Unit I: Set Theory

Georg Cantor 1845 -1918

Developed set theory Set theory was not initially accepted because it was radically different Set theory today is widely accepted and is used in many areas of mathematics.

John Venn

1834-1923

studied and taught logic and probability theory articulated Boole s algebra of logic devised a simple way to diagram set operations (Venn Diagrams)

George Boole

1815-1864

self-taught mathematician with an interest in logic developed an algebra of logic (Boolean Algebra) featured the operators  And/or/not/nor (exclusive or)

Augustus De Morgan 1806-1871

developed two laws of negation interested, like other mathematicians, in using mathematics to demonstrate logic furthered Boole s work of incorporating logic and mathematics formally stated the laws of set theory

Set Theory Notation

Symbol A, B a, b { } xA x A AB AB AB AB | or : | | => A B  B A A B n(A) A=B A B Meaning designates Set Name designates Set Elements enclose elements in set x is an element of set A x is not an element of A A is a subset of B (includes equal sets) A is a proper subset of B (B contains all elements of A) A is not a subset of B (B does not contains all elements of A) A is a superset of B (all elements of B are also contained in A) such that (if a condition is true) the cardinality of a set implies that the empty set; a set with no elements A Intersection B (Defines set which includes all the common elements of A & B) A Union B (Defines set which includes all the elements of A as well as of B) Compliment of A; (Set all elements which are not in A) A minus B ( set of all elements which are in A but not in B) the number of elements in A A is equal to B ; A and B contain the same elements A is equivalent to B ; A and B contain the same number of elements

Sets
The word set in mathematics was first used by Georg Cantor. A Set is any collection of distinct and distinguishable objects around us .  The term distinct means different and thus no object is repeated.  Distinguishable means noticeable or apparent. These distinct & distinguishable objects in a set are called elements or members of that set. For example: If we talk about stationary used by any student then Pen, Pencil, Eraser, Sharpener, Paper are the distinct & distinguishable objects & collection of these object will represent the set of stationary used by any student. Similarly, we can think of a set of state capital. Notation: Usually  We denote sets with upper-case letters, like A, B, C, ..S,T,U and  We denote elements with lower-case letters, like a, b, c etc.  We can represent a set in writing by listing all of its elements within curly brackets  If x is an element of the set A, then we denote it by xA pronounce as x belongs to A  If x is not an element of the set A, then we denote it by x A pronounce as or x does not belongs to A . Thus following are three example of sets  A={Pen, Pencil, Eraser, Sharpener, Paper}  B={lucknow, Patana, Bhopal, Itanagar, Shilong}  C={a,b,g,f,k,r}

Basic Properties of Sets

Sets are inherently unordered; thus, ordering of elements make no difference!  {a, b, c} = {a, c, b} = {b, a, c} ={b, c, a}. All elements are distinct; thus, multiple listings make no difference!  {a, b, c} = {a, a, b, a, b, c, c, c, c}. This set contains at most 3 elements! All elements are distinguishable; thus, we always know each and every element of any set.

2-Ways of Describing Sets

Roaster Form/List the elements: We can denote a set S in writing by listing all of its elements in curly brackets:  {a, b, c} is the set of 3 objects are denoted by a, b, c.  B={Lucknow, Patana, Bhopal, Itanagar, Shilong} Mathematical Inclusion Rule/Set builder notation: For any proposition P(x) over any universe of discourse, {x: P(x)} is the set of all x such that P(x).  A={1,2,3,4} in set builder notation can be denoted as A={x :x is an integer where x>0 and x<5 or (Integers x:1 x 5)  B={x: x is state-capital}

