Module 1

Composite Materials Topic 1: Composite Material Fundamentals
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Composite Materials Topic 1: Composite Material Fundamentals Contents

1 Introduction 1.1 Learning Objectives 2 What are Composite Materials? 2.1 General Introduction 2.2 Composite Material Form 3 Role and Characteristics of the Fibres 3.1 Influence of Fibre Diameter 3.2 Weakest Link Model 4 Role and Characteristics of the Matrix 5 Fibre-matrix Interface 5.1 Bond Strength 5.2 Fibre Finishes 5.3 Load Transfer Length 6 Composite Fundamentals 6.1 Fibre Orientation Lay-up and Stacking Sequence 6.2 Prediction of Lamina and Laminate Properties 6.3 Micromechanical and Macromechanical Models 6.4 Characteristics 6.5 Advantages and Disadvantages Comparison with Metals 7 Summary 8 References 9 Topic Assignment Questions 10 Evaluation Date: February 2011 Author: Paul Hatton
https://fbex6.uwe.ac.uk/topics/serverx.asp?TargetURL=/topics/content/1714/6896/pri... 14/03/2011
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1 Introduction
This topic provides a top level definition of composite material, its characteristics, behaviour, and its benefits and deficiencies compared with metallic materials. A brief description of the constituents of a composite material is given, together with an explanation of how the composite properties are influenced by, and can be obtained from, the properties of the constituents. The information, particularly terminology and notation, is intended to provide a basis on which subsequent topics, and other modules, are built. This topic is aimed at students with minimal composites experience but with an understanding of engineering fundamentals and terminology.
1 Introduction
1.1 Learning Objectives
On completion of this topic you should be able to: define composite material terminology from filament to laminate explain the role of the constituents of a composite material define the types of constituents and suitable combinations calculate certain composite properties from properties of the constituents estimate and calculate, using different techniques, certain laminate properties from lamina properties for any lay-up
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2 What are Composite Materials?

This section comprises: 1. General Introduction 2. Composite Material Form

2.1 General Introduction
A composite material can be defined as: A new material formed from the addition of two, or more, existing materials to exploit their benefits. Typically, composite materials comprise the following constituents: Reinforcement Essentially provides strength and stiffness. Examples include particulates and fibres (e.g. carbon, glass and aramid). Matrix Essentially keeps the reinforcements protected and aligned. Also transfers loads to and from reinforcements. Examples include metal matrix, ceramic matrix and resin matrix. The individual properties of the constituents, and the reinforcement to matrix interface, form the basis for the properties of the composite. There are several materials which can be used for both the reinforcement and the matrix; these are discussed in Topic 2: Matrix Materials and Topic 3: Reinforcement Materials. The combination of materials for a particular structural application depends on several parameters including, for example: magnitude and type of loading structural requirements manufacturability compatibility of reinforcement and matrix materials environment, particularly temperature
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cost weight
Each of these topics has a glossary linked to it. This is accessed from the menu link on the top left of each page.

2.2 Composite Material Form
Reinforcement
Reinforcements basically come in three forms: 1. Particulate A particle has roughly equal dimensions in all directions. Typical examples include: microballoons (hollow microspheres) nano particles (sized between 1 and 100 nanometres) Figure 1: Illustration of particulate reinforced composite material
Due to their non-continuous nature particles do not provide the same level of strength and stiffness as fibres. Depending on the type and structure of the particles they can be used to perform one or more of the following:
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strengthen the composite (they do not provide anything like the strength and stiffness of continuous fibres) increase thickness at minimum weight or cost increase change physical and/or chemical property of the composite 2. Discontinuous fibre Discontinuous reinforcements (including chopped fibres and whiskers) are typically between 1 and 30 millimetres in length and in the region of 10 microns in diameter. Figure 2: Illustration of discontinuous fibre reinforced composite material
Discontinuous fibres provide significantly more strength to the composite than particles but less than continuous fibres since the load transfer is from discontinuous fibre to discontinuous fibre within the matrix. The in-plane strength is significantly increased if the fibres are orientated parallel to each other but this can be difficult to achieve; generally the fibres are randomly orientated. Near isotropic properties can be achieved and the composite can be formed into complex shapes.
3. Continuous fibre With either particles or short fibres, the load is transferred through the matrix at short intervals and generally there is no alignment of the reinforcement. Continuous fibres provide a load path in a predefined orientation. The composite strength and stiffness properties in the direction of the fibre are high. Conversely in the transverse direction the properties are principally determined by the resin properties which are a fraction of
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those of the fibre. Tailoring the composite to have 'sufficient' fibres in each direction (covered in Module 4: Composite Structural Analysis) in conjunction with good design practice (covered in Module 5: Composite Design Processes) can limit resin dominated premature failure. Figure 3: Illustration of continuous fibre reinforced composite material
Matrix
There are a number of different matrix materials, not all are mutually compatible with the form and material of the reinforcement. Matrix materials include: carbon matrix typically reinforced with carbon! glass matrix typically reinforced with glass! metal matrix: typically aluminium, titanium and magnesium ceramic matrix resin matrix This topic focuses on resin matrix. The forms available for thermoset resins are: liquid film inherent within the fibre (i.e. pre-preg) The form will be selected in conjunction with the specific manufacturing process.
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Composite
The typical construction of composite structures is by building 'layers' of material to form a laminate. Layers can comprise: fibre with resin impregnated by the material supplier called pre-preg dry fibre, into which resin will be incorporated during the manufacturing process The following terminology relates to this lamination, from smallest constituent to laminate. Table 1: Lamination terminology
Laminate Fibre Filaments Tow Yarn
Description A single strand of material. A fibre of extreme length. A bundle of filaments. A twisted bundle of filaments. Yarns are twisted in preparation for subsequent weaving operation. A single layer. A single layer as lamina. Generally refers to pre-preg material rather than dry fibre. Plural of lamina. An assembly (bonded) of laminae.
Lamina Ply Laminae Laminate
Note: the terms 'ply' and 'lamina' are transposable throughout this training material.
Composite structures can be subdivided into: monolithic, comprising laminates only sandwich, comprising laminates separated by lightweight core The laminates, which typically comprise two or three plies, are termed face sheets.
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The core, which primarily keep the face sheets apart to increase buckling and bending resistance, are typically either honeycomb or closed cell foam.
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3 Role and Characteristics of the Fibres

