Parental Involvement 1

Running Head: PARENTAL INVOLVEMENT

Parents’ School-Related Behavior: Getting Involved with a Grade School and

College Child

Carlo Magno

Janelle Carmela Lynn

Aylsworth Kyler Lee

Robina Marie Ko
 Parental Involvement 2

School-related Parental Behavior with Children in Grade School and

College

Carlo Magno.Janelle Camela Lynn,Avlsworth Kyler Lee,,Robina Marie Ko

De LaSalle University

Abstract

The present study investigated the parental involvement of the Filipino mothers and

fathers on their child’s school-related behaviors. The study made use of Tan’s

(1989) typology of fathers (procreator, dillitante, determinative, and generative)

and Umali-Razon’s (1981) typology of mothers (permissive, loving, controlling, and

autonomy). These characteristics in their typology were differentiated in the

involvement of school-related activities for a grade school child and a college child.

The pattern of differences was investigated using t-test for two independent

samples, Confirmatory Factor Analysis, and Multidimensional Scaling. The results

showed that mother’s are significantly more loving and permissive for the grade

school child while fathers are significantly more procreator and determinative for

the grade school child, p<.05. The model of Umali-Razon are more fit for

involvement with a grade school child while Tan’s model is more appropriate for a

college child. The characteristics for mothers’ and fathers’ are closely linked for the

involvement of a grade school child and these characteristics separate and

becomes exclusive for the involvement in a college child.

 Parental Involvement 3

In the past two decades, a great deal of research has shown the

dynamics of parents’ involvement in school (Domina, 2005). Parents’ school

involvement has been linked with a lower likelihood of dropping out of school

(Rumberger, Ghatak, Poulos, Ritter, & Dornbusch, 1990). Also, studies

conducted indicate that parents’ behaviors are predictors of children’s social

adjustment in the transition to school and achievement in school (Stevenson

& Baker, 1987; The National Institute of Child Health and Human

Development Early Child Care Research Network in the United States, 2004).

Parental Involvement

Parental involvement in education has long been a topic of interest

among those concerned with the optimal developmental and better

educational outcomes for the child. Studies report consistent findings that

increased parental involvement can improve student achievement (Hoover-

Dempsey & Sandler, 1997). In support to this, a study by Jones and Savage

(1972) has shown a positive association between parents' involvement at

school and children's achievement. Jones and Savage (1972) found that most

parents strongly value involvement in their children's learning. Across a

 Parental Involvement 4

range of studies, there has emerged a strong conclusion that parental

involvement in child and adolescent education generally benefits children's

learning and school success (e.g., Chavkin, 1993; Eccles & Harold, 1993;

Epstein,1989, 1991,1994; Hess & Holloway, 1984; Hobbs et al., 1984; U.S.

Department of Education, 1994 cited in Hoover-Dempsey & Sandler, 1997).

The forms of parental involvement has been an important part of the current

effort to understand why parents choose to become involved and why their

involvement often functions to create positive outcomes for their children of

all ages (Hoover-Dempsey & Sandler, 1997).

Parents’ Role in a Child’s Education

The roles of parents in their child’s education includes both (a) the

expectations (explicit and implicit) that parents and those in their significant

groups hold for their behaviors in relation to children's schooling and (b) the

behaviors they enact in relation to their children's schooling. Parental role

expectations may transcend gender (e.g., parents of both genders are

generally expected to protect children from harm, for example, on the way to

or from school) or may be particular to one gender or the other (Hoover-

Dempsey & Sandler, 1997); for example, mothers often experience stronger

role expectations than fathers for day-to-day involvement in children's

schooling, such as homework help or signing off on project completion

checklists, while fathers may experience stronger expectations for

involvement in children's athletic activities or "big" decisions involving such

issues as major disciplinary action (e.g., Eccles & Harold, 1994). This

suggests differences in the role expectations of fathers and mothers.

 Parental Involvement 5

Despite the evidences on the positive outcome of increased

involvement of parents in their child’s schooling, there are studies that

specifically indicate that parent involvement in schooling decline over the

transition to higher schooling. The decline are in the aspects of parental

monitoring of students’ time (Lee, 1994), direct communications with school

(Epstein, 1995), direct assistance with homework (Epstein & Sanders, 2002),

as well as other learning-supportive activities such as school-related

discussions (Lee, 1994).

Filipino Family and Culture

Parents in all cultures draw their parenting practices from the culture

that surrounds them. However, cultures vary in the extent to which parents

are allowed to vary the cultural socialization theme (Arnett, 1995). Specific to

cultural norms associated with young children, Filipino infants are given

constant attention and care, with few demands based on the belief that

infants and toddlers are vulnerable to environmental elements ranging from

infectious diseases to supernatural beings (Santos & McCollum, 2007).

