IntroductiontoSemiconductors

OhmLaw:V=RI R=L/A :electricalresistivity(propertyofthematerial) Material Resistivity 5 insulator >10 cm 3 5 semiconductor 10 10 cm 3 conductor <10 cm

Semiconductorbandstructure

Electronsinanisolatedatomoccupydiscrete energylevels. Energylevelsofshortdistanceinteractingatoms degenerateintobands.

Energy

Forbiddengap

Relationshipbetweenconductivity andbandstructure

Conductivitydependsontheavailabilityof unoccupiedstatesinthemostexternaloccupied energyband:

conductors:externalbandispartiallyoccupied; insulatorsandSemiconductors:externalbandisfully occupiedat0K(valenceband).

Insulatorsandsemiconductorsdifferintermsof gapamplitude(0.5eV1.5eVforS.C.).

Relationshipbetweenconductivity andbandstructure

Insulators'gapislargerthan5eV Largergapamplitudeleadstoalowerprobability oftransitionfromthevalencetotheconduction band. Interbandtransitionsarethermallyactivated.

S.C. Silicon Germanium GalliumArsenide EG 1.12eV 0.66eV 1.42eV

Intrinsiccarrierconcentration

HolesinSemiconductors

Electronsinanintrinsicsemiconductorusually belongtothevalenceband. Transitionofanelectronfromvalenceto conductionbandismainlyinducedbythermal energyorbylight. Suchatransitionleavesanholeinvalenceband. Holesfeatureapositiveelectricchargeandan equivalentconductionmass.

MonoCrystallineSilicon

Siliconbelongstothefourthgroup:fourvalence electronsavailabletoformcovalentbonds.

DopingofMonoCrystallineSilicon

Doping:substitutionofsiliconatomswithatomsofthe III(lackofanelectron>hole)oroftheVgroup (electroninexcessinconductionband). Donors:elementsoftheVgroup;ND Acceptors:elementsoftheIIIgroup;NA 1014<NA/D<1021cm3 AtT=300Kalmostalldopingatomsareactivated (ionized)

incaseofNtypedoping:n=ND=ND+ incaseofPtypedoping:p=NA=NA

Dopedsemiconductors

atequilibrium:np=n

2 i

chargeneutrality:p+NDnNA=0 NDopedsemiconductor(ND>NA):
2 2 i

N D N A N D N A 4n n= N D N A 2

ni p= N D N A

PDopedsemiconductor(NA>ND):
2 2 i

N A N D N A N D 4n p= N AN D 2

ni n= N A N D

Dopingcompensation

Mathematicalmodeloftransportand electrostatics

DriftdiffusionEquations Jn=qnnE+qDngrad(n) Jp=qppEqDpgrad(p) E=grad n/pconductivity:qnn/qpp PoissonEquation:

q = pnN DN A
2

Resistivityvs.dopingconcentration

Driftvelocityvs.ElectricField

vD=E

Mobilityvs.dopingconcentration

Mobilityvs.Temperature

TheJunctionDiode
B Al A SiO
2

p n

Crosssectionof

pnjunctioninanICprocess

A p n B Onedimensional representation

Al A

B diodesymbol

Thejunctiondiode

TheJunctionDiode holediffusion
electrondiffusion p holedrift electrondrift Charge Density + x Distance (b)Chargedensity. n (a)Currentflow.

Electrical Field

(c)Electricfield.

Potential W 1

V 0 W2 x (d)Electrostatic potential.

Giunzionepolarizzata

Polarizzazionediretta>abbassamentodella barriera;diffusionedeiportatoriversolaregione incuiquestisonominoritari. Polarizzazioneinversa>incrementodella barriera;incrementodelcampoelettriconella regionesvuotata.Bassacorrenteacausadella ridottaconcentrazionediportatoridicarica.

CurrentEquation

ForwardBias
pn (W2) pn0 Lp np0

pregion

W1 0

W2

nregion

diffusion

Excessofminoritycarriersdiffusingacrossthejunction

ReverseBias
pn0

np0

pregion

W1 0

W2

nregion diffusion

Depletion>increaseofthefixeddepletioncharge

Diode'sModels
+ VD ID=IS(eV D/T 1) VD + + ID VDon

(a)Idealdiodemodel

(b)Firstorderdiodemodel

Temperaturedependence:VDon=VDon(300K)+TC(T300K) ForSiliconJunctionDiodesatT~300K:TC=2mV/K

ReverseBreakdown
0.1

ID(A)

0.1 25.0

15.0 VD (V)

5.0

5.0

Usuallyrequireslargereversebias(uptoseveralhundredsofVolts)in conventionaldiodes. ZenerDiodes:intentionallydesignedinordertoobtainlowbreakdown voltage(goodvoltagegenerator).

ThePNjunctionasasolarcell
M.A.Green,SolarCells,Univ.SouthWales.

S
Photogeneratedcarrierssurvivingrecombinationandseparatedbythejunction fieldcontributeanegativecurrentILthat(approximately)superimposestothe conventionalIVcharacteristic.

PNjunctionsolarcell
S

M.A.Green,SolarCells,Univ.SouthWales.

ConversionEfficiency

Efficiencyrequires:

largeopencircuitvoltageVOC LowsaturationcurrentIS(darkIVcharact.) LargeshortcircuitcurrentISC

LowIS>lowrecombinationrates LargeISC>smallbandgap(downside:energy wastedintoheatgeneration).