The fibres provide the strength and stiffness to the composite. The fibres have very strong bonds in the axial direction but weak bonds in the transverse direction, hence fibres are weak in shear. Carbon fibres are brittle and have relatively low strain to failure.

3.1 Influence of Fibre Diameter
The complexities of composite failure modes mean that it is dangerous to have a generic rule applicable to all material combinations, lay-up, loading system and potential failure modes. As will be discussed in Module 4: Composite Structural Analysis, there are a vast number of rules, guidelines and best practice relating to composite design, including material selection. A number of these rules/guidelines are contradictory hence it is essential to understand the reason for the rule/guideline, and the likely effects if it is ignored. It should then be possible to determine whether the rule/guideline is applicable to the particular material or structure. An example of a contradictory guideline relates to fibre diameter, where a small fibre diameter is beneficial for effective load transfer and a large diameter fibre can provide a higher compressive strength. A smaller fibre diameter is beneficial for load transfer. Since load is transferred from fibre to fibre through the resin, it is beneficial to maximise shear area. The shear area is the circumference of the fibre per unit length. To emphasise the effect, consider two scenarios within Figure 4. The fibres in case b) are three times the diameter of those within case a).
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Figure 4: Illustration of effect of shear transfer capacity of small vs. large diameter fibres
It can be seen that the smaller diameter fibres have three times the shear surface area as the large diameter fibres. A larger diameter fibre can have higher compressive strength. Larger diameter fibres are generally easier to align (collimate) than smaller diameter fibres. Lack of collimation of smaller diameter fibres can produce: matrix shear stresses debonding of fibres lower buckling strengths
Why fine fibres?

Small diameters limit possible size of critical cracks ~ which reduces the chance of fracture. Failure of individual fibres is limited to those fibres. Fine fibres allow maximum stress transfer between the phases. Small diameters allow fibre flexibility ~ increases design freedom and manufacturability.

3.2 Weakest Link Model
Fibres under tensile loading is the ideal scenario for a composite material. Provided that the resin has a strain to failure at least as high as the fibre (see
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Section 4: Role and Characteristics of the Matrix), fracture of the composite occurs at the failure strain of the fibres. However, the high variability of fibre strength means that: not all fibres will be stressed to their maximum value simultaneously the first fibres to fail cause local disruptions to the stress field causing high interfacial shear stresses The stress distribution at each broken fibre can induce a number of failure modes: The shear stresses may cause a crack to progress along the interface (see Section 5: Fibre-matrix Interface). The local stress concentrations may cause: crack propagation through the matrix, to and through adjacent fibres fibres to break before failure of the intermediate matrix If cracks or fibre breaks continue to propagate, the composite strength may be no greater than that of the weakest fibre. This failure mode is defined as a weakest link failure. If, however, the resin and interface properties are sufficiently strong and tough to prevent these failure mechanisms, then increased load produces fibre failures in other locations.
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4 Role and Characteristics of the Matrix