Types of Sets
Null Set (or Empty Set or Void Set):Any set that contains no elements is called the Null Set(or Empty Set or Void Set). It is denoted by { } or J. Example: B = {x : x is a positive number 0} Universal set: The set of all objects pertinent to a given discussion is called as Universal set and is designated by the symbol U or S or Example: U = {all students at Lucknow University} Singleton Set: A set having single element is called a singleton set. Example: A={x:x is first prime minister of India} B={ } Pair Set: Any set that contains exactly two elements is called the Pair Set. Example: B = {x: x=x2 , x is a an integer}={0,1} Finite set: A set having Finite Number of element is called Finite set. Example: A = {1,2,3,4,5,} Infinite set: A set having Infinite Number of element is called Infinite set. Example: A={x:x is natural number} B=Set of points on a line segment

Simple Set Example in context of a Deck of Playing Cards

The universal set is a deck of ordinary playing cards each card is an element in the universal set some subsets are:  face cards  numbered cards  suits  poker hands

Finite Set Cardinality

The number of elements of a finite set is a natural number (non-negative integer), and is called the cardinality of the set. Set Definition Cardinality A = {x | x is a lower case letter} |A| = 26 B = {2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7} |B| = 6 C = {x | x is an even number 10} |C|= 4 D = {x | x is an even number e 10} |D| = 5

Special Sets
Z represents the set of integers, Z = {0, 1, -1, 2, -2, ...}  Z+ is the set of positive integers Z+ = {1, 2, 3, ...} and  Z- is the set of negative integers N represents the set of natural numbers represents the set of real numbers Q represents the set of rational numbers Q = {a/b | a, bZ b{0}

Equal Sets
Set Equality: Two sets are declared to be equal if and only if they contain exactly the same elements. Note that equal sets contain precisely the same elements. The order in which the elements are listed is unimportant. Elements may be repeated in set definitions without increasing the size of the sets. For example:  The set {1, 2, 3, 4} ={x:x is an integer where x>0 and x<5 } = {x:x is a positive integer whose square is >0 and <25}

Subset
Subset: Set A is called Subset of the set B if all the members of A are also members of B. The notation for subset is very similar to the notation for less than or equal to, and means, in terms of the sets, included in or equal to. If A is Subset of B then we represent it by A B So, if A B => Example:  If A={1,2,5,} & B={1,2,3,4,5,} then A B  If A={1,2,5,} & B={2,1,5,} then A is subset of B as well as B is Subset of A . Proper Subset: A is a proper subset of B (represented as A B if )  all the members of A are also members of B,  but in addition there exists at least one element c such that but. The notation for subset is very similar to the notation for less than, and means, in terms of the sets, included in but not equal to. Example:  If A={1,2,5,} & B={1,2,3,4,5,} then A is proper subset of B  If A={1,2,5,} & B={2,1,5,} then A is not a proper subset of B as well as B is not a proper Subset of A . Notation : means is a subset of means is a proper subset of means is not a subset of

x A xB

Comparability of Sets :

Two set A & B are Said to Be Comparable if either of these happens

 AB  BA  A=B Similarly if neither of these above three exist i.e. A B, B A, or A B then A & B are said to incomparable. Example:  If A={1,2,5,} & B={1,2,3,4,5,} then A & B are comparable as A B  If A={1,2,5,7} & B={1,2,} then A & B are comparable as B A  If A={1,2,5,} & B={2,1,5,} then A & B are comparable as B = A  If A={1,2,3,4} & B{6,7,8,9} then A & B are incomparable as Neither A B, nor B A, or A B

The Power Set (P)

The Power Set (P) : The power set is the set of all subsets that can be created from a given set A. Power set of a set A is denoted by P(A). Mathematically, P(A)=(x: x A) It is noted that & A belongs to P(A) The cardinality of the power set is 2 to the power of the given set s cardinality, i.e. if |A|=n, then |P(A)| = 2n Example: A = {a, b, c} where |A| = 3 P(A)={{a,b},{a,c},{b,c},{a},{b},{c},A,J} and |P (A)| = 23=8

Venn Diagrams Venn diagrams are diagrammatic representation of sets showing relationships between sets and their elements. Universal set (U) is represented by Rectangle. All other sets are shown within universal set (U). Example 1
A={x:xIZ and x e 8} B={x:xIZ+; x is even & e 10} Clearly A B & B A
+

