Neelam Aswal MBA Sem-1 stats mngmnt.

MBA SEMESTER 1 MB0040 STATISTICS FOR MANAGEMENT- 4 Credits (Book ID: B1129) Assignment Set- 1 (60 Marks) Note: Each question carries 10 Marks. Answer all the questions

1. (a) Statistics is the backbone of decision-making. Comment. [ 5 marks] Ans.: Due to advanced communication network, rapid changes in consumer behaviour, varied expectations of variety of consumers and new market openings, modern managers have a difficult task of making quick and appropriate decisions. Therefore, there is a need for them to depend more upon quantitative techniques like mathematical models, statistics, operations research and econometrics. Decision making is a key part of our day-to-day life. Even when we wish to purchase a television, we like to know the price, quality, durability, and maintainability of various brands and models before buying one. As you can see, in this scenario we are collecting data and making an optimum decision. In other words, we are using Statistics. Again, suppose a company wishes to introduce a new product, it has to collect data on market potential, consumer likings, availability of raw materials, feasibility of producing the product. Hence, data collection is the back-bone of any decision making process. Many organisations find themselves data-rich but poor in drawing information from it. Therefore, it is important to develop the ability to extract meaningful information from raw data to make better decisions. Statistics play an important role in this aspect. Statistics is broadly divided into two main categories. Below Figure illustrates the two categories. The two categories of Statistics are descriptive statistics and inferential statistics. Descriptive Statistics: Descriptive statistics is used to present the general description of data which is summarised quantitatively. This is mostly useful in clinical research, when communicating the results of experiments. Inferential Statistics: Inferential statistics is used to make valid inferences from the data which are helpful in effective decision making for managers or professionals. Statistical methods such as estimation, prediction and hypothesis testing belong to inferential statistics. The researchers make deductions or conclusions from the collected data samples regarding the characteristics of large population from which the samples are taken. So, we can say Statistics is the backbone of decision-making.

Neelam Aswal MBA Sem-1 stats mngmnt.

(b) Give plural meaning of the word Statistics? Meanings of Statistics

[ 5 marks]

The word statistics has three different meanings (sense) which are discussed below: (1) Plural Sense (2) Singular Sense (3) Plural of the word Statistic (1) Plural Sense: In plural sense, the word statistics refer to numerical facts and figures collected in a systematic manner with a definite purpose in any field of study. In this sense, statistics are also aggregates of facts which are expressed in numerical form. For example, Statistics on industrial production, statistics or population growth of a country in different years etc. (2) Singular Sense: In singular sense, it refers to the science comprising methods which are used in collection, analysis, interpretation and presentation of numerical data. These methods are used to draw conclusion about the population parameter. For Example: If we want to have a study about the distribution of weights of students in a certain college. First of all, we will collect the information on the weights which may be obtained from the records of the college or we may collect from the students directly. The large number of weight figures will confuse the mind. In this situation we may arrange the weights in groups such as: 50 Kg to 60 Kg 60 Kg to 70 Kg and so on and find the number of students fall in each group. This step is called a presentation of data. We may still go further and compute the averages and some other measures which may give us complete description of the original data. (3) Plural of Word Statistic: The word statistics is used as the plural of the word Statistic which refers to a numerical quantity like mean, median, variance etc, calculated from sample value. For Example: If we select 15 student from a class of 80 students, measure their heights and find the average height. This average would be a statistic.

2. a. In a bivariate data on x and y, variance of x = 49, variance of y = 9 and covariance (x,y) = -17.5. Find coefficient of correlation between x and y. Ans : We know that r = xy/N
x y

Given r = xy/N = 17.5

x

= 49 = 7

= 9 = 7

Neelam Aswal MBA Sem-1 stats mngmnt.

r = 17.5/7x3 = 0.833

Hence, there is a highly negative correlation

b. Enumerate the factors which should be kept in mind for proper planning. [ 5 marks] Planning a Statistical Survey The relevance and accuracy o data obtained in a survey depends upon the care exercised in planning. A proper planned investigation can lead to best results with least cost and time. The following explanation of steps involved in the planning stage: Step 1. Nature of the problem to be investigated should be clearly defined in an unambiguous manner. Step 2. Objectives of investigation should be stated at the outset objectives could be to: - Obtain certain estimates - Establish a theory - Verify an existing statement - Find relationship between characteristics Step 3: The scope of investigation has to be made clear. The scope of investigation refers to the area to bAe covered, identification of units to be studied, nature of characteristics to be observed, accuracy of measurements, analytical methods, time, cost and other resources required. Step 4: Whether to use data collected from primary or secondary source should be determined in advance. Step 5 The organization of investigation is the final step in the process. It encompasses the determination of the number of investigators required, their training, supervision work needed funds required.