The primary function of the matrix is to keep the fibre aligned and transfer load to the fibres. This function can be illustrated considering the behaviour of the resin under three loading conditions: 1. Axial compressive loads The adhesive properties of the matrix are required to keep the fibres straight to avoid buckling. 2. In-plane shear loads Shear loads create a 'lozenge' in which adjacent plies attempt to slide over one another. The resin transfers these loads, relying on adhesion to the fibre. 3. Bending loads A combination of compression, tension and shear loads, the resin performs each of the functions identified above. As mentioned previously, the susceptibility of resin to environmental degradation significantly reduces the already low resin properties. It is essential that the appropriate resin is selected for the fibre. For example, glass fibres have a significantly higher strain to failure than carbon fibres. To realise the full load carrying capacity of the fibre means that the resin must have a strain at least as high as that of the fibre.
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5 Fibre-matrix Interface
This section covers: 1. Bond Strength 2. Fibre Finishes 3. Load Transfer Length
5.1 Bond Strength
For the matrix to perform its roles, particularly transference of load between fibres, it is essential that the there is a 'satisfactory' bond between the fibres and matrix. This bond must have a good shear strength in order to: transmit load between matrix and fibre minimise ingress of corrodents control de-bonding There are a number of factors which affect the bond strength including: compatibility of resin and fibre imperfections on surface of the fibre finish (or size) applied to the fibre during fibre manufacture length of the fibre The performance of the composite material, particularly crack propagation, is dependent on the strength of the fibre to matrix bond.
Weak bond
Very weak bond strength e.g. where there is no, or very little, adhesion of matrix to fibre, means the resin can't be efficient in transferring load between fibres, leading to premature failure of a resin dominated property, e.g. inplane or interlaminar shear.
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'Good' bond
A bond having the correct interface toughness behaves in the manner identified within Figure 5. Figures 5a, b and c: Crack stopping effect of fibre-matrix interface
The crack in a matrix propagates to the fibre (Figure 5a). The crack is then diverted along the fibre interface. At a weak point in the fibre the crack causes fibre fracture (Figure 5b). The crack propagates through the matrix until it reaches the next fibre (Figure 5c).
Strong bond
Typical of ceramic matrix composites; when matrix cracks form normal to the fibres, as in Figure 5, they will propagate in a planar mode through the fibres.
Composite toughness
Energy is absorbed by progressive fracture, typically: matrix cracking debonding fibre fracture fibre pull-out Differences in stiffness of fibre and matrix result in a shear stress at the interface. With good fibre/matrix bonding both fail at the same strain. This gives high strength but low toughness.
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If interface fails due to weaker bonding, the absolute strength is less but toughness is higher ~ as debonding, fibre bridging, fibre fracture and fibre pull-out occur. Figure 6 below shows a schematic illustration of a crack spreading through an idealised single fibre composite under tensile loading. Propagation of a matrix crack is arrested by the fibre in Figure 6(b) because the higher stiffness and strength of the fibre prevents further opening of the matrix crack. Energy is absorbed through shear of the fibre/matrix interface to a point represented by Figure 6(c) where the fibre has become locally debonded. The gray section of the fibre indicates the fibre debonded length. This debonded fibre will extend elastically and further matrix crack opening may take place. The crack will gradually pass a number of fibres that bridge the crack and effectively toughen the composite. At some point the load on the fibre will reach a point high enough to cause it to fail, Figure 6(d). The broken fibre must then be pulled out of the matrix in order for further crack opening to occur, as shown in Figure 6(e). In reality this is occurring with many fibres simultaneously in the matrix. Figure 6: Schematic illustration of the stages in crack growth in a fibre composite [Based on figure in Harris, B. (1999) Engineering Composite Materials. 2nd ed. Cambridge: CUP.] Key to figure: Debonded area
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5.2 Fibre Finishes
Surface finishes are applied to fibres during the fibre manufacturing process to: minimise damage during handling aid subsequent processing maximise fibre/matrix interfacial strength Generally, the above functions are performed by one surface finish (or size). Surface finishes are discussed in detail in Topic 3: Reinforcement Materials.
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5.3 Load Transfer Length
The transfer of load from the matrix into the fibre can be simplified by the model as shown in Figure 7. The stress in the fibre is introduced through the shear stress () developed between the fibre and matrix bonding. The shear stress at the ends of the fibre is zero and raises linearly to a maximum over a distance of l1. Therefore the fibre needs to be of a length of at least l1 to utilise the full fibre strength. Figure 7: Load transfer in fibre [Figure adapted from Crawford, R.J. (1998) Plastics Engineering. Butterworth-Heinemann]
It can be seen from Figure 7 that fibres less than length l1 will not develop the full fibre strength (f)max. The length l1 is referred to as the load transfer length or critical fibre length. Using the model as Figure 7, the load transfer length can be calculated.
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Shear force at interface = interface shear strength 'y' times the surface area. This is balanced by the fibre load multiplied by the fibre cross sectional area. i.e. y (0.5 l1) d = (f)max ( d2 / 4) From which the load transfer length l1 = (f)max d / (2 y)
The aspect ratio is the ratio of the length to the diameter of the fibre. Figure 8 shows a diagrammatical representation of the effective modulus compared to the modulus of an infinitely long fibre for a range of fibre aspect ratios on a log scale. The diagram is showing that the fibre needs to be at least 1000 times its diameter for it to be considered as acting as a continuous fibre with regard to the stiffness or modulus of the composite. For example, a carbon fibre of 7 m in diameter will need to be at least 7 mm long before it will produce an equivalent stiffness of a continuous fibre. Note: Remember that we are comparing the stiffness or modulus of the fibre and not the strength. If we were to compare the strength then short fibre composites tend to only produce about 70% of the strength of continous fibre composites.
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Figure 8: Effect of fibre aspect ratio
A fibre will behave as though it is continuous when the length is greater than 1000 times its diameter. This can actually be as low as 5 mm for carbon fibre.
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6 Composite Fundamentals
This section covers: 1. Fibre Orientation Lay-up and Stacking Sequence 2. Prediction of Lamina and Laminate Properties 3. Micromechanical and Macromechanical Models 4. Characteristics 5. Advantages and Disadvantages Comparison with Metals
6.1 Fibre Orientation Lay-up and Stacking Sequence
The term 'lay-up' is used at various establishments to define one or more of the following: the fabrication process of laminated composites the orientation of plies within a laminate, either: in terms of the number of plies at each orientation regardless of the sequence the sequencing of ply orientations
For the purposes of this topic: 'lay-up' defines the number of plies at each orientation 'stacking sequence' defines the orientation of each ply within the laminate A major advantage of composites, as previously discussed, is the ability to tailor the material, i.e. to position fibres in the direction of the loads, or where stiffness is required. Although it is possible to orientate plies at any angle within a laminate, for typical structures the required laminate properties can be achieved with combination of plies at angles of: 0 +45 45
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90
Lay-up
The notation commonly used to define the percentage of plies at each orientation is:
% of plies at 0/% of plies at +45/% of plies at 45/% of plies at 90
Hence a 60/15/15/10 lay-up contains 60% of plies at 0 etc. It is a fundamental rule of composite design that a laminate should be 'balanced' i.e. comprise the same number of +45 as 45 plies the reasons for this are explained within Module 4: Composite Structural Analysis. This means that the lay-up can be abbreviated to 60/30/10 where the middle number is the sum of the +45 and 45 plies.
Stacking sequence
The lay-up notation gives no information regarding the laminate stacking sequence. The stacking sequence dictates the flexural properties of the laminate, hence two laminates with the same lay-up but different stacking sequence can have the same in-plane properties but different out-of-plane properties. Module 4: Composite Structural Analysis defines a number of stacking sequence guidelines essential for good composite design. It is sufficient, for the purposes of this topic, to be aware of the two most important guidelines (top-level stacking rules): 1. The laminate should be symmetric about the mid-plane; it is perfectly acceptable to have a lamina on the mid-plane. 2. The laminate should be 'balanced' i.e. comprise the same number of +45 as 45 plies (as defined above). The stacking sequence and orientation of each lamina (ply) needs to be clearly defined within the laminate. The laminate 0 () direction is defined. The orientation of all ply within the laminate is represented by the ply orientation angle of each lamina separated by either / or. Stacking sequence notation for the laminate illustrated in Figure 9 is represented by 0/+45/90/45/0.
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Figure 9: Illustration of a balanced laminate
Does the laminate in Figure 9 above comply with the top level stacking rules? No, because the laminate is not symmetric about the midplane. See +45 and 45.
Additionally: Repeat plies or ply sequences are indicated by subscripts after the ply. Parentheses are used to define ply sequences. For symmetric laminates (i.e. mirror image about centreline) the top half can be defined in brackets with a subscript 's' after the brackets. Stacking sequence notation for the laminate illustrated in Figure 10 is represented by [(03/90)2/45]s.
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Figure 10: Illustration of a symmetric laminate with a repeated sequence of plies
Does the laminate in Figure 10 comply with the top level stacking rules? No, because the laminate is not balanced it does not comprise the same number of +45 and 45 plies.
6.2 Prediction of Lamina and Laminate Properties
There are various methods, of differing degrees of accuracy, to predict properties of the composite from properties of the constituents and properties of the laminate from properties of the lamina.
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This is a long webpage so you may want to use the two links here instead of scrolling down the page: Properties of the composite from properties of the constituents Properties of the laminate from properties of the lamina
Properties of the composite from properties of the constituents

