different temperaments, body builds, and statures. There may also be serious side effects to manipulating the genes. It just so happens that some disease genes also confer resistance to other diseases: carrying a gene for sickle cell anaemia, for instance, brings resistance to malaria. If we change and rearrange our genes, it may have severe consequences to our future development. Another issue raised is that of employment and health insurance eligibility. From the beginning of the HGP, it was warned that genetic knowledge could be used against people in insurance and employment. If a company found out that an applicant has a gene for kidney disease, then they are almost certainly not going to hire them. Worse yet, if they discovered that one of their longtime employees has the gene for cancer for example, then they might not choose to employ that person anymore and that person and their family would be in a serious financial situation. There would need to be major changes in legislation if we are to live in a society with unimaginable scientific capabilities that will coincide impartially with a moral ethos. The menstrual cycle Four hormones: * FSH (Follicle stimulating hormone) 1. Stimulates growth and development of follicle 2. Stimulates secretion of oestrogen

* LH (Lutenising hormone) 1. Stimulates final development of follicle 2. Stimulates ovulation (LH and FSH produced by pituitary gland). Gondatrophic hormones. * Oestrogen 1. Stimulates repair of uterine lining/ thickening of endometrium 2. At high concentration inhibits FSH (negative feedback) * Progesterone 1. Maintains uterine lining 2. Inhibits release of FSH and LH (negative feedback) (Oestrogen and progesterone are produced by the ovaries) The sequence of the human menstrual cycle: 1. FSH stimulates growth of the follicle. 2. Developing follicle in ovary produces oestrogen 3. Rising oestrogen levels inhibit FSH and promote LH production 4. LH stimulates follicle development 5. Rising oestrogen levels stimulate increase in FSH 6. A surge of FSH and LH brings about ovulation 7. LH stimulates progesterone production 8. Progesterone inhibits FSH and LH. (negative feedback Module 4 homeostasis) Oral Contraception * Oestrogen based o inhibit FSH production, grafian follicle cant mature, no ovulation > conception not possible. * Minipill contains only progestin o Inhibit LH and FSH, thickens cervical mucus preventing sperm entering. * Other methods of birth control o Abstinence not engaging sexual activity o Avoid intercourse during period of maximum fertility (usually day 11-15 /28). o Spermicides killing the sperm o Physical condoms, diaphragms, IUDs intra-uterine device (coil) o Surgery - Vasectomies (in men), Cut ovary duct, vas deferens (in women). Infertility Inability to conceive naturally. * Male low sperm count, poor sperm mobility/deformed, erectile problems.

* Female Oviduct blocked, ova not viable, hormone imbalance, poor implantation. Treatment of female infertility with extracted and synthetic hormones: Clomiphene citrate and artificial FSH and LH stimulate production of oocytes produce several ripe follicles in one cycle (called super ovulation). Ripe follicles then removed and fertilised outside womb in vitro fertilisation IVF. Key stages of IVF: * Use of fertility drugs to stimulate ovulation; * Collection of mature egg cells and their incubation with sperms; * Insertion of embryos into the uterus. Pregnancy Conception * Fertilisation occurs when a nucleus from a male sperm fuses with the nucleus of the ova. * Capacitation the removal of the sperms protective coating of proteins and glycoproteins. Acrosome reaction As soon as the sperm head touches the ovum surface the acrosome reaction is triggered. * Head of sperm contains acrosome with an enzyme to digest the zona pellucida. * One sperm will not release sufficient enzyme for complete digestion one reason for huge numbers produced per ejaculation. * One sperm will penetrate the surface membrane of the oocyte. * The two haploid nuclei fuse to form diploid nucleus. * Electrical properties of cell surface membrane changes from positive to negative so no other sperm can penetrate the fertilisation membrane. This ensures only a diploid nucleus. The final result of fertilisation is a zygote. * Roles of human chorionic gonadotrophin (HCG) and progesterone in controlling events of pregnancy * GGC produced by the embryo * It travels in the blood stream to the ovaries * Stimulates the corpus luteum to continue to produced progesterone and oestrogen * This maintains the uterus lining for the first 3 months of pregnancy * After three months the placenta produces these hormones * Also stimulates a male foetus to produce testosterone * Progesterone will inhibit FSH production so no further ova are produced. Levels of HCG increase after conception and can be detected in the mothers urine can be used as a test for pregnancy. Test wand contains antibodies to HCG. If sufficient levels of HCG are present it will bind with a second antibody and cause a colour reaction to occur (i.e. a +ve result).

