MINE SURVEYING INTRODUCTION TO THE IMPORTANCE OF MINE SURVEYING Mine survey is part of mining science and technology that

deals with measurement on the surface and in the earth crust, during exploration, exploitation of minerals and construction of mining plants. It includes all measurements, calculations and mapping which serve the purpose of ascertaining and documenting information at all stages from prospecting to exploitation and utilizing mineral deposits both by surface and underground working. The results of mine surveys are then used for the plotting of plans conditions of deposits and also for the solution of various problems of the mining geometry. The principal tasks of mine- surveying include; (1) The interpretation of the geology of mineral deposits in relation to the economic exploitation thereof (2) (3) (4) (5) The investigation and negotiation of mineral mining rights Making and recording, and calculations of mine surveying measurements Mining cartography Investigation and prediction of effects of mine working on the surface and underground strata (6) (7) Mine planning in the context of local environment and subsequent rehabilitation The location, structure, configuration, dimensions and characteristics of the mineral deposits and of the adjoining rocks and overlying strata. The assessment of mineral reserves and the economics of their exploitation. Other mine surveying activities include: a) The acquisition, sale, lease and management of mineral properties. b) Providing the basis of the planning, direction and control of mine workings to ensure economical and safe mining operations.

c) The study of rock and ground movements caused by mining operations, their prediction, and the precautions and remedial treatment of subsidence damage. d) Assisting in planning and rehabilitation of land affected by mineral operations and collaborating with local government planning authorities. Nevertheless, mine surveyors have to participate in all stages of the operation of mining plants from the exploration of a mineral deposit and up to the abandonment of a mine after it has been worked out, and to perform specific survey work at all these stages; (a) Exploration of mineral deposits: the mine surveyor make land surveys, the determine and transfers into nature the positions of exploring workings (pits , ditches etc) makes the surveys of exploring workings assaying points, seams outcrops, bedding elements of mineral deposits and enclosing rock, and complies the graphical documentation representing the shape and bedding conditions of a deposit. Mine-surveying plans and sections plotted by the results of geological prospecting are used for the calculations of mineral reserve and design of mining plant. (b) Design and construction of mining plant the mine surveyor participates in

construction surveying; the determination of the boundaries of mine field according to the current regulations on land allotment; design of working systems and surface structures; development of measures for the protection of surface and underground structures against harmful influence of underground working; compilation of the graphs of work organization and plans of mining work for the periods of construction and exploitation of a mining plant; and the calculation of the losses and industrial reserves of minerals. (c) Exploitation of deposits: the role of the mine surveyor at the stage of exploitation is extremely important and includes the following operation; surveying of workings; assigning of directions to working; compilation of plans by the results of surveys; control of the mining work in accordance with the design specifications and safety regulations; reclamation of land planning of the preparatory and stopping mining

work, calculation of the balance and industrial reserves, losses and dilution of minerals. The Mine Surveyor is one of the key contributors to the welfare of the mining industry. They are responsible for maintaining an accurate plan of the mine as a whole and will update maps of the surface layout to account for new buildings and other structures, as well as surveying the underground mine workings in order to keep a record of the mining operation. More importantly, the surveyor is involved in the measuring process to calculate ore production, in volume or mass units, from the mining operation. In addition to calculation of ore production from the mining operation, the volume of the dumps of waste accumulating on the surface of the mining property will also be surveyed. This aspect of the work has turned the mine surveyor into a manager of the resources of the mine.

SURVEYING TOOLS PLANS These are drawings of orthogonal projections of objects onto a horizontal plane. They are widely used for the representation of the Earths surface and mining workings. Survey plans usually contain the elevation marks (height coordinates) of particular points or are constructed in isohypses; in the latter case, they are essentially projections with numerical data.

MAPS: These are representations of a geographic area, usually a portion of the earth's surface, drawn or printed on a flat surface. In most instances a map is a diagrammatic rather than a pictorial representation of the terrain; it usually contains a number of generally accepted symbols, which indicate the various natural, artificial, or cultural, features of the area it covers. The basic type of map used to represent land areas is the topographic map. Such

maps show the natural features of the area covered as well as certain artificial features, known as cultural features. Political boundaries, such as the limits of towns, countries, and states, are also shown. Because of the great variety of information included on them, topographic maps are most often used as general reference maps. A topographic map is a type of map characterized by large-scale detail and quantitative representation of relief, usually using contour lines in modern mapping, but historically using a variety of methods. Traditional definitions require a topographic map to show both natural and man-made features. A topographic map is typically published as a map series, made up of two or more map sheets that combine to form the whole map. A contour line is a combination of two line segments that connect but do not intersect; these represent elevation on a topographic map.