Neelam Aswal MBA Sem-1 stats mngmnt.

3. The percentage sugar content of Tobacco in two samples was represented in table 11.11. Test whether their population variances are same. [ 10 marks] Table 1. Percentage sugar content of Tobacco in two samples Sample A Sample B Ans. : Tables 1.1 b and 1.1 c represent the frequency table required for the calculation of sample means for the sugar content of tobacco in two samples. Table 1.1 X-= 2.4+2.7+2.6+2.1+2.5
5 X 2.4 2.7 2.6 2.1 2.5 Total D=x-2.46 -0.06 0.24 0.14 -0.36 0.04 0 D2 0.0036 0.0576 0.0196 0.1296 0.0016 0.212

2.4 2.7

2.7 3.0

2.6 2.8

2.1 3.1

2.5 2.2 3.6

= 2.46

Table 1.1 c Y-= 2.7+3.0+2.8+3.1+2.2 +3.6 = 2.90 6 Y D=Y-2.46 2.7 -0.02 3.0 0.1 2.8 -0.1 3.1 0.2 2.2 -0.7 3.6 0.7 Total 0.18

D2 0.04 0.01 0.01 0.04 0.49 0.49 1.086

S12= 1 N1-1

=[ d2 - ( d) 2] n1

= 1 [ 0.212 - 0 ] 4

Neelam Aswal MBA Sem-1 stats mngmnt.

= 0.212 4 = 0.053 S22= 1 =[ d2 - ( d)2] N2-1 n2 = 1 [ 1.086 - 0.324 ] 5 6 = 0.264

1. Null hypothesis H0 = equal. 2. Test Statistics : F= S22 S12 = 0.2064 0.053 = 4.08 3. Test : Fcal = = 0.2064 0.053 = 4.08

2= 1 2

, that is the sample variances of two are

Fcal= 4.08, Not significant.

4. a. Explain the characteristics of business forecasting. Characteristics of business forecasting Based on past and present conditions

[ 5 marks]

Business forecasting is based on past and present economic condition of the business. To forecast the future, various data, information and facts concerning to economic condition of business for past and present are analysed.

Neelam Aswal MBA Sem-1 stats mngmnt.

Based on mathematical and statistical method The process of forecasting includes the use of statistical and mathematical methods. By using these methods, the actual trend which may take place in future can be forecasted. Period The forecasting can be made for long term, short term, medium term or any specific period Estimation of future The business forecasting is to forecast the future regarding probable economic conditions Scope The forecasting can be physical as well as financial.

b. Differentiate between prediction, projection and forecasting. [ 5 marks] Ans : Difference between prediction, projection and forecasting A great amount of confusion seem to have grown up in the use of words forecast, prediction and projection A prediction is an estimate based solely on past data of the series under investigation. It is purely mechanical extrapolation A projection is a prediction where the extrapolated values are subject to certain numerical assumptions. A forecast is an estimate which relates the series in which we are interested to external factors. Forecasts are made by estimating future values of the external factors by means of prediction, projection or forecast and from these values calculating the estimate of the dependent variable.

5. What are the components of time series? Bring out the significance of moving average in analysing a time series and point out its limitations. [ 10 marks] Ans 5: Components of Time Series The behaviour of a time series over periods of time is called the movement of the time series. The time series is classified into the following four components:

Neelam Aswal MBA Sem-1 stats mngmnt.

1. 2. 3. 4.

Long term trend or secular trend Seasonal variations Cyclic variations Random variations

1)

Long term trend or secular trend

This refers to the smooth or regular long term growth or decline of the series. This movement can be characterised by a trend curve. If this curve is a straight line, then it is called a trend line. If the variable is increasing over a long period of time, then it is called an upward trend. If the variable is decreasing over a long period of time, then it is called a downward trend. If the variable moves upward or downwards along a straight line then the trend is called a linear trend, otherwise it is called a non-linear trend.