Rule of Mixtures can be used to calculate several composite properties including: lamina axial strength lamina axial stiffness density Poisson's ratio In addition to the constituent (i.e. resin and fibre) properties, the proportion of each constituent in the composite is required. The amount of fibre in a composite is generally expressed as a percentage of the composite in terms of volume. This is referred to as Fibre Volume Fraction and given the symbol Vf or FVF. Since the strength and stiffness of the fibre is significantly greater than that of the resin, the optimum strength to weight ratio is for a composite with maximised FVF. There should however be sufficient resin within the composite to ensure that the fibres are adequately supported by the resin and there are no dry areas (referred to as 'resin starved'). A typical FVF for a carbon composite is nominally 60%. To complicate matters material suppliers generally define the amount of resin in a composite in terms of mass percentage! The volumetric, and not mass, percentage of fibre and resin is required for the Rule of Mixtures. An example of the use of the Rule of Mixtures to calculate composite modulus in the fibre direction (i.e. lamina modulus) is given below:
Lamina modulus (E11) = Ef Vf + Em Vm(1) Where:
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Ef Vf Em Vm Consider:
is the modulus of the fibre in the axial direction is the percentage, by volume, of fibre in the composite is the modulus of the resin is the percentage, by volume, of resin in the composite
Ef = 200GPa,
Em = 5GPa,
Vf = 70%
In practice the total fibre and resin volume is not always 100% the difference can be attributed to voids, inclusions etc. This is ignored for this example. From equation 1 lamina modulus (E11) = 200 0.7 + 5 0.3 = 141.5GPa
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Properties of the laminate from properties of the lamina