The placenta * The mother supplies oxygen, water, amino acids, vitamins and minerals to foetus. * The foetus releases carbon dioxide, urea and other waste products into mothers blood stream. * The placenta allows passage of maternal antibodies to give the foetus some immunity against disease. * Prevents some pathogens and toxins passing to foetus. * Acts as barrier to maternal hormones and other chemicals in mothers blood. * Blood systems can act at different blood pressures. * Produces hormones progesterone and HCG. Structure adaptations of placenta for diffusion 1. Large S.A chorionic villi and micro villi 2. Short diffusion pathway between capillaries and maternal blood sinuses 3. Concentration gradient maintained by blood circulating 4. Counter-current system = foetal blood flows in opposite direction to maternal blood maintains concentration gradient. 5. Foetal blood has higher affinity for oxygen than maternal blood. 6. Foetal blood has larger red blood cells and more haemoglobin more O2 uptake. Physiological changes in mother * Body mass average weight gain is 12kg. (1kg protein, foetus & placenta, breast tissue, blood). Body fat to supply mother with extra energy e.g. breast feeding. * Plasma volume rises by about 50% for extra blood flow through organs. * Red blood cell mass increases to allow constant ratio to the increasing plasma volume. * Cardiac output (blood pumped by left ventricle) per minute rises by about 30%-40% during pregnancy. Heart size increases by around 12%. * Kidney function Blood flow through kidneys rises from 25% - 50%. Urine tends to be more concentrated removing excess urea produced by foetus. Human growth and development Patterns of human growth * Four distinct phases in life characterised by a change in growth rate: * Infancy (0-4 yrs), childhood (4-11), adolescence (11-18), adulthood (18+). * Uneven many parts of body grow at different times. 1. The lymphoid tissue - One of the lymph tissues major functions is to produce antibodies, so it grows most quickly in childhood for developing resistance to disease. 2. Head and brain growth - Is most rapid in early life, at birth it is a of adult size, 90% after 6 years. Rapid increase is important as foetus head needs to be small for mother to give birth, the number of cells, fibres and myelin sheeths around axons rapidly increases for learning and development of complex behaviour. 3. Reproductive organs - Show little change until puberty, when rapid growth takes place and continues throughout adolescence. 4. Humans have an extended childhood to allow for learning. * Candidates should be able to represent and interpret graphical data relating to growth and

growth rate. Hormonal control * Thyroxine produced by the thyroid gland, controls growth and the rate of metabolism (rate of break down all reactions in cells). The pituitary gland is in control of growth. * Childhood growth is stimulated by Pituitary Growth Hormone, PGH. * This stimulates growth of body tissues and elongation of the long bones to increase height. * PGH also stimulates the thyroid to produce thyroxine. * Sex Hormones are released in large amounts during puberty. FSH and LH are released from the pituitary gland and affect the gonads. Females the ovaries release oestrogen which stimulates adolescent growth and development of female secondary sexual characteristics (wider hips, breasts develop, excess hair). It also initiates the menstrual cycle. Males the testes release testosterone which stimulates adolescent growth and the development of male secondary sexual characteristics (deeper voice, beards, wider-more triangular body shape). It also initiates the production of sperm. Puberty Evolutionary importance of a long pre-puberty stage * Allows time for full physical development * Makes birth easier = e.g. head smaller at birth * Allow a person to reach full mental maturity Puberty results in an individual being physically and mentally stable for child birth and child rearing. Ageing Nervous system * Decreased speed of conduction of nerve impulses slows reaction times * Loss of neurones * Decrease in brain size up to 40% * Loss of memory * Senility * Decreased coordination Decline of physiological function * Basal metabolic rate decreases need less food, may lead to fatness and obesity. * Filtration rate - of the kidneys decreases may lead to kidney failure.

* Cardiac output decreases Heart muscle weakens * Vital capacity decreases loss of lung volume get out of breath more * Muscle weakens - with age as fibres are replaced with connective tissue * Sleep patterns are disturbed * Smell and taste 60%-70% loss * Cartilage on joints wears arthritis and reduced ease of movement * Ovulation and oestrogen production declines with age (menopause). Why do we age? Main group of factors are Genetic and Environmental. 1. Genetic changes occur to DNA, changes called SOMATIC MUTATIONS. Passed on to daughter cells during mitosis. Errors may lead to cell malfunction. Accumulation of genetic errors may lead to more tissue malfunctioning and resulting in aging features. May occur due to exposure to mutagens e.g. benzene, UV light. 2. Degeneration of tissue wear and tear and incorrect repair of damaged tissues e.g. tissue elasticity is lost wrinkles. Changes in structure of internal organs leads to reduced efficiency. Exposure to certain substances may increase this degeneration. 3. Immune system destroys foreign bodies. It also destroys our own tissue when it has malfunctioned e.g. cancerous cells. Ageing causes immune system to become less efficient and less able to destroy invading pathogens or cancerous cells. May also destroy its own healthy tissues autoimmunity.