AP Calculus BC Study Guide Limits

y If a standard function going to a value, simply plug in the value into the equation. Example) the limit as x approaches 4 of 2x is 8. (2(4)=8) y Limits approach a point from both the left hand side (from negative infinity) and from the right hand side (from positive infinity). Example) the limit as x approaches 0 from the right hand side (+) is positive infinity. The limit as x approaches 0 from the left hand side (-) is negative infinity. (For f(x)=1/x) y If the right hand and left hand limits do not equal each other, such as 1/x, then the limit is said not to exist (DNE). y If the right and left handed limits do not equal each other, the function at that x value is not continuous. A function is continuous if they do equal each other. y For oscillating functions such as sin(1/x), the limit as x approaches 0 is said not to exist. y The limit as x approaches C of f(g(x)) = f(limit as x approaches C of g(x)). y If a rational function s g(x) (the denominator) is 0 at x=c when taking the limit of a rational function, you can use other methods such as factoring (x^2-1/x-1, factor the numerator and cancel), rationalizing (rad(x+1)-1/x as x approaches 0, multiply by the conjugate (rad(x+1)+1) on top and bottom, simplify, then plug in 0. y The limit of sinx/x as x approaches 0 is 1, and the limit of 1-cosx/x as x approaches 0 is 0. y The Intermediate Value Theorem: If f is continuous on [a,b] and k is any number between f(a) and f(b) then there is at least a number C that f(C)=k. y A vertical asymptote is a line a graph approaches, and is not a hole. This happens when the denominator equals 0. Example) the vertical asymptote of 1/x-1 is 1, as x=1 will make the denominator 0. Example 2) there are no vertical asymptotes of (x^2-4)/(x-2) since factoring and canceling will make the function x+2. y When taking the limit to infinity of a rational function, if the numerator s power is greater than the denominator, then the limit is infinity (or negative infinity, depending on the sign of the infinity). If the numerator s power is less than the denominator s, then the limit is 0. If the powers are equal, then the limit equals the coefficient of the highest power term in the numerator divided by the coefficient of the highest power in the denominator.

Derivatives
y The derivative of a function at a value tells you the slope of the tangent line.

The slope of the tangent line is defined by the limit as delta(X) approaches 0 of f(x+deltax)-f(x)/deltax. y This limit is essentially f (x), and as thus, if f(x) was x^2, f (x)=2x would be yielded by either the limit method(the definition of the derivative) or simply deriving it with the power rule. y If a function is differentiable at x=c, then it is continuous at x=c. HOWEVER, a function is not differentiable simply because it is continuous. Graphs that are continuous but not differentiable are ones with a vertical tangent line (x^(1/3) is continuous at 0, but when deriving it, the derivative is undefined at 0), a sharp turn (abs(x-2), slopes coming from right and left do not equal each other), and a cusp. y Basic Differential Rules. Power, constant, product (f (x)g(x)+g (x)f(x)), quotient (g(x)f (x)f(x)g (x)/g(x)^2, g(x) isn t 0 and is the denominator), chain (multiply by the derivative of the inside when needed) y Implicit differentiation derives functions with respect to both x and y. When taking the derivative of y when finding dy/dx, do not forget to multiply by dy/dx. Example) 2x+3y^2=4. Deriving this gives you 2+6y(dy/dx)=0. Solve for dy/dx. y Related Rates: Write down everything you know and then what you are trying to find. Deriving a Volume/Area equation is usually required. Do not forget that when you are deriving, you are deriving with respect to time, and variables like radius and height should be multiplied by dr/dt and dh/dt. y Critical Numbers: Find where f (x) is 0 or undefined. These help in finding extrema, or where the function attains a relative or absolute maximum or minimum. There can only be one absolute maximum and one absolute minimum, but multiple relative extrema. To find them on a closed interval, find the critical numbers, then evaluate those values along with the endpoints, then determine which ones are minimums and maximums. y When f (x) is positive, the function is increasing. When f (x) is negative, the function is decreasing. When f (x) is positive, the function is concave up. When f (x) is negative, the function is concave down. y The Mean Value Theorem: If f is continuous on [a,b] and differentiable on (a,b), then there is a number C where f (c)= f(b)-f(a)/b-a. Remember to only include C values that are within the OPEN interval. y Rolle s Theorem: If f is continuous on [a,b] and differentiable on (a,b), and f(a)=f(b), then there is a value C where f (c)=0. (Note: The MVT has 2 conditions, while Rolle s has 3. Remember that Rolle s Theorem is a specific situation of the MVT.) y The First Derivative Test: If f (x) changes from negative to positive, there is a relative minimum at that value. If f (x) changes from positive to negative, there is a relative maximum at that value. y

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The Second Derivative Test: If f (c)=0, then if f (c)>0, then there is a relative minimum at c, and if f (c)<0, then there is a relative maximum. Inflection Points: Points (NOT VALUES) at which the function changes concavity. Find where the 2nd derivative is 0 or undefined. Remember to check if the second derivative changes sign at that point. If not, then it is not an inflection point. Use this information along with the zeroes of the function to sketch the function. Optimization Problems: Maximizing/Minimizing a certain value (volume, area). Relate 2 equations to solve in one terms of another, then derive and find critical values. Set an interval, find those values, then solve the problem. Tangent Line Approximation (Linearization): To estimate a value of a difficult fucntion, derive the function, then find the tangent line at a certain point, then plug in the value into an easier function. You will be given a point such as (0,1) and a value such as 0.01, and be asked to find the y value at 0.01. Since the tangent line is so close, it is a good approximation. Differentials: dy=f (x)dx. This is to approximate delta y, or the change in y, by finding dy instead. You will be given an x value and a dx value, then be asked to compare delta y and dy. DeltaY= f(c+deltax)-f(c). c is the x value. Error Propagation: To find the amount of error when given values. Simply plug in everything you know. You will be given a value, a margin of error that is in +/-, and a function. This is the propagated error. To find relative error, find d(term)/(term), and convert it into a percentage. Example would be Volume, and when you derive, you will be given r and dr. Derive the volume formula, which in this case is V=4/3pir^3, then plug in everything you know.