Basic elements of a map

Geographic Grid: In order to locate a feature on a map or to describe the extent of an area, it is necessary to refer to the map's geographic grid. This grid is made up of meridians of longitude and parallels of latitude. By agreed convention, longitude is marked 180 east and 180 west from 0 at Greenwich, England. Latitude is marked 90 north and 90 south from the 0 parallel of the equator. Points on a map can be accurately defined by giving degrees, minutes, and seconds for both latitude and longitude. Maps are usually arranged so that true north is at the top of the sheet, and are provided with a compass rose or some other indication of magnetic variation. Scale: The scale to which a map is drawn represents the ratio of the distance between two points on the earth and the distance between the two corresponding points on the map. The scale is commonly represented in figures, as 1:100,000, which means that one unit measured on the map (say 1 cm) represents 100,000 of the same units on the earth's surface. Objects are depicted in mine-surveying plans by diminishing the results of natural measurements. The degree of diminution of a line in a plan is determined by the scale i.e a dimension less fractional number in which the numerator is unity and the denominator

shows how many time a line depicted in the plan can be laid off along the corresponding horizontal distance in the terrain. This is what is called the numerical scale is what is called the numerical scale of length, or simply numerical scale. Consequently, S = 1/M where M is the denominator of the numerical scale.

In plans, numerical scales are written as simple fractions, for example; 1/500,1/1000.1/2000,1/10,000 etc. The larger the denominator, the smaller the scale. For instance, if the horizontal distance of a line on the terrain is equal to 174.30m and the scale of plan is 1/2000, the length of the corresponding line on the plan will be 174.3:20= 8.71 cm; if a line on a plan made on a scale 1/5000 is equal to 10.2cm the horizontal distance on the terrain corresponding to that line will be 10.2 x50 = 510m.

SECTIONS Sections are the representation of the details of an object, which are located in a certain section plane. In mine surveying practice, the most common types of sections are geological sections and sections of mining workings which depict the enclosing rock, some details of a working, supports and other objects. In sections, objects and details may be projected onto vertical, horizontal or inclined planes.

PROFILES Profiles are graphs depicting, in a vertical section, only the contour or part of the contour of an object considered, for instance, the terrain relief, rocks in the roof or foot of a working, haulage tracks, etc.

PROJECTIONS These are graphical representations of particular spatial objects on the plane of drawings. In mine surveying, orthogonal projections are preferably used, especially their variety projections with numerical data. Orthogonal projections may be made on horizontal, vertical or inclined planes for more clear representation, axonometric and affine projections are also employed.

SKETCHES They are rough drawing of objects which are made by hand i.e without the use of rulers and other drawing instruments. For instance, a mine survey makes sketches in the field book when carrying out instrumental survey or taping of mining workings, measuring the reserves of a mineral in store etc.

CLASSIFICATION OF DRAWINGS AND RULE OF MAPPING As regards their compilation, all mine surveying drawings can be divided into (1) Primary drawings: They are mapped directs by the result of a survey, which are recalculated to a single coordinate system. Original (primary) drawing are the main technical and juridical document for solving various problems of mining geometry. Original graphical documentation should have an accuracy characterized by the data as shown below: S/No 1 Error in Maximum value, mm

Mutual arrangement of intersection points of a 0.2 rectangular

Position of stations of a control or survey net 0.4 relative to the coordinate grid.

Mutual arrangement of the nearest stations of a 0.6 control or survey net

Position of conspicuous points relative

to the 0.6

nearest stations of a control or survey net 5 Mutual arrangement of the nearest conspicuous 0.8 points.

2. Secondary drawings are prepared by reproducing (copying) the original drawing. They must be complemented and correct when a need arises and can be used for various practical purposes, for instance for the compilations of exchange and calendar plans of mining work development, special plans for accounting the reserves, mines stock and loss of a mineral, plans of mine ventilation, plan for the prevention of accidents, etc. The main requirements of secondary graphical documents are that they should contain all the essential information as refigured by the purpose and that this information should be drawn clearly. Graphical documentation should preferably be drawn on the scales;

1/500,1/1000,1/2000,1/50,00 or 1/10,00; the scale

1/25,000 is recommended for

cartograms and general charts, and scales 1/5.1/10/1/20,1/50,1/100 and 1/200 , for small objects.

Processes and materials for reproduction of mining graphical documentation. The principal processes for the reproduction of drawings of mining graphical documentation are diazotpe copying, electrophotography, and offset printing. 1. Diazotype copying is the most popular process for the reproduction of original

drawings made on transparent materials . The original are reproduced on diazo-paper and diazo-film. Light sensitive diazotype materials are manufactured industrially in a wide range and differ from one another in the kind of a light- sensitive layer and base and methods of development. Diazotype copying is performed in rotary copying machines and copying frame. 2. Electrophotography is among the most advanced modern processes of reproduction of graphical images. It is distinguished favourbaly by high productive facsimile reproduction of image, simple technology, and possibility of copying of opaque

originals. Electro photographic process is based on the use of certain semiconductors whose conduction changes under the effect of light. 3. Offset printing is the most efficient and simple process of the reproduction of documents. Offset printing ensures a higher quality of printed graphical

documentation than is possible in diazotype copying on map paper and is well suitable for making multicolour prints.