Socialization is not simply a choice parents make but reflects the

expectations of the community to which the parents feel compelled to

conform and the prevailing cultural beliefs (Arnett, 1995). As children grows

older, they develop their own thoughts, decisions, less supervision, expected

to participate in family activities, and conform to family expectations (Andres

& Ilada-Andres, 1987; Medina, 1991; Santos & Chan, 2004). Parenthood

places adults in the position of acting as models for their children, which is

likely to cause many of them to exercise impulse control and because they
 Parental Involvement 6

provide sources of meaning (Arnett, 1995). Filipino child-rearing practices

emphasize the importance of family and community membership, and these

values are taught to Filipino children at an early age (Santos, & McCollum,

2007).

Fathers

The earliest work on fatherhood was conceptualized solely in terms of

the presence versus absence of fathers and the consequences of a father’s

absence on child development (Crockett, Eggebeen, & Hawkins, 1993). In

addition, McLanahan (1985) provided an explanation that adolescents in

father-absent families were most probable to drop out of high school. On the

other hand, proof those fathers appear to put forth minimal impact or exert

very little effort on their offspring has been presented (Crockett, Eggebeen &

Hawkins, 1993). Also, an association of fathering and marital relations has

also been shown by various investigations. Belsky and Volling (1991) found

that increased levels of marital conflict and ambivalence were related to less

responsive and stimulating fathering.

According to Tan (1989) there are four types of father who vary in

their parenting. These four types are the procreator father, dilettante

father, determinative father, and generative father. Tan then made a grid

characterizing the activity of the father with his child and his affect.

Type of Activity Affect

Father
Procreator Low activity: Doesn’t Negative Affect: Supply his
spend much time and child’s needs. He could
effort on the grant the bare essentials

responsibility. His idea of
fatherhood does not go
beyond the biological
aspects. Equates
fatherhood into just
providing for his child
and nothing else.
Dilettante Not very active father
and participation is
positive: Enjoys his
position however he does
not spend much time and
effort in the role. May
just be a supporting role
for the mother or just a
friend that his child can
resort to when the main
parent is not successful
in responding to his
needs.
Determina High activity rating:
tive Spends a great deal of
time and effort on being
a father. He actively
seeks power over his
child’s destiny and life,
setting goals for his child
instead of his child
setting goals for himself.
Generative Level of Activity is high:
views parenthood as a
defined opportunity for
personal growth and a
possibility for fulfillment.
The meaning of his child
is mostly a responsibility.
The child symbolizes the
future and his nurturance
Parental Involvement 7
like a first-rate education
and definitive favors It
serves as a reward when
he sees his child become
economically stable. He
becomes disappointed
when his child fails to carry
on their family names
(especially in the male
offspring).
Affective: Gets pleasure
from his child’s company. If
things do not go as
planned he chooses to
withdraw. His main
frustrations come when he
is rejected by his child.
Fulfillment comes when his
child gives him the
companionship that he
wants.
Negative affect: The
thoughts of his
responsibilities are lucid;
e.g. his offspring must be a
top student or a
distinguish doctor. Only
gets concerned whenever
he wants to. He gets
contentment from the
accomplishment of his set
goals by his child. His
frustration comes when his
own child declines to
conform to the goals that
he has set.
Positive Affect: He derives
pleasure from personal
fulfillment, having dealt
with the challenge of the
change of supervising the
growth of his child.
Experience competition
with their wives since they
become critical when it
 Parental Involvement 8

of the future of the comes to their wives’

family, society, and the
world. He sees himself as
a custodian.
parenting. Characterized
as warm and accepting.
Tend to have children who
are more socially
competent with peers.

Mothers

Although many Filipino families pronounce the belief that child-rearing

is a joint parental responsibility (Licuanan, 1979; Aguiling-Dalisay, 1983), the

mother is still ranked as the primary caretaker of her children (Mendez &

Jocano, 1979; Licuanan, 1979; Lagmay, 1983; Mindoza et al., 1984; UP CHE,

1958). Mothers are usually responsible for many concerns of the child. The

mother does most of the decisions in the child’s daily routine, schooling, and

health (UP CHE, 1985). Sycip (1982) refer to the infamous “double burden”

that women shoulder. Sycip (1982) writes:

Women are traditionally defined as the keepers of the home and… all

kinds of domestic and familial responsibilities are assigned to them.