Before going any further it is essential that the difference between lamina and laminate properties, associated terminology and notation is explained and understood. Recapping: A lamina is a single ply: Its properties depend on properties, and proportions, of the fibre and resin. Lamina axes are: 1, 2, 3*. A laminate is a stack of laminae: Its properties depend on orientation and stacking sequence of the laminae. Laminate axes are: x, y, z*.
*This notation will be used through this training course; although this is a fairly typical notation it does vary within
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academia and across industries. It is illustrated in Figure 11.
Figure 11: Illustration of lamina to laminate axes systems
Generally the 0 axis of the lamina is aligned to the laminate x axis. The calculation of laminate properties (e.g. Tensile Modulus 'Exx') from lamina data (e.g. Longitudinal Tensile Modulus E11t) can be obtained in four ways: i. from the macromechanical model Classical Lamination Theory (CLT) ii. using Rule of Mixtures with efficiency factor iii. using an approximation, e.g. Hart-Smith's 10% rule [Hart-Smith. L.J. (1992) The ten-percent rule for preliminary sizing of fibrous composite structures*, Weight Engineering, vol. 52, no. 2, pp. 2945] iv. from carpet plots Classical Lamination Theory This is described later in Section 6.3 under macromechanical models and is defined in more detail in Module 4: Composite Structural Analysis; it produces the most accurate results of any method. Rule of Mixtures with efficiency factor We have already explained how to predict the properties of a uni-direction laminate E11 using the Rule of Mixtures. We can now use something called the efficiency factor or Krenchel factor to predict the properties in other directions or when the fibres are laid in other directions.
The efficiency factor is calculated using the formula:
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Where, an = proportion of total fibre content = angle of fibres = composite efficiency factor (Krenchel) Therefore, if the fibre is at an angle of 30 the efficiency factor will be 0.5625 if the fibre is at an angle of 5 the efficiency factor will be 0.985 if the fibre is at an angle of 45 the efficiency factor will be 0.25
This information can be used to calculate the efficiency factor for more complex laminations. If the laminate is made from 50% 30 fibres and 50% 45 fibres, then the efficiency factor will be the average of the two constituents, i.e. (0.5625 + 0.25) / 2 = 0.40625. Figure 12 shows the efficiency factor for some common laminates.
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Figure 12: Values of the Krenchel efficiency factor for various fibre groupings [based on figure in Harris, B. (1999) Engineering Composite Materials. 2nd ed. Cambridge: CUP]
The Rule of Mixtures formula then becomes:
where Ec = Young's Modulus of the Composite Laminate
Example calculation for lay-up shown in Figure 9 and constituent properties shown in previous Rule of Mixtures example: Ef = 200GPa, Em = 5Gpa, Vf = 70%. 2/5 of plies at 0 where efficiency factor = 1 2/5 of plies at 45 where efficiency factor = 0.25 1/5 of plies at 90 where efficiency factor = 0 Average efficiency factor: = (2/5 1) + (2/5 0.25) + (1/5 0)
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= 0.4 + 0.1 + 0 = 0.5 Ec = 0.5 (200 0.7) + (5 0.3) Ec = 70 + 1.5 Ec = 71.5 GPa The Hart-Smith 10% rule This is based on the model which defines that: In general the tensile, or compressive strength and modulus, of a composite lamina at 45 to the fibre direction is 12% of the strength (or modulus) in the fibre direction. The strength (or modulus) at 90 is 8% of the strength (or modulus) in the fibre direction. Hart-Smith simplified this by assuming properties at 45 and 90 are 10% of the strength (or modulus) in the fibre direction. Figure 13: Illustration of the approximations made within the HartSmith 10% rule
The laminate property (e.g. EXX) can be calculated from lamina properties: Each 0 ply in laminate scores 1 point. Each 45 and 90 plies in laminate score 0.1 point. Add points and divide by number of plies to get 'laminate factor'.
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Apply factor to lamina modulus (E11) to give laminate modulus (EXX).
Example: Consider the following laminates comprising lamina of E11 = 1200MPa
Figure 14a: Laminate A
Figure 14b: Laminate B
For Laminate A: Number of plies = 11 in laminate Number of plies at 0 =2 scores 2 points scores 0.9 points
Number of plies =9 at 45 and 90 Total points = 2.9
Laminate = 2.9/11 Factor
= 0.26
Laminate = = Strength 1200*0.26 312MPa For Laminate B
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Number of plies =8 in laminate Number of plies at 0 Number of plies at 45& 90 Total points =2 scores 2 points scores 0.6 points
=6
= 2.6 = 0.325
Laminate = 2.6/8 Factor
Laminate = = Strength 1200*0.325 390MPa Carpet plots Carpet plots are a means of presenting laminate data, for a variety of lay-ups regardless of the source of the data. Carpet plots for a typical carbon reinforced epoxy resin are shown from: results of Classical Lamination Theory (Figure 15) results of Hart-Smith 10% rule (Figure 16)
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Figure 15: Carbon fibre composite tensile modulus carpet plot based on CLT results
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Figure 16: Carbon fibre composite tensile modulus carpet plot based on H-S 10% rule
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6.3 Micromechanical and Macromechanical Models
The composite material and structure can be analysed by modelling at any of the levels defined in Section 2.2: Composite Material Form. Generally, the two approaches to modelling composites are defined as micromechanical and macromechanical.
Micromechanical
Prediction of lamina properties based on the known properties of the constituent fibre and resin and their interaction. Predictions generally are correlated by lamina level tests and, if appropriate, empirical factors applied.
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Can require high computational capability. Capable of analysing complex modes e.g. strain rate sensitivity and creep. Capable of providing information regarding the state of stress and strain in the constituents. Micromechanical models are generally used within Non-Linear Finite Element Analysis of Composite Structures.
Macromechanical
Analysing any position in the laminate based on the known behaviour of the laminae. Each ply is modelled as homogeneous and orthotropic. Ignores fibre-resin interface. Lamina level tests required to provide input to the macomechanical model.
An example of the macromechanical model is the Classical Lamination Theory (CLT). A mathematical formulation for predicting the behaviour of a laminate based on the assembly of homogeneous orthotropic laminae. The equation representing a thin laminated plate can be written:
where: A are lamina terms (in-plane stiffness matrix) B are coupling terms (coupled in-plane flexural stiffness matrix) D are bending terms (flexural stiffness matrix) M + N are loadings, is strain matrix and K is laminate curvature The coupling matrix 'B' only has values if the laminate's neutral axis and mid-plane are in different positions, i.e. if the laminate is not symmetric about the mid-plane.
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Classical Lamination Theory is described in detail in Module 4: Composite Structural Analysis. Alternatively to CLT, which generates in-plane and out-of-plane, laminate data, the study of composite structures which is based on equivalent properties of the laminate is generally referred to as 'Black Metal' analysis. The Black Metal approach is suitable for a number of failure modes but generally not for those for which out-of-plane properties are required, for example: instability bending out-of-plane loading For these failure modes it is essential that the flexural modulus (provided by the D matrix from CLT) is considered.
6.4 Characteristics
The characteristics of a composite material are influenced by the properties of the constituents. The main characteristics, which dictate composite advantages and disadvantages, are discussed below.
Anisotropic
As has already been discussed, fibres are strong and stiff (some, e.g. carbon, more than others, e.g. glass) along their axis and weak in the transverse direction. Since resin is also significantly weaker and less stiff than the fibres the mechanical properties of a composite lamina are directional hence the lamina is highly anisotropic. Laminae have similar properties in the transverse and through thickness directions since the strength and stiffness are effectively that of the resin. It is worthwhile noting that particulate and, to an extent discontinuous fibre, reinforced composites can have isotropic properties, but this section focuses on continuous fibres. By tailoring the orientation of the laminae to give a laminate with equal amounts of 0, +45, 45 and 90 fibres, the in-plane properties of the laminate can approach isotropy. Hence a laminate with lay-up of 25/50/25 is referred to as Quasi-Isotropic or QI.
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No amount of tailoring will significantly increase the through-thickness property of a laminate; it remains a resin dominated property.
Brittle nature
Composite materials are brittle; they exhibit elastic behaviour to failure with no discernible plastic range. This can be seen from the typical stress-strain diagrams for a range of composite materials compared with aluminium in Figure 17. Figure 17: Stress-strain plots for a range of composite materials and aluminium
Note: It is important to remember that this graph is for general demonstration purposes, as each material (fibre) can have a range of mechanical properties.
Fibre and resin dominated properties