2)

Seasonal variations

Variations is a time series that are periodic in nature and occur regularly over short periods of time during a year are called seasonal variations. By definition, these variations are precise and can be forecasted. The following are examples of seasonal variations in a time series 3) The prices of vegetables drop down after rainy season or in winter months and they go up during summer, every year The prices of cooking oils reduce after the harvesting of oil seeds and go up after some time. Cyclic variations

The long-term oscillations that represent consistent rises and declines in the values of the variable are called cyclic variations. Since these are long-term oscillations in the time series, the period of oscillation is usually greater than one year. The oscillations are about a trend curve or a trend line. The period of one cycle is the time distance between two successive peaks or two successive troughs. 4) Random variations

Random variations are called irregular movements. Movements that occur usually in brief periods of time, without any pattern and which are unpredictable in nature are called irregular movements. These movements do not have any regular period or time of occurrences. For example, the effect of national strikes, floods, earthquakes and so on. It is very difficult to study the behaviour of such a time series. Method of moving average Moving averages method is used for smoothing the time series. That is, it smoothes the fluctuations of the data by the method of moving averages. Merits and demerits of moving averages method

Neelam Aswal MBA Sem-1 stats mngmnt.

Demerits No functional relationship between the values and the time. Thus, this method is not helpful in forecasting and predicting the values on the basis of time. This method is objective in the sense that No trend values for some years in the anybody working on a problem with this beginning and some in the end. For example, method will get the same results. for 5 yearly moving average, there will be no trend values for the first two years and the last three years. This method is used for determining In case of nonlinear trend, the values seasonal, cyclic and irregular variations obtained by this method are biased in one or besides the trend values. the other direction. This method is flexible enough to add more The period selection of moving average is a figures to the data because the entire difficult task. Hence, great care has to be calculations are not changed. taken in period selection, particularly when there is no business cycle during that time. If the period of moving averages coincides with the period of cyclic fluctuations in the data, such fluctuations are automatically eliminated.

Merits This is a simple method.

6. List down various measures of central tendency and explain the difference between them? [ 5 marks] Ans : Central Limit Theorem If X1 X2................Xn is a random sample of size n from any population, then the sample mean (X) is normally distributed with mean and variance 2/n provided n is sufficiently large. From the central limit theorem, we infer the following: y The mean of the sampling distributions will be equal to the population mean y The sample distribution of the mean approaches normal distribution as the sample size increases y It permits us to use sample statistics to make inferences about population parameters irrespective of the shape of frequency distribution of the population.

b. What is a confidence interval, and why it is useful? What is a confidence level? [ 5 marks] Confidence Intervals In using interval estimates, we are not confined to 1,2 and 3 standard errors; for example, 1.64 standard errors include about 90 percent of the area under the curve; it includes

Neelam Aswal MBA Sem-1 stats mngmnt.

0.4495 of the area on either side of the mean in a normal distribution. Similarly, 2.58 standard error includes about 99 percent of the area, or 49.51 percent on either side of the mean. The probability that we associate with an interval estimate is called the confidence level Similarly, we are 95.5 percent confident that the life falls within the interval of 3.586 to 37.414 months (36 2 x) and we are 99.7 percent confident that battery life falls within the interval of 33.879 to 38.121 months (36 3 x) This probability indicates how confident we are that the interval estimate will include the population parameter. A higher probability means more confidence. In estimation, the most commonly used confidence levels are 90 percent, 95 percent, and 99 percent, but we are free to apply any confidence level. The confidence interval is the range of the estimate we are making. Interval Estimates The purpose of gathering samples is to learn more about a population. We can compute this information from the sample data as either point estimates, or as interval estimates. If we select and plot a large number of sample means from a population, the distribution of these means will approximate to normal curve. Furthermore, the mean of the sample means will be the same as the population mean. An interval estimate describes a range of values within which a population parameter is likely to lie.

Neelam Aswal MBA Sem-1 stats mngmnt.