SYSTEM OF PLANE RECTANGULAR COORDINATES. Geographic coordinates are expresses in angular values. They are inconvenient for engineering calculations in geodesy and mine surveying. For this reason a system of plane rectangular coordinates seems to be more convenient for land and mine surveying and solving various engineering problems when their result should be plotted, can largely simplify topographic and mine surveying adjustment of reference nets, calculation of coordinates of reference points, processing of the results of surveys, etc. The plane system of coordinates also ensures precise coincidence of plans of adjacent areas, etc. The initial lines in a system of plane rectangular coordinates are mutually perpendicular lines xx-yy lying in a horizontal plane and called respectively the axis of abscissa (x-axis) and the axis of ordinates (y-axis). In contrast to mathematics, the axis of abscissa in land and mine surveying plans is arranged vertically and coincides with the direction of a meridian. The intersection of these axes is the origin of coordinates (point O.) The coordinate axes divided the plane of a drawing into four quadrant which are numbered clockwise beginning from the quadrant in the north-east section ( as in the figure above ). In land and mine surveying, the portions of the earths surface measure up to 10km in radius are considered to be flat. The larger areas of the earths surface are depicted, to minimize distortions, in special projection in which the earth ellipsoid is conventionally developed on a plane the coincidence of both geographic and rectangular coordinates.

MINE COORDINATE SYSTEM A system of coordinate is essential for all permanent mining operations. It is very desirable that all mining operations in a given area be tied into the same system, as this minimizes problems of boundaries and connections. Wherever possible, this system should be tied into and made part of the state or regional grid system. It is desirable to orient the coordinate grid on a true north line and to position the origin of the coordinates so that all of the work will be in the north-east quadrant, making the north and east coordinates always positive. This can be done by subtracting suitable constant values from the north and east coordinates of the regional system. The residual values are of more convenient magnitude and can be used as the local mine coordinates. If the long axis of the mineralization is not generally north-south or east-west, it may be useful to establish a secondary coordinate system oriented parallel to the long axis. This makes it possible to depict the mine workings more conveniently on the working maps. Commonly the elevations will be based on sea level, as taken from established stations. If this is not the case, a different reference elevation may be necessary. Frequently, this is chosen so as to be above any possible one working, making all elevations have a negative sign. This can be ignored if the measurements are considered to be down from the plane instead of up. Most mining operations are concentrated within relatively small surface areas. Thus it is possible to ignore most of the problems introduced by the curvature of the earth and by the convergence of the meridians except in the most precise work. A level surface is considered to be parallel and perpendicular to the lines of latitude. These simplifying assumptions are entirely satisfactory for compact mining operations but may not be adequate for distances exceedingly several kilometers. In such cases the principle of geodesy must be made used or applied.

CONTOURS AND THEIR INTERPOLATION A contour line (also isoclines or isarithm) of a function of two variables is a curve along which the function has a constant value. In cartography, a contour line (often just called a "contour") joins points of equal elevation (height) above a given level, such as mean sea level. A contour map is a map illustrated with contour lines, for example a topographic map, which thus shows valleys and hills, and the steepness of slopes. The contour interval of a contour map is the difference in elevation between successive contour lines. More generally, a contour line for a function of two variables is a curve connecting points where the function has the same particular value. The gradient of the function is always perpendicular to the contour lines. When the lines are close together the magnitude of the gradient is large: the variation is steep. A level set is a generalization of a contour line for functions of any number of variables. Contour lines are curved or straight lines on a map describing the intersection of a real or hypothetical surface with one or more horizontal planes. The configuration of these contours allows map readers to infer relative gradient of a parameter and estimate that parameter at specific places. Contour lines may be either traced on a visible threedimensional model of the surface, as when a photogrammetrist viewing a stereo-model plots elevation contours, or interpolated from estimated surface elevations, as when a computer program threads contours through a network of observation points of area centroids. In the latter case, the method of interpolation affects the reliability of individual isoclines and their portrayal of slope, pits and peaks.

CARTOGRAPHY Cartography is the study and practice of making maps. Combining science, aesthetics, and technique, cartography builds on the premise that reality can be modeled in ways that communicate spatial information effectively. The fundamental problems of traditional cartography include:

Set the map's agenda and select traits of the object to be mapped. This is the concern of map editing. Traits may be physical, such as roads or land masses, or may be abstract, such as toponyms or political boundaries.

Represent the terrain of the mapped object on flat media. This is the concern of map projections.

Eliminate characteristics of the mapped object that are not relevant to the map's purpose. This is the concern of generalization.

Reduce the complexity of the characteristics that will be mapped. This is also the concern of generalization.

Orchestrate the elements of the map to best convey its message to its audience. This is the concern of map design.

Modern cartography is closely integrated with geographic information science (GIS) and constitutes many theoretical and practical foundations of geographic information systems. Scales: objects are depicted in mine surveying plans by diminishing the results of natural (field) measurements. The degree of diminution of a line in a plan is determined by the scale, i.e. a dimensionless fractional number in which the numerator is unity and the denominator shows how many times a line depicted in the plan can be laid off along the corresponding horizontal distance in the terrain. This is what is called the numerical scale of lengths, or simply numerical scale. Consequently, s/S = 1/M, where M is the denominator of the numerical scale. In plans, numerical scales are written as simple fractions for example, 1/500, 1/1000, etc. thus, if a numerical scale 1/1000 has been adopted for a plan, this means that horizontal distances on the terrain will be diminished on the plan to one thousandth. It is distinguished between large and small scales. A plan drawn on a larger scale can depict more details of a locality. The scale of a plan or map is chosen according to specifications and depending on where the plan will be used. Distances on plans can be measured with an accuracy permitted by the resolving power of mans eye, which is usually taken equal to 0.1mm (with the

critical angle of vision 60 and the distance of best vision to an object 250mm, the resolution is equal to 0.073mm or roughly 0.1mm).