Although several composite properties can be obtained by the Rule of Mixtures method the composite material demonstrates properties that are dictated by either the fibre or the resin. The resin suffers significant degradation of its properties at elevated temperature (e.g. 80C and when saturated with moisture (referred to as
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'hot/wet'). Fibres (with the exception of aramid) are not significantly affected by the environment within typical operating conditions. It follows that resin dominated properties are affected by hot/wet environment and fibre dominated properties are not. Example of resin dominated property: Interlaminar shear is the shear between two plies in a laminate and is carried by the resin. The hot/wet Interlaminar Shear Strength (ILSS) is typically 50% of the room temperature/dry value for a typical epoxy (thermoset) resin. Example of a fibre dominated property: Longitudinal tensile strength and stiffness of a laminate is a fibre dominated property, to which the resin contributes very little if anything. The major role of the resin in aligning the fibres is, in this case, performed by the action of the tensile load. Consequently there is no reduction of longitudinal tensile properties at hot/wet conditions.
6.5 Advantages and Disadvantages Comparison with Metals
A word of warning when looking at composite data: it is vitally important to understand whether the data relates to the composite or the fibre alone.
A good way of describing the benefits and weaknesses of composite materials is to relate the specific property to that of metallic material. One of the main reasons that composites continue to replace metals for a variety of structural applications is composite's weight saving potential. Weight saving is a combination of the lower composite density and the ability to position the fibres in the direction of load or required stiffness. Although the in-plane properties of conventional laminated composites can be tailored to specific requirements, the through thickness properties are fundamentally that of the relatively very weak resin. The significant degradation of resin properties at elevated temperature and when moisture saturated makes this worse. The data provided here is for each of the three main fibres: carbon; glass and aramid, and resin matrix.
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Advantages with regard to metals

Tailoring capability (directional properties) Isotropic materials, such as aluminium, have the same (or very similar) strength and stiffness in all directions. In several structures applied, or induced, loads are primarily in one direction in which case the strength and stiffness of the metallic, in all but the primary load direction, is effectively wasted. The tailoring ability of composites provides a much more efficient use of the material. Structures which comprise areas under different loading systems, for example 'I' beams having caps loaded in bending induced axial loads and the web loaded in shear ,can be tailored to contain predominantly 0 and 45 plies respectively. Lower density Densities of carbon composite (comprising 60% of carbon by volume) together with metallic materials are illustrated in Figure 18. Figure 18: Density comparison, carbon composite compared with metallic
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Glass fibre composite has a higher density (2.0g/cm ) than carbon (1.6g/cm ). 3 Aramid is typically 1.45g/cm . These are typical values and are dependent on the FVF of the composite. Good fatigue performance Fatigue strength, particularly under tensile loading, is often the design driver for metallic materials (e.g. aluminium). The effect is compounded due to the ductility of aluminium and its ability to redistribute statically applied load around a discontinuity. Hence the full effect of stress raisers is only realised after a certain number of cycles. This means that the ratio of fatigue to static strength for aluminium under tensile load is low, approximately 0.2 (can be higher or lower depending on several factors). Composites have completely different behaviour to aluminium under fatigue loading: Critical loading is compression. Composites are brittle and cannot redistribute loads effectively. Stress concentration induced knockdowns are equally applicable under static and fatigue loading. The stress vs. number of cycles (SN) curve shows strength linearly decreasing with log N. At 106 cycles the ratio of fatigue to static strength for a 'notched' specimen is approximately 0.8 for a carbon composite. No corrosion Unlike aluminium, composites do not corrode, either through 'normal' corrosion or galvanic mechanisms. However, a galvanic cell can be produced in a hybrid carbon composite/aluminium structure in which: carbon acts as a cathode aluminium acts as an anode any moisture present acts as an electrolyte Unless adequately protected, the aluminium will galvanically corrode.
Disadvantages with regard to metals