MBA SEMESTER 1 MB0040 STATISTICS FOR MANAGEMENT- 4 Credits (Book ID: B1129) Assignment Set- 2 (60 Marks) Note: Each question carries 10 Marks. Answer all the questions 1. (a) What are the characteristics of a good measure of central tendency? [ 5 marks] Ans. 1 : Central Limit Theorem If X1 X2................Xn is a random sample of size n from any population, then the sample mean (X) is normally distributed with mean and variance 2/n provided n is sufficiently large. From the central limit theorem, we infer the following: y The mean of the sampling distributions will be equal to the population mean y The sample distribution of the mean approaches normal distribution as the sample size increases y It permits us to use sample statistics to make inferences about population parameters irrespective of the shape of frequency distribution of the population.

(b) What are the uses of averages? Ans. :

[ 5 marks]

The statistical average or simply an average refers to the measure of middle value of the data set. The objectives of statistical average are to: y Present mass data in a concise form The mass data is condensed to make the data readable and to use it for further analysis. Facilitate comparison It is difficult to compare two different sets of mass data. But we can compare those two after computing the averages of individual data sets. While comparing, the same measure of average should be used. It leads to incorrect conclusions when the mean salary of employees is compared with the median salary of the employees. Establish relationship between data sets The average can be used to draw inferences about the unknown relationships between the data sets. Computing the averages of the data sets is helpful for estimating the average of population. Provide basis for decision-making

Neelam Aswal MBA Sem-1 stats mngmnt.

In many fields, such as business, finance, insurance and other sectors, managers compute the averages and draw useful inferences or conclusions for taking effective decisions. 2. Calculate the 3 yearly and 5 yearly averages of the data in table below. [ 10 marks] Table 1: Production data from 1988 to 1997 Year 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 18 16 22 19 24 20 28 22 1997 30 Production 15 (in Lakh ton)

Ans.: Calculated values of 3 yearly and 5 yearly averages Year 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 Production (Thousand Y tonne) 21 22 23 25 24 22 25 27 26 3 yearly moving totals 66 70 72 71 71 73 79 5 yearly moving totals Ye 22.00 23.33 24.00 23.67 23.67 24.33 26.33 Short term fluctuations (Y Yc) 0 -033 1.00 0.333 -1.67 0.67 0.67 -

3. (a) Discuss any two methods of isolating trend values in a time series. [ 5 Marks] Ans : Methods for Time Series Analysis In business forecasting, it is important to analyze the characteristic movements of variations in the given time series. The following methods serve as a tool for this analysis: 1. Methods for Measurement of Secular Trend i. Freehand curve Method (Graphical Method) ii. Method of selected points iii. Method of semi-averages iv. Method of moving averages v. Method of Least Squares Methods for Measurement of Seasonal Variations i. Method of Simple Average ii. Ratio to Trend Method

Neelam Aswal MBA Sem-1 stats mngmnt.

iii. iv. 3

Ratio to Moving Average Method Method of Link Relatives

Methods for Measurement for Cyclical Variations4.

Methods for Measurement for Irregular Variations

Methods For Measurement Of Secular Trend The following are the principal methods of measuring trend from given time series: 1. Graphical or free hand curve method This is the simple method of studying trend. In this method the given time series data are plotted on graph paper by taking time on X-axis and the other variable on Y-axis. The graph obtained will be irregular as it would include short-run oscillations. We may observe the up and down movement of the curve and if a smooth freehand curve is drawn passing approximately to all points of a curve previously drawn, it would eliminate the short-run oscillations (seasonal, cyclical and irregular variations) and show the long-period general tendency of the data. This is exactly what is meant by Trend. However, It is very difficult to draw a freehand smooth curve and different persons are likely to draw different curves from the same data. The following points must be kept in mind in drawing a freehand smooth curve: 1. That the curve is smooth. 2. That the numbers of points above the line or curve are equal to the points below it. 3. That the sum of vertical deviations of the points above the smoothed line is equal to the sum of the vertical deviations of the points below the line. In this way the positive deviations will cancel the negative deviations. These deviations are the effects of seasonal cyclical and irregular variations and by this process they are eliminated. 4. The sum of the squares of the vertical deviations from the trend line curve is minimum. (This is one of the characteristics of the trend line fitted by the method of lest squares ) 2. METHOD OF SELECTED POINTS

In this method, two points considered to be the most representative or normal, are joined by straight line to get secular trend. This, again, is a subjective method since different persons may have different opinions regarding the representative points. Further, only linear trend can be determined by this method. 3. METHOD OF SEMI-AVERAGES