Integration
y Integration is essentially deriving backward. It is denoted by F(x). When integrating, there are indefinite integrals (add a +C) and definite integrals, which is simply a value. A general solution is +C, solving for C yields a particular solution. Summation Formulas: the summation of a constant C to n is Cn, the summation of I to n is n(n+1)/2, I^2 to n is n(n+1)(2n+1)/6, I^3 is n^2(n+1)^2/4. Upper/Lower Sums (RRAM/LRAM/MRAM)- Find delta x, which is b-a/n, then multiply that by adding up all the y values of the endpoints, depending on which method you use. Left hand starts with a but never uses b, and Right hand doesn t start with a but ends with b. N is the number of rectangles you want to use. Middle asks you to use the middle of each delta x, so divide them in half and start there. The

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upper sum is the sum that is greater than the actual area, while the lower sum is less than the actual area. Riemann s Sum: The summation of (deltaX)(f(a+i(deltax)) with I to n). By taking the limit of this sum to infinity, you can essentially add up infinity rectangles to find the exact area. 1st Fundamental Theorem of Calculus: The integral from a to b of a function equals F(b)-F(a). 2nd Fundamental Theorem of Calculus: The derivative of an integral from any value to a function of x of a function of t equals the function in terms of x multiplied by the derivative of the function of x. U-Substitution: Normally you will u-sub out the inside function, but in special cases you will u-sub something to cancel out a term you need to get rid of. You can also solve for u in terms of x to do a double substitution. Remember that if you do this for a definite integral, remember to change the limits of integration with respect to u. Even and Odd functions: If f is even, then the integral from negative a to a is 2 times the integral from 0 to a. If f is odd, then the integral from negative a to a is 0. The Trapezoid Rule: Multiply by delta x, which is b-a/2n, then each endpoint in n intervals. Excluding A and B, each y value is multiplied by 2. You will end up with 1 more term than the number of trapezoids you will use. Logarithmic/Exponential/Etc: Derivative of ln(x) is 1/x. If a different function is inside the ln, then multiply by the derivative of the inside per the chain rule. Integral of 1/x is lnlxl, since you cannot take the ln of a negative number. The derivative/integral of e^x is e^x. The derivative of a^x is ln(a)a^x. The derivative of log base a of x is 1/xln(a). Trigonometric Derivatives/Integrals: sinx=cosx, cosx=-sinx, tanx=(secx)^2, cscx= cscxcotx, secx=secxtanx, cotx= -(cscx). (Derivatives). sinx=-cosx, cosx=sinx, tanx= ln(lcosxl), cscx= -ln(lcscx+cotx), secx= ln(lsecx+tanx), cotx= ln(lsinxl). (Integrals) Inverse Functions: Montonic means it is strictly decreasing or strictly increasing, thus meaning it has an inverse. If you want to find the derivative of an inverse function of a function you cannot find the inverse of, and you are given a point, find the x value of the regular function by setting it equal to that value, then to find the derivative, g (x)= 1/f (y). Inverse Trigonometric Functions: Derivatives: arcsinx/cosx= (+/-)1/rad(1-x^2), arctanx/cotx= (+/-)1/1+x^2, arcsecx/cscx= (+/-)1/abs(x)(rad(x^2-1)). Integration: 1/rad(a^2-u^2)= arcsin(u/a), 1/a^2+u^2= 1/a(arctan(u/a)), 1/u(u^2-a^2)=1/a(arcsec u/a)

Other Topics
y y y y y y y Slope Fields: Given a differential equation, find the slopes at that point(s), then sketch various solutions through it. Straightforward. Euler s Method: Xn= Xn-1+h, Yn= Yn-1+h(f(Xn-1, Yn-1). H is the step size. You will be given a differential equation, H, and an initial value, and an endpoint. Growth/Decay: dy/dt= ky, then y=Ce^kt. C is the initial value, k is the proportionality constant. When k>0, growth occurs, when k<0 decay occurs. Newton s Law of Cooling: y=Ce^kt+M, where M is the constant temperature. Separation of Variables: Put the y s with dy and the x s with dx then integrate with respect to each variable, solve. Logistical Growth: dy/dt= ky(1-y/L), y= L/1+Ce^-kt, where L is the maximum population/unit. Area Between 2 Curves: Integral of the top curve minus the bottom curve, or the right curve minus the left curve if dy. Limits of integration are determined by the area bound by either the functions or the axis. The Disk Method: V=integral from a to b of the radius(usually of the function) squared times pi. When not revolving around the x or y axis, you must solve for a new radius by using lines and adding. The Washer Method: V= the integral from a to b of the outer radius squared minus the inner radius squared, times pi. The outer radius is usually the top/right function and the lower function is the bottom/left function. When not revolving around the x or y axis, you must solve for a new radius for both. Cross Section: V= integral from a to b of the area. The area must be in terms of the function and perpendicular to x means dx and perpendicular to y is dy. Arc Length: V= integral from a to b of rad(1+f (x)^2) dx. If no calculator, completing the square or factoring is usually possible. If not, plug it into the calculator.

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