Environmental degradation (of resin dominated properties) The significant reduction in resin dominated properties under hot/wet conditions can reduce interlaminar shear strengths and through thickness tension to in the region of 40MPa. The equivalent strength of aluminium is in the region of ten times this value.
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Notch sensitivity Metal's ductile nature enables load to be redistributed around a discontinuity. Composites being brittle do not have this capability and generate high peak stresses. Figure 19: Difference in notch sensitivity of metallic and composites
a) Metallic Behaviour
b) Composite Behaviour
Figure 20 illustrates the effect of a notch, e.g. a hole, on the static strength of: a notch insensitive material, e.g. aluminium a notch sensitive material, e.g. composite Figure 20: Illustration of effect of notch on static tensile strength [Based on a figure from US Department of Defense (1999) Composite
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Materials Handbook IL 17: Volume 3 - Materials Usage, Design and Analysis]
The reduction in strength for the aluminium is purely a function of the net section effect, i.e. there is less material to carry the load, but no stress concentration factor. It is emphasised that this behaviour is for static load only, the effect of the concentration factor will be seen on the metal under cyclic loading. The notch insensitive curve is based on the stresses generated at the edge of a hole, which can be a factor of three on the average stress. The point stress criteria, in which the stresses are considered a short distance from the edge, of the hole is more representative of the material behaviour. It can be seen that a relatively small hole reduces the strength of the composite material, well below that attributable to the net section effect. Figure 20 can only be illustrative, the magnitude of the reduction is dependent on: specific material lay-up whether loading is tensile, compressive or shear whether uniaxial or multiaxial loading Notch effects are discussed in detail in Module 4: Composite Structural Analysis.
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Impact damage Unlike metals, which show a dent after impact, relatively high impact energies produce virtually no visible sign in composite materials. It is a different matter through the thickness where delaminations and cracks can occur. This is illustrated in Figure 21. Figure 21: Effect of non-visible impact damage on composite laminates
Coupled with composite's inability to redistribute load around discontinuities, impact damage is a key issue; the effect needs to be addressed in the allowable strengths. The magnitude of damage depends on: material laminate thickness stacking sequence impact threat (shape of impactor) for example, pointed or blunt load Poor through thickness properties It is good design practice to avoid the use of conventional laminates in areas of high applied, or induced, out-of-plane loads because through thickness (outof-plane) loads are reacted solely by the resin. If this can't be avoided, means of increasing through thickness properties include: mechanical pins (e.g. Z pins) or through thickness stitches use of 3d woven material incorporating a throat washer under the bolt and into the corner radius of L section composite brackets under 'pull off' loads
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Variability A key characteristic of laminated composite structures is that the material is made during the manufacturing process, i.e. by the assembly and curing of laminae. Hence variability can occur at a number of stages within the manufacturing process: within the raw material during lay-up during the processing High variability significantly reduces the material design allowable, which is calculated on a statistical basis from test results.
Typically the material allowable = Mean value (k * SD), where: k is a coefficient dependent on the number of specimens tested SD is the standard deviation of the data set of test results
The Coefficient of Variation (CV), i.e. SD/mean value, is typically 3.5% for a metallic and 7.5% on average for a composite. The CV is dependent on test method, and often test operator, compression testing generally gives a higher CV than tension. This means that the ratio of material allowable/mean value is typically: 0.95 for metals 0.85 for composites This effectively erodes composite's weight saving potential compared to metallic materials. Validated manufacturing processes that produce repeatable components and robust quality procedures are essential to help minimise composite variability, hence maximise the material allowables.
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7 Summary
Having completed this topic you should be able to: define composite material terminology from filament to laminate explain the role of the constituents of a composite material define the types of constituents and suitable combinations calculate certain composite properties from properties of the constituents estimate and calculate, using different techniques, certain laminate properties from lamina properties for any lay-up Now complete the topic assessment, and then return to this topic to complete the evaluation form at the end.
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8 References
A list of recommended reference books is shown in the Module Specification. However, any Composite Materials books should provide additional material to supplement these fundamental notes.
References in this topic

Hart-Smith. L.J. (1992) The ten-percent rule for preliminary sizing of fibrous composite structures*, Weight Engineering, vol. 52, no. 2, pp. 2945
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9 Topic Assignment Questions

Please follow the instructions below to complete the topic assessment.
Short Answer Questions

[A total of 30 marks]
Answer the questions below and e-mail your responses in to David4.Richardson@uwe.ac.uk. Please add in to the subject heading: Short question answers for Topic 1. Please use the Topic 1: Short Answer Questions word document pro-forma and send this as an attachment to the e-mail.
1. List the three primary functions that the matrix performs in a composite material. [3] 2. Explain why near isotropic properties can be achieved with particulate or discontinuous fibre composites but not by continuous fibre composites. [1] 3. What is the primary benefit and main disadvantage of larger diameter fibres? [2] 4. Why do small diameter fibres reduce the likelihood of fibre fracture? [1] 5. What role does the matrix play in promoting the compressive strength of a composite? [2] 6. What property must the matrix possess to ensure that the fibre realises its full load carrying capability? [1] 7. How can the toughness of a composite be increased to the detriment of its flexural strength? [1] 8. Calculate the load transfer length of a 8m diameter fibre with a tensile strength of 4,800 MPa if the interfacial shear strength between fibre and matrix is 20 MPa. [2] 9. Explain why two composite laminates with the same 'lay-up' can have different flexural properties. [1] 10. What are the risks of having a fibre volume fraction that is too high? [2] 11. Calculate E11 for the following Ef = 280GPa, Em = 3GPa, Vf = 55%. [1] 12. What is the Efficiency (Krenchel) factor for fibres at 15 to the loading axis? [1] 13. What is the Hart-Smith factor for a [60/20/20] lay-up? [1]
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14. Comment on the possible reason(s) for the relatively large difference in predicted values between CLT and the Hart-Smith 10% rule for 20/60/20 lay-up. [2] 15. What two things can have a serious effect on the inter laminar shear strength of a laminate? [2] 16. What direction would you place the majority of fibres in the shear web of an I-beam? [1] 17. Why do you have to be careful when designing a component that contains both carbon fibres and aluminium? [1] 18. Where and how would you look for damage in a composite laminate after impact? [2] 19. Why is it good design practice to avoid the use of conventional laminates in areas of high applied, or induced, out of plane loads? [1] 20. Variability can occur at a number of stages within the manufacturing process with composite materials. What effect does this have for the designer and what can be done to reduce the effect? [2]
Case study questions