A B ! A B

Universal Set

Example 2
A={x:xIZ+and x e 9} B={x:xIZ+; x is even & e 8} Clearly A B, B A & A B

Example 3
A={x: xIZ ; x is even & e 10} B={x: xIZ+; x is odd & x e 10} Clearly A B, B A
+

Example 4
U = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8} A = {1, 2, 6, 7} B = {2, 3, 4, 7} C = {4, 5, 6, 7}

Set Theoretic Operations

Set theoretic operations allow us to build new sets out of old, just as the logical connectives allowed us to create compound propositions from simpler propositions. Given sets A and B, the set theoretic operators are:  Union ():  Intersection ()  Difference (-)  Complement ( )  Symmetric Difference () These operations give us new sets AB, AB, A-B, AB, andDA.

Unions of Sets
Unions of Sets: The union of two sets A & B is the set of all those elements which are either in A or in B or in both. This set is denoted by A U B. Symbolically, A U B = { x : x A or x B } Properties of the union operation  Identity law: A U = A  Domination law: A U U = U  Idempotent law: A U A = A  Commutative law: A U B = B U A  Associative law: A U (B U C) = (A U B) U C Examples  {1, 2} U = {1, 2}  {1, 2, 3} U {3, 4, 5} = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}  {New York, New Delhi} U {3, 4} = {New York, New Delhi, 3, 4}

Intersection of Sets
Intersection of Sets: The intersection of Set A and B, written as A common to both A and B. Symbolically, A B = { x : x A and x B } Properties of the intersection operation  Identity law : A U = A  Domination law : A =  Idempotent law : A A = A  Commutative law : A B = B A  Associative law : A (B C) = (A B) C Examples  {1, 2, 3} {3, 4, 5} = { 3 }  {New York, New Delhi} {3, 4} =  {1, 2} =  A={1,2,3} & B={2,1,5,6} then A B = { 1,2 } B is the set of all elements

Difference of Sets
Difference of Sets: The Difference of two Set A and B, written as A of A which are not in B. Symbolically, A B = { x : x A and x B} Properties of the Difference operation  A B=A B Important!  A A=  A=  A = Examples  {1, 2, 3} {3, 4, 5} = { 1,2 }  {New York, New Delhi} {3, 4} = {New York, New Delhi}  {1, 2} = {1, 2}  A={1,2,3} & B={2,1,5,6} then A B = { 3 } B is the set of all elements

Complement of a Set
Complement of a Set: Complement of a set A, written as Ac or A is set of all those member of Universal Set which are not in A Symbolically, A = { x : x U & x A }  A = U A, where U is the universal set Examples (assuming U = Z)  A={1, 2, 3} the A = Z-A= { , -2, -1, 0, 4, 5, 6, }

Symmetric Difference
The symmetric difference of two sets A & B is the set of all those element which are in A but not in B, & which are n B but not in A Symbolically, AB = { x : x A x B } Clearly, AB =(A-B) U (B-A) Examples {1, 2, 3} {3, 4, 5} = { 1,2,4,5 } {New York, New Delhi} {3, 4} = {New York, New Delhi,3,4} {1, 2} = {1, 2} A={1,2,3} & B={2,1,5,6} then A B = { 3,5,6 }

Set Identities
Identity laws Domination laws Idempotent laws Double complementation Commutativity Associativity Distribuitivity DeMorgan  DeMorgan s I: A B ! A B

DeMorgan s II: A B ! A B

LEMMA: (Associativity of Unions)

(AB )C = A(B C ) Proof : (AB )CI = {x | x A B or x C } = {x | (x A or x B ) or x C } = {x | x A or ( x B or x C ) } = {x | x A or (x B C ) } = A(B C ) Other identities are derived similarly. (by def.) (by def.) (logical assoc.) (by def.) (by def.)

Set Identities via Venn

It s often simpler to understand an identity by drawing a Venn diagram. For example DeMorgan s first law can be visualized as follows. A B ! A B