Under this method, as the name itself suggests semi-averages are calculated to find out the trend values. By semi-averages is meant the averages of the two halves of a series. In this method, thus, the given series is divided into two equal parts (halves) and the arithmetic mean of the values of each part (half) is calculated. The computed means are termed as semi-averages. Each semi-average is paired with the centre of time period of its part. The

Neelam Aswal MBA Sem-1 stats mngmnt.

two pairs are then plotted on a graph paper and the points are joined by a straight line to get the trend. It should be noted that if the data is for even number of years, it can be easily divided into two halves. But if it is for odd number of years, we leave the middle year of the time series and two halves constitute the periods on each side of the middle year.

(b)What is seasonal variation of a time series? Describe the various methods you know to evaluate it and examine their relative merits. [ 5 marks] Ans : Seasonal Variations Variations in a time series that are periodic in nature and occur regularly over short periods of time during a year are called seasonal variations By definition, these variations are precise and can be forecasted. The following are examples of seasonal variations in a time series. 1) The prices of vegetables drop down after rainy season or in winter months and they go up during summer, every year 2) The prices of cooking oils reduce after the harvesting of oil seeds and go up after some time. 4. The probability that a contractor will get an electrical job is 0.8, he will get a plumbing job is 0.6 and he will get both 0.48. What is the probability that he get at least one? Is the probabilities of getting electrical and plumbing job are independent? [ 10 marks]

Ans: P(A) = 0.8 P(B)=0.6 P(AUB) = 0.48 P(AUB)= P(A)+P(B) P(A B) P(AUB)=0.8+0.6- 0.48 P(AUB)= 1.4 0.48 P(AUB)= 0.92 The probability he get at least one is 0.92. Is the probabilities of getting electrical and plumbing job are independent. YES

Neelam Aswal MBA Sem-1 stats mngmnt.

5. (a) Discuss the errors that arise in statistical survey. Ans. : Errors in Statistics

[ 5 marks]

The term error denotes the difference between population value and its estimate provided by sampling technique. Therefore the term is not referred in is ordinary sense in statistics. There are four types of errors as below: 1) 2) 3) 4) 1) Sampling errors Non-sampling errors Biased errors Unbiased errors Sampling errors

The sample results are bound to differ from population results, since sample is only a small portion of the population. It is also known as inherent error and cannot be avoided. It is not worth to eliminate them completely. These errors may be due to the following factors: y y y y Faulty selection of sample Substitution of units to be studied Faulty demarcation of sampling units Error due to bias in estimation

However, the sampling errors follow random or chance variations and tend to cancel out each other on averaging. 2) Non-sampling errors

Non-sampling errors are attributed to factors that can be controlled and eliminated by suitable actions. It is worth to eliminate these errors. They are due to the following factors: y y y y y y y y 3) Faulty planning, faulty definitions Defective methods of interviewing Personal bias of investigator Lack of trained and qualified investigators Respondents failure to answer Improper coverage Compiling errors Publication errors Biased errors

It arises in both census and sampling method. These errors occur due to personal bias of the investigator and the instruments used for measuring. They are also due to faculty collection of data, respondents bias and bias due to non-response. Biased errors have a tendency to grow with sample size. Therefore, they are also known as cumulative errors. The magnitude of biased errors is directly proportional to the sample size..

Neelam Aswal MBA Sem-1 stats mngmnt.

4)

Unbiased errors

The errors that are due to over-estimation and under-estimation such that they are equal are known as unbiased errors. They are also known as compensatory errors. They do not increase with sample size. (b) What is quota sampling and when do we use it? Ans : Quota Sampling It is a type of judgment sampling. Under this design, quotas are set up according to some specified characteristic such as age groups or income groups. From each group a specified number of units are sampled according to the quota allotted to the group. Within the group the selection of sample units depends on personal judgment. It has a risk of personal prejudice and bias entering the process. This method is often used in public opinion studies. Quota sampling is a non-probability sampling technique wherein the assembled sample has the same proportions of individuals as the entire population with respect to known characteristics, traits or focused phenomenon by Joan Joseph Castillo (2009). In addition to this, the researcher must make sure that the composition of the final sample to be used in the study meets the researchs quota criteria. Step-By-Step Quota Sampling
y y y y

[ 5 marks]

The first step in non-probability quota sampling is to divide the population into exclusive subgroups. Then, the researcher must identify the proportions of these subgroups in the population; this same proportion will be applied in the sampling process. Finally, the researcher selects subjects from the various subgroups while taking into consideration the proportions noted in the previous step. The final step ensures that the sample is representative of the entire population. It also allows the researcher to study traits and characteristics that are noted for each subgroup.