PLANIMETER AND AREAS A planimeter is a measuring instrument used to determine the area of an arbitrary twodimensional shape. They consist of a linkage with a pointer on one end, used to trace around the boundary of the shape. The other end of the linkage is fixed for a polar planimeter and restricted to a line for a linear planimeter. Tracing around the perimeter of a surface induces a movement in another part of the instrument and a reading of this is used to establish the area of the shape. The planimeter contains a measuring wheel that rolls along the drawing as the operator traces the contour. When the planimeter's measuring wheel moves perpendicular to its axis, it rolls, and this movement is recorded. When the measuring wheel moves parallel to its axis, the wheel skids without rolling, so this movement is ignored. That means the planimeter measures the distance that its measuring wheel travels, projected perpendicularly to the measuring wheel's axis of rotation. The area of the shape is proportional to the number of turns through which the measuring wheel rotates when the planimeter is traced along the complete perimeter of the shape. Developments of the planimeter can establish the position of the first moment of area (center of mass), and even the second moment of area. The pictures show a linear and a polar planimeter. The pointer M at one end of the planimeter follows the contour C of the surface S to be measured. For the linear planimeter the movement of the "elbow" E is restricted to the y-axis. For the polar planimeter the "elbow" is connected to an arm with fixed other endpoint O. Connected to the arm ME is the measuring wheel with its axis of rotation parallel to ME. A movement of the arm ME can be decomposed into a movement perpendicular to ME, causing the wheel to rotate, and a movement parallel to ME, causing the wheel to skid, with no contribution to its reading.

The working of the linear planimeter may be explained by measuring the area of a rectangle ABCD. Moving with the pointer from A to B the arm EM moves through the yellow parallelogram, with area equal to PQEM. This area is also equal to the area of the parallelogram A"ABB". The measuring wheel measures the distance PQ (perpendicular to EM). Moving from C to D the arm EM moves through the green parallelogram, with area equal to the area of the rectangle A"DCB". The measuring wheel now moves in the opposite direction, subtracting this reading from the former. The net result is the measuring of the difference of the yellow and green areas, which is the area of ABCD. There are of course the movements along BC and DA, but as they are the same but opposite, they cancel each other on the reading of the wheel. Linear planimeter polar planimeter

INTERPRETATION OF MAPS AND PLANS Map Projections A map projection is any method of representing the surface of a sphere or other threedimensional body on a plane. Map projections are necessary for creating maps. All map projections distort the surface in some fashion. Depending on the purpose of the map, some distortions are acceptable and others are not; therefore different map projections exist in order to preserve some properties of the sphere-like body at the expense of other properties. There is no limit to the number of possible map projections. For simplicity, this article usually assumes that the surface to be mapped is the surface of a sphere. However, the Earth and other sufficiently large celestial bodies are generally better modeled as oblate spheroids, and small objects such as asteroids often have irregular

shapes. These other surfaces can be mapped as well. Therefore, more generally, a map projection is any method of "flattening" into a plane a continuous surface having curvature in all three spatial dimensions. Projection as used here is not limited to perspective projections, such as those resulting from casting a shadow on a screen, or the rectilinear image produced by a pinhole camera on a flat film plate. Rather, any mathematical function transforming coordinates from the curved surface to the plane is a projection. Carl Friedrich Gauss's Theorema Egregium proved that a sphere cannot be represented on a plane without distortion. Since any method of representing a sphere's surface on a plane is a map projection, all map projections distort. Every distinct map projection distorts in a distinct way. The study of map projections is the characterization of these distortions. A map of the Earth is a representation of a curved surface on a plane. Therefore a map projection must have been used to create the map, and, conversely, maps could not exist without map projections. Maps can be more useful than globes in many situations: they are more compact and easier to store; they readily accommodate an enormous range of scales; they are viewed easily on computer displays; they can facilitate measuring properties of the terrain being mapped; they can show larger portions of the Earth's surface at once; and they are cheaper to produce and transport. These useful traits of maps motivate the development of map projections. Many properties can be measured on the Earth's surface independently of its geography. Some of these properties are: Area, Shape, Direction, Bearing, Distance and Scale. Map projections can be constructed to preserve one or more of these properties, though not all of them simultaneously. Each projection preserves or compromises or approximates basic metric properties in different ways. The purpose of the map determines which projection should form the base for the map. Because many purposes exist for maps, many projections have been created to suit those purposes. Another major concern that drives the choice of a projection is the compatibility of data sets. Data sets are geographic information. As such, their collection depends on the

chosen model of the Earth. Different models assign slightly different coordinates to the same location, so it is important that the model be known and that the chosen projection be compatible with that model. On small areas (large scale) data compatibility issues are more important since metric distortions are minimal at this level. In very large areas (small scale), on the other hand, distortion is a more important factor to consider. Construction of a map projection The creation of a map projection involves two steps: i. Selection of a model for the shape of the Earth or planetary body (usually choosing between a sphere or ellipsoid). Because the Earth's actual shape is irregular, information is lost in this step. ii. Transformation of geographic coordinates (longitude and latitude) to Cartesian (x,y) or polar plane coordinates. Cartesian coordinates normally have a simple relation to eastings and northings defined on a grid superimposed on the projection. Some of the simplest map projections are literally projections, as obtained by placing a light source at some definite point relative to the globe and projecting its features onto a specified surface. This is not the case for most projections which are defined only in terms of mathematical formulae that have no direct physical interpretation.