Today’s economic conditions decree that they also go out and take the

additional load of… [ensuring] the financial security of their families. At

the same time, they have not been relieved of their other duties. It

seems obvious that one set of responsibilities is bond to suffer. (p.6)

A mother’s greater time investment in the care of her children can be

expected to result in greater emotional involvement. Asprer (1980)

describes the Filipino mother’s life as emotionally and psychologically

intimately intertwined with the lives of her children and husband..

Therefore, the mother-child relationship has variously been described as

 Parental Involvement 9

one of indulgence, nurturance, responsiveness, warmth and closeness. On

the other hand there is also strictness and severity (Lagmay, 1983). Espina

(1996) confirms previous observations (e.g., Razon, 1981) that

overprotection is virtually synonymous with a mother’s love.. Studies have

shown Filipino mothers child-rearing patterns in general as more loving

than hostile, but are more controlling than permissive (Umali-Razon, 1981).

Umali-Razon (1981) describe mother’s involvement in four typologies:

Type of Description
Mother
Control High expectations of compliance to parental rules and
directions, an open dialogue about those rules and
behaviors, and a child-centered approach characterized
by warm, positive affect.
Permissiv Having few behavioral expectations for the child and is
e characterized by warm affect. Parents are nurturing and
accepting, but non-demanding. This type of parent
simply wants the child to like him or her at the end of
the day and will do anything the child requests to do.
Love Type affinity or natural affection felt among members of
a group bound by common ancestry or blood ties, or
care. This type of parent shows total support and
concern for the child.
Autonomy Typified by immunity from arbitrary exercise of
authority. This kind of mother give their children
personal independence to have self-direction in life..

Parental Involvement for Grade School and College Children

Parents go through a transition in handling their child from a young

age as their child develops to adolescence (Hagestad, 1987; Van Wel, Ter

Bogt, & Raaijmakers, 2002). This implies that there are marked differences

as to how parents get involved with their children in the grade school and

those in the college level. There are also studies that describe the pattern

of parenting as perceived by the college students (Baldwin, McIntyre, &

 Parental Involvement 10

Hardaway, 2007; Hoover, 2007; Love, 2008). The role identity theory

(Stryker, 1968) explains that emotional closeness between children and

their parents is positively influenced by life course transitions. As

adolescents develop and mature, their experiences make them understand

their parents better. The Individuation theory also explains the

transformation of the parental involvement from childhood to adolescence

(Buhl, 2000; Smollar & Youniss, 1989). The transition includes staying at

home to leaving the parental home, from being taken care of to making

their own decisions, from dependence to establishing their financial

independence. These theoretical notions of individuation suggest that the

relationship between parents and their children becomes less close and

less important during this phase, as the young adult's dependence on

parents decreases and his or her concerns shift to career advancement, to

romantic relationships, and to career formation.

Purpose of the Study

The study intends to determine whether: (1) the parenting styles of

fathers by Tan (1989) and Umali-Razon (1981) hold true for parents with

children in grade school and college; and whether (2) there is a difference in

the involvement of mothers and fathers for their children in these levels. (3)

The study likewise seeks to determine if the pattern of similarity and

dissimilarity of the parents school-related involvement for a child in grade

school and college.

Method

Participants
 Parental Involvement 11

There were 1171 parents who participated in the study. There were 335

mothers of a grade school child and the other 251 are mothers of a college

student, 335 fathers of a grade school child and 250 fathers of a college

student. It was made consistent across the participants that both parents

selected are working and have finished at least higher education. The age of

the parents range from 24 to 54 years old.

Instruments

An instrument was constructed to measure mother and fathers’

involvement in their child’s schooling. The items for parental involvement

were based on an interview conducted for 10 mothers and 10 fathers. The

categories developed by Tan (1989) and by Umali-Razon (1981) were used

as basis to construct test items. A four-point Likert Scale was used as a

response format. The items reflect how different parents are involved in their

children’s’ academic lives including giving allowances, allowing to go to

social gatherings, and development of study habits. For the Father’s School

Related Behavior Questionnaire (FSRBQ), the items were classified into

procreator, dilettante, determinative, and generative with 30 items for each

factor and a total of 120 items. For the Mother’s School Related Behavior

Questionnaire (MSRBQ), the items were classified into control, permissive,

love, and autonomy with 30 items for each factor and a total 120 items.

The items were reviewed by experts in studies on parenting whether

the items were relevant, irrelevant, or needs revision. The items were pilot

tested to 450 parents (225 fathers and 225 mothers). The initial internal

consistency of the overall scale using Cronbach’s alpha is .98 for the MSRBQ
 Parental Involvement 12

and .99 for the FSRBQ. The internal consistency of the subscales for the

MSRBQ (control=.81, permissive=.93, love=.80, and autonomy=.88) and

FSRBQ (procreator=.90, dilettante=.90