Example Of Quota Samples

In a study wherein the researcher likes to compare the academic performance of the different high school class levels, its relationship with gender and socioeconomic status, the researcher first identifies the subgroups. Usually, the subgroups are the characteristics or variables of the study. The researcher divides the entire population into class levels, intersected with gender and socioeconomic status. Then, he takes note of the proportions of these subgroups in the entire population and then samples each subgroup accordingly.

Neelam Aswal MBA Sem-1 stats mngmnt.

When To Use Quota Samples

y The main reason why researchers choose quota samples is that it allows the researchers to sample a subgroup that is of great interest to the study. If a study aims to investigate a trait or a characteristic of a certain subgroup, this type of sampling is the ideal technique. Quota sampling also allows the researchers to observe relationships between subgroups. In some studies, traits of a certain subgroup interact with other traits of another subgroup. In such cases, it is also necessary for the researcher to use this type of sampling technique.

Disadvantages Of Quota Samples

It may appear that this type of sampling technique is totally representative of the population. In some cases it is not. Keep in mind that only the selected traits of the population were taken into account in forming the subgroups. In the process of sampling these subgroups, other traits in the sample may be overrepresented. In a study that considers gender, socioeconomic status and religion as the basis of the subgroups, the final sample may have skewed representation of age, race, educational attainment, marital status and a lot more.

6.

(a) Why do we use a chi-square test?

[ 5 marks]

Ans. : Chi-square test We use one sample tests to determine whether a mean or a proportion was significantly different from a hypothesised value in the two-sample tests, we examined the difference between either two means or two proportions, and we tried to learn whether this difference was significant. Actually Chi-square tests allow us to do a lot more than just test for the quality of several proportions. If we classify a population into several categories with respect to two attributes (such as age and job performance), we can then use a Chi-Square test to determine whether the two attributes are independent of each other. So Chi-Square tests can be applied on contingency table. Characteristics of Chi-Square test The following are the characteristics of Chi-square test (
2

test)

y The 2 test is based on frequencies and not on parameters y It is a non-parametric test where no parameters regarding the rigidity of population of populations are required. y Additive property is also found in 2 test y The 2 test is useful to test the hypothesis about the independence of attributes y The 2 test can be used in complex contingency tables. y The 2 test is very widely used for research purposes in behavioural and social sciences including business research. y It is defined as:
2

= (O E)2/E

Where O is the observed frequency and E is the expected frequency.

Neelam Aswal MBA Sem-1 stats mngmnt.

(b) Why do we use analysis of variance? Analysis of Variance (ANOVA)

[ 5 marks]

Analysis of variance is useful in such situations as comparing the mileage achieved by five different brands of gasoline, testing which of four different training methods produce the fasters learning record, or comparing the first-year earnings of the graduates of half a dozen different business schools. In each of these cases, we would compare the means of more than two samples. Hence, in most of the fields, such as agriculture, medical, finance, banking, insurance, education, the concept of Analysis Of Variance (ANOVA) is used. In statistical terms, the difference between two statistical data is known as variance. When two data are compared for any practical purpose, their difference is studied through the techniques of ANOVA. With the analysis of variance technique, we can test the null hypothesis and the alternative hypothesis. Null hypothesis, H0; All sample means are equal. Alternate Hypothesis, HA; all sample means are not equal or at least one of sample means differ. Initially the technique was applied in the field of Zoology and Agriculture, but in a later stage, it was applied to other fields also. In analysis of variance, the degree of variance between two or more data as well as the factors contributing towards the variance is studied. In fact, Analysis of Variance is the classification and cross-classification of statistical data with the view of testing whether the means of specific classification differ significantly or whether they are homogeneous. The Analysis of Variance is a method of splitting the total variation of data into constituent parts which measure different sources of variations. The total variation is split up into the following two components: 1) Variance within the subgroups of samples 2) Variation between the subgroups of the samples.