ROLE OF MINE SURVEYING SERVICE IN MINING SAFETY Modern mining can be characterized by ever increasing depths of mines and accordingly, more complicated geological and hydrological conditions. With an increase in the mining depth, rock pressure increases intensively. moreover the cases of sudden rock, coal, gas and water outbursts, self ignition of coal, etc. are more probable to occur in deeply bedded seams. Under such conditions, special methods and means are required for carrying out the stoping and preparatory mining operations, which should be strictly observed and controlled properly to ensure the safety and efficiency of mining.

Under the conditions of elevated hazard of mining, mine surveying service plays an important part and has certain specifics. In many aspects of mining safety, mine surveying service takes the prime role and is responsible for making decisions which are obligatory for all other mining specialists and workers. To ensure safety control, mine surveyors determine the boundaries of harzardous zones and represent them on the plans of the mining workings are approaching harzardous zones, participate in the development of safety measures, and observe that these measures fulfilled properly. There are three principal groups of hazardous zones which may be associated with: a) Flooded mining workings; b) Formation of zones of elevated rock pressure between adjacent seams, and c) Formation of unprotected zones and zones of elevated rock pressure in seams liable to outbursts. Hazardous zones associated with flooded workings can in turn be divided into the following types: a) Zones near flooded or gassy workings in a single seam b) Those near flooded or gassy workings in adjacent seams; c) Zones near flooded workings driven in the overburden; d) Those near unplugged or poorly plugged boreholes; and e) Zones near tectonic disturbances (dislocations) In mine surveying practice, dangerous conditions are encountered most often in workings approaching flooded or gassy old workings. Methods for the construction of safe boundaries and special safety measures of the mining work have been developed for each type of hazardous zone.

HORIZONTAL SURVEYS OF UNDERGROUND WORKINGS The principal sources of mine surveying are; 1. Underground workings (opening, preparatory, development, stopping , draining, exploratory , etc). 2. 3. 4. Boreholes (prospecting, operating, unwavering, water observation, etc).

Boundaries of safe mining work, safety and barrier pillars. Contours of inundated, gas laden, and caved workings, centre of

underground fires,

isolating partition and other ventilation structure, gas

blower sites, areas and contours dangerous in gas or rock outbursts, rock bump, water inrush, floating earth, source of underground water, etc; 5. 6. Characteristics points of bedding elements of mineral deposits Point for documentation of geological disturbances and other textural and structural characteristics of deposits and enclosing rocks; 7. 8. Point of mineral assaying Location of surface and underground artificial structures and stationary equipment in underground workings.(hoists, explosive store, informative sheds) The errors permissible in the measurements of horizontal and indignation angles and side lengths in polygon metric traverses can be characterized by the data given below. RMs error of RMs error measured horizontal angle $M measured indication angle ; MV of Coefficient influence linear measurements Random 20 30 0.001 of Length in independent component , V Systematic P 0.00005 0.01

Horizontal underground surveys The principal kind of horizontal survey in underground workings is theodolite surveying which consists of angular and linear measurements and subsequent calculation of the rectangular coordinates x, y of survey points . Theodolite traverses may be divided into free and non-free.  Free theodolite traverses are referenced to only one point with fixed coordinates and one fixed direction angle ; they may be stretched (fig 5.1a) or broken controlled by a repeated theodolite survey closed traverses (fig 5.1c) are controlled by comparing the sum of the measure angles and the sum of

coordinate increases with their analytical values  Non free theodolite traverses have redundant initial data. They can begun; (a) Between the fixed points and fixed direction angles; in that case complete control is ensured in terms of direction angles and coordinates (fig 5.1d). (b) Between the fixed direction angles with the initial coordinates of one point, i.e. with control in terms of direction angles (fig 5.1e). (c) Between two points with fixed coordinates and with an initial direction angles i.e. with control by the coordinates of the fixed points ( fig 5.1f) ; and (d) Between two points with fixed coordinate with the initial direction angle being unknown, in that case, control is possible by the length of the closing line of the traverse (fig 5.1g). In case under (b), (c) and (d) a complete control of whether a theodolite traverse has been run properly is not ensured because of which a repeated traverse is run or the lines and angles are measure run or the lines and angles are measure repeatedly. Horizontal surveys in underground workings may involve certain difficulties which increase labour consumption, reduce the accuracy of measurements, and increase the error accumulation. Among the principal factor, causing such difficulties are; continuous mobility of the underground objects being surveyed and rock displacement around

workings resulting in uncertain spatial position of permanent survey points underground; certain limitations in selecting the most favoruable shapes of theodolite traverses and the

best

lengths of traverse sides; constricted conditions for surveying in underground laden atmosphere in mines.

working; poor illumination of working places; dust

In order to minimize the influence of the factors indicated on the accuracy of surveys and to avoid unproductive labour expenditure, it is essential to adhere to the following main principles in surveying work, 1. Mine surveying should proceed from the more general and more precise procedure to more particular and less accurate work. 2. In any kind of surveying work, all measurement must be done with the optimum accuracy sufficient for the purpose. 3. Mine surveying must be carried out under an appropriate and timely control both of the field and in the office analysis of the results of survey. For reliable and efficient performance of mine surveying, it is essential before starting the work, to study can fully the conditions of the field work to draft the plan of construction of survey traverses by the results of reconnaissance and consider in it the existing peculiarities, narrow` place, etc; to determine the set of surveying instruments and equipments, to test and adjust the instrument, to assign performers for the survey work plan, and, when required, to make preliminary calculation of the accuracy of surveys.