Answer the questions below and e-mail your responses in to David4.Richardson@uwe.ac.uk. Please add in to the subject heading: Case study answers for Topic 1. Please use the Topic 1: Case studies word document pro-forma and send this as an attachment to the e-mail. Case study 1.1: Material properties of laminated composites A Unidirectional carbon/thermoset composite comprises constituents with the following properties: Resin Modulus (Em) = 18GPa Fibre Modulus (Ef) = 230GPa A panel comprising this material is loaded under uniaxial tension of 3.5kN/mm width. Assume a strain allowable of the material (regardless of lay-up) of 5000 microstrain. 1. Calculate the lamina modulus (E11) for a Fibre Volume Fraction of 60%. 2. Propose a nominal layup for the panel comprising at least 10% of plies in each direction (0, +45, -45 and 90) and maximum of 70 plies in any one direction. Explain your choice.
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3. Estimate the longitudinal modulus of the laminate, comprising your defined lay-up, using the Hart-Smith 10% rule. 4. Calculate the equivalent strength for the panel from the relationship between: modulus; stress and allowable strain. 5. Calculate the number of plies of 0.25mm thickness, for your defined layup required to carry the load of 3.5 kN/mm width. 6. Propose a stacking sequence for a laminate that has 27 plies and a [70/20/10] layup to produce a balanced and symmetric laminate. Analyse the stacking sequence and its effect on the layup. What do you need to do in order to satisfy the top-level stacking rules? Clearly show your solution and explain your assumptions. 7. Calculate the longitudinal modulus of the laminate defined in question 2 using the Rule of Mixtures formula. Case study 1.2: Justification for use of CFRP for commercial aircraft Manufacturers of commercial aircraft are rapidly replacing aluminium alloys with carbon fibre reinforced plastics (CFRP) for structural components. Develop a rational justification for this decision based on the properties and performance of the two materials. Highlight both positive and negative factors in this argument to demonstrate that you have considered all of the key factors that may influence material selection, including environmental effects, such as temperature, moisture and lightning strike. You should read widely to ensure that you have listed, explained and evaluated all contributing factors for high marks. You must use Harvard referencing to acknowledge all reference material (sources of information other than in e-learning text). Limit your answer to 1000 words. Do not try to write an essay answer. Aim to get the information across in a clear and concise way, e.g. use bullet points, tables and diagrams.
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10 Evaluation
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Composite Materials Topic 1: Composite Material Fundamentals

Composite Materials Topic 1: Composite Material Fundamentals Contents

Composite Materials Topic 1: Composite Material Fundamentals

Composite Materials Topic 1: Composite Material Fundamentals

2 What are Composite Materials?

2 What are Composite Materials?

Composite Materials Topic 1: Composite Material Fundamentals

2 What are Composite Materials?

Composite Materials Topic 1: Composite Material Fundamentals

Composite Materials Topic 1: Composite Material Fundamentals

Composite Materials Topic 1: Composite Material Fundamentals

Laminate Fibre Filaments Tow Yarn

Lamina Ply Laminae Laminate

Composite Materials Topic 1: Composite Material Fundamentals

Composite Materials Topic 1: Composite Material Fundamentals

3 Role and Characteristics of the Fibres

3 Role and Characteristics of the Fibres

Composite Materials Topic 1: Composite Material Fundamentals

Why fine fibres?

3 Role and Characteristics of the Fibres

Composite Materials Topic 1: Composite Material Fundamentals

Composite Materials Topic 1: Composite Material Fundamentals

4 Role and Characteristics of the Matrix

Composite Materials Topic 1: Composite Material Fundamentals

Composite Materials Topic 1: Composite Material Fundamentals

Composite Materials Topic 1: Composite Material Fundamentals

Composite Materials Topic 1: Composite Material Fundamentals

Composite Materials Topic 1: Composite Material Fundamentals

Composite Materials Topic 1: Composite Material Fundamentals

Composite Materials Topic 1: Composite Material Fundamentals

Figure 8: Effect of fibre aspect ratio

Composite Materials Topic 1: Composite Material Fundamentals

Composite Materials Topic 1: Composite Material Fundamentals

% of plies at 0/% of plies at +45/% of plies at 45/% of plies at 90

Composite Materials Topic 1: Composite Material Fundamentals

Figure 9: Illustration of a balanced laminate

Composite Materials Topic 1: Composite Material Fundamentals

Figure 10: Illustration of a symmetric laminate with a repeated sequence of plies

Composite Materials Topic 1: Composite Material Fundamentals

Properties of the composite from properties of the constituents

Lamina modulus (E11) = Ef Vf + Em Vm(1) Where:

Composite Materials Topic 1: Composite Material Fundamentals

[return to top of page]

Properties of the laminate from properties of the lamina

Composite Materials Topic 1: Composite Material Fundamentals

academia and across industries. It is illustrated in Figure 11.

Figure 11: Illustration of lamina to laminate axes systems

The efficiency factor is calculated using the formula:

Composite Materials Topic 1: Composite Material Fundamentals

Composite Materials Topic 1: Composite Material Fundamentals

The Rule of Mixtures formula then becomes:

where Ec = Young's Modulus of the Composite Laminate

Composite Materials Topic 1: Composite Material Fundamentals

Composite Materials Topic 1: Composite Material Fundamentals

Apply factor to lamina modulus (E11) to give laminate modulus (EXX).

Example: Consider the following laminates comprising lamina of E11 = 1200MPa

Figure 14a: Laminate A

Figure 14b: Laminate B

Number of plies =9 at 45 and 90 Total points = 2.9

Laminate = 2.9/11 Factor

Laminate = = Strength 1200*0.26 312MPa For Laminate B

Composite Materials Topic 1: Composite Material Fundamentals

Laminate = 2.6/8 Factor