VERTICAL SURVEYS IN UNDERGROUND WORKINGS Vertical survey, or leveling is a survey procedure in which the height difference of some points over other are measure in a certain sequence, and then the required height of point are calculated from the height of initial points and the height difference measured. This can be made by two methods which include: (i) (ii) Geometric or direct leveling Trigonometric or indirect leveling

The former method is employed in underground workings with small inclination angles (up to 50) and the latter in steeper working.

The height transfer by geometric leveling should satisfy the following requirements. a. The discrepancies of measured heights of points should not exceed 50mm polygonometric traverses or 80mm traverse line. Km) b. Staff spacing should not exceed 200m in length and differ from one another by more than 10m. c. leveling lines between the initial bench marks should be close or run forward and back. d. the discrepancies of height difference at a station, as read off on the black and red face of staff or at two different settings of the level instrument, should not exceed 10mm, and. e. before starting the leveling procedure the available station points should be checked for stability.  in

 in theodolite traverses ( where L is the length of a

The discrepancies between the height difference established earlier and the test one should not exceed 10 and 20mm respectively in polygon metric and theodolite traverses. When transferring the height marks in underground working by trigonometric leveling, the following accuracy requirements should be observed. a. The permissible discrepancy of a zero offset in the measurements of indignation angles is 1.51 in polygonmetric traverses; b. The discrepancy of height difference determined for a line by leveling form and back should be not more than 1/2000 of the side length in polygonometric traverses or 1/1000 in theodolite traverses; c. The discrepancy of two measured heights of theodolite and signals should be not more than 5mm in polygonometric traverses or 10mm in theodolite traverses; and d. The discrepancy in the height differences of the entire line of levels in polygon metric traversing should be in polygonometric traversing should be not more than;   1/n + sin2S/3

Where (s) is the total inclined length of the forward and back traverese; m; n is the total number of sides in the forward and back traverses. S= mean indignation angle of traverse sides. In theodolite traversing this discrepancy should be not more than 120mm     

PRACTICALS Distance measurements The standard device for measuring distance in surface or underground tranverses is the steel tape. In mine surveying, the distances commonly are measured along the line of sight from the horizontal axis of the telescope to the sighting point. This is known as slope chaining. The technique is preferred to horizontal chaining because of the frequent steeply inclined lines of sight and because of its higher accuracy. The tapes used are of 20, 30, and 50m. The best steel tape is the 50m; because it increases the rate of measurement and accuracy. Ordinarily transversing work seldom requires correction for temperature or precise control of the pull. These factors must be taken into consideration for very precise work such as in determing the exact length of triangulation. a base line for

Leveling Transversing (with tapes and total stations) Vertical surveys or leveling is a survey procedure in which the height differences (elevations) of some points over others are measured in a certain sequence and then the required heights of points are calculated from the heights of initial points and the height differences measured. As regards to surface mining, leveling is the operation required in the determination or more strictly, the comparison of height of points on the surface of

the earth. In underground mining, vertical surveys are carried out in order to determine the height marks of individual points established in underground workings, to assign the specified slope (grade) to workings, to plot longitudinal and vertical profiles and sections, to determine the height of marks of the characteristic points of deposits (seams); these measurements are essential for the solution of mining geometry and mine geometrization problems. If a whole series of heights is given relative to a plane, this plane is called a datum; and in topographical work; the datum used is the mean level of the sea, since it makes international comparism of heights possible. This level is termed ordinance datum and is the one which will normally be used, though on small works, an ordinary datum may be chosen. The basic equipment required in leveling is: a) A device which gives a truly horizontal line (the level), b) A suitable graduated staff for reading vertical heights (the leveling staff), c) In addition, equipment is necessary to enable the points leveled to be located relative to each other on a map plan or section, this might be for example chain tape, tacheometer or plane table etc. Procedure in leveling: The basic operation is the determination of the difference in level between two points. Consider two points A and B as shown below:

If the readings on A and B are 3.222m and 1.414m respectively, then the diffence in level between A and B is equal to AC i.e 3.222-1.414=1.808m and this represent a rise in the height of the land at B relative to A. if the readings at B is greater than at A, say 3.484m, then the difference in level would be 3.484-3.222=0.262m, and this would represent a fall in the height of the land at B relative to A. thus we have that in any two successive staff readings: If 2nd reading is less than 1st, then it represents a rise, If 2nd reading is greater than the 1st , , then it represent a fall. If the actual level of one of the two points is known, the level of the other may be found by either adding the rise or subtracting the fall. The levels at A and B are known as reduced levels (R.L) as they give the level of the land at these points reduced or referred to a datum level (in case ordinance datum, which the mean height of Newline) and this method of reducing the staff reading gives a system of booking known as the Rise and Fall method. A second method is known as the height of collimation method, also exists and since the two methods are in common use they must both be known. In the second method, the height of the line of collimation above the datum is found by adding the staff reading obtained with the staff on a point of known level to the R.L of that point. Thus, in 3.22 the height of collimation is 128.480+3.222=137.702m AOD and this will remain constant until the level is moved to another position. The levels of points such as B are determined by deducting the staff reading at these points from the height of collimation. a) Level at B= height of coll. = 131.702-1.414 =130.288m AOD b) Level at B = height of collimation = 131.702 3.484 = 128.218m AOD Reading at B Reading at B

General Procedure: This could be dealt with by means of an example and we will consider the line of levels down the centre line of the road as shown in the plan below:

The instrument is set up at a convenient position p such that a bench mark (B.M) may be observed. Bench marks are points of known elevation above ordinance datum which have been established by surveyors of the of the ordinance survey. The commonest types are in the form of a broad arrow on permanent features such as bridge, parapets etc. The 1st reading made with the staff on a point of known reduced level (which need not, of course be a bench mark) is known as a backsight (B.S), and this term will now be used to denote that reading taken immeadiately after setting up the instrument with the staff on a point of known level. The staff is now held at a point A, B and C in turn and readings which are known as intermediate sights are taken. It is found that no readings after D are possible due to either change is in level of the ground surface or some obstruction to the line of sight and it Is therefore necessary change the position off the instrument. The last reading on D is then known as foresight (F.S) and is final taken before moving the instrument. The point D is itself is known as change point because it is the staff position of the level is being changed. The instrument is moved to Q setup and leveled and the reading a backsight, taken on the staff at the change point D followed by intermediate sights (I.S) with the staff on points at which levels are required until a further change becomes necessary resulting in a foresight on point G. this procedure is repeated until the requires levels have been obtained.

BOOKING: Rise and Fall method The readings are booked in a level book which is specially printed for the purpose as shown below. The booking of the Rise and fall system B.S o.663 1.946 1.283 I.S F.S Rise Fall R.L 98.760 97.477 0 Distance Remark B.M=98.760 STAFF STATION A 1.008 1.153 2.788 1.585 0.938 0.145 0.432 98.415 98.270 97.838 20 40 60 B C D CHANGE POINT 2.270 1.218 0.646 3.350 2.231 0.517 1.052 0.572 2.231 3.079 98.355 99.407 99.979 80 100 120 E F G Last R.D

1.860 =99.979 (- R.D of O.D) -98.78 1.219

As a check on the arithmetic involved in reducing the levels, the backsightd and foresights and the rises and falls must be summed up. The checks are then: (Backsights) - (Foresights) = (Rises) - (Falls) = Last R.L First R.L. It must be pointed out that these checks concern only the accuracy of the reductions and have no effect on the accuracy of the recordings themselves.

Height of collimation method

B.S

Intersight

Foresight

Height

of Reduced level 98.760

Distance Remarks

collimation 0.663 99.423

B.M 98.76 O.D

1.946

97.477

STAFF AT A

1.008 1.153 2.787 1.585 100.625

98.415 98.270 97.838

20 40 60

B C D CHANGE OF POINT

2.270 1.218 0.646 3.450 -2.231 1.219 2.311

98.355 99.407 99.979

80 100 120 99.979

E F G

1.219

98.760

The height of collimation is obtained by adding the staff reading which must be a backsight to the known R.L of the point on which the staff stands. All other readings are deducted from the height of collimation until the instrument setting is changed, whereupon the new height of collimation is determined by adding the backsight to the R.L at the change point. The arithmetrical checks to be applied to this system of booking are: (B.S) - (F.S) = Last R.L First R.L

 (all R.Ls except the first) = (each instrument height) (number of intersights and F.Ss deduced from it) - (F.S + I.S) Reduction is easier with the height of collimation method when leveling for earthworks and karge numbers of intermediate sights are taken from each position of the instrument.

The Gyro-Theodolite A gyro-theodolite is a surveying instrument composed of a gyroscope mounted to a theodolite. It is used to determine the orientation of true north by locating the meridian direction. It is the main instrument for orientating in mine surveying and in tunnel engineering, where astronomical star sights are not visible. The gyro-theodolite in its present form is a recently developed instrument which revolutionizes the task of carrying azimuth into underground mines. It is lightweight, self contained apparatus giving results of great accuracy in a short time. It does not require the use of a shaft, nor does it interfere with normal mine operations if there is an unused heading of sufficient length to a back sight line. It is operated by one instrument man and a recorder. Similar units are supplied by several manufacturers. The basic unit consists of a very precise gyroscope suspended by a short thin metallic band. The gyro is housed in a metal case which mounts on top of a theodolite. A gyroscope is mounted in a sphere, lined with Mu-metal to reduce magnetic influence, connected by a spindle to the vertical axis of the theodolite. The battery-powered gyro wheel is rotated at 20,000 rpm or more, until it acts as a north-seeking gyroscope. A separate optical system within the attachment permits the operator to rotate the theodolite and thereby bring a zero mark on the attachment into coincidence with the gyroscope spin axis. Power is supplied by a portable battery which activates a converter supplying alternate current to the gyro meter. The position of the gyro is observed through an illuminated eyepiece. The gyro is clamped in position while being moved and brought up to speed. When the rapidly revolving gyro is uncase its axis horizontal and pointed toward some particular spot on the tripod stands, however, is revolving. This with gravity

produces a force on the gyro, to which it reads by swinging its north end toward north. The momentum of the gyro causes it to over swing and thus to oscillate about the astronomical north line. The techniques of observation vary somewhat among the different types of instrument, but the basic approach is to find the mean position of the swing from a series of observations. The physics of the gyro do not permit the theodolite to be used in the erect and inverted positions. Consequently, these must be determined by setting up the instrument on a line of known azimuth, obtaining the angle from that liune that line to astronomical north as indicated by the gyro and using the difference as the correction factor. This work is commonly done on the surface before taking the equipment underground. Having determined the correction constant to be uused, the surveyor takes the equipment underground to the place where the azimuth is to be determined. Setting up under one permanent point to the backsights another, preferably several 30m away. He then brings the gyro up to the speed, uncages it and proceeds to find the exact angle between his line and true north. Applying his correction he now has the true azimuth of fixed line. He will normally repeat the operation from other end as a check. When not in operation, the gyroscope assembly is anchored within the instrument. The electrically powered gyroscope is started while restrained and then released for operation. During operation the gyroscope is supported within the instrument assembly, typically on a thin vertical tape that constrains the gyroscope spinner axis to remain horizontal. The alignment of the spin axis is permitted to rotate in azimuth by only the small amount required during operation. An initial approximate estimate of the meridian is needed. This might be determined with a magnetic compass, from an existing survey network or by the use of the gyro-theodolite in an extended tracking mode.

A gyroscope mounted on a theodolite Although a gyro-theodolite functions at the equator and in both the northern and southern hemispheres, it cannot be used at either the North Pole or South Pole, where the Earth's axis is precisely perpendicular to the horizontal axis of the spinner and the meridian is undefined. Gyro-theodolites are not normally used within about 15 degrees of the pole because the east-west component of the Earths rotation is insufficient to obtain reliable results. Unlike an artificial horizon or inertial navigation system, a gyro-theodolite cannot be relocated while it is operating. It must be restarted again at each site.

The GPS instruments The Global Positioning System (GPS) is a space-based global navigation satellite system (GNSS) that provides location and time information in all weather, anywhere on or near the Earth, where there is an unobstructed line of sight to four or more GPS satellites. It is maintained by the United States government and is freely accessible by anyone with a GPS receiver with some technical limitations which are only removed for military users. With the advent of the Global Positioning System (GPS), elevation can also be derived with sophisticated satellite receivers, but usually with somewhat less accuracy than with traditional precise leveling. However, the accuracies may be similar if the traditional

leveling would have to be run over a long distance. Surveyors use absolute locations gotten through GPS instruments to make maps and determine property boundaries. GPS, or Global Positioning Systems, are used extensively by surveyors as they provide accurate latitude and longitude positions. GPS systems use radio signals from navigation satellites to determine the position. Two types of GPS instruments exist; all-in-one receivers, which have the GPS receiver, antenna and data collector built into the same device, and standalone receivers consisting only of the GPS receiver and antenna. Standalone receivers need to be connected to computers to access the data. Trimble GeoXH: The Trimble GeoXH is a handheld all-in-one GPS Geographic Information System. device. This GPS instrument is often used for electric and gas utilities, land reform projects, water and wastewater services where on-the-spot positioning is very important. The GeoXH features an internal antenna, but an external antenna can be attached to the device to achieve decimeter accuracy. With 128 MB RAM, 1GB storage space and a 530 MHz processor, the device supports working with maps and large data sets in the field. Industry standard Windows Mobile 6 operating system powers this handheld device. Bluetooth and LAN network connection is possible with the GeoXH to transfer data to and from other devices. MobileMapper CX: The MobileMapper CX is another all-in-one handheld GPS receiver for universal Geographic Information System collection. This device provides real-time sub-meter and sub-foot accuracy and supports Bluetooth wireless technologies as well as DGPS networking. The device supports SD storage cards, which are used in digital cameras today, and works with a replaceable battery. Surveyors use the MobileMapper CX to create or update maps for analysis and storage.

GMS-2 Pro: This handheld dual constellation tracking GPS receiver consists of an integrated laser distance meter, digital camera, bar code reader and digital compass. Surveyors can take digital photographs of structures and upload them directly to their Geographic Information System. Each photograph can be geo-tagged with the GPS coordinates. An internal laser distance meter, compass and tilt sensor work together to map offset points. The GMS-2 Pro supports Bluetooth and other network connections, as well as USB data transfer. GPS Pathfinder ProXH: The GPS Pathfinder ProXH features a GPS receiver, antenna and battery. It is a standalone device, which connects to a field computer via a Bluetooth wireless connection. The GPS Pathfinder ProXH can be connected to computers, laptops, tablet PCs and PDAs. The device delivers sub-foot accuracy, which can be enhanced by connecting an extra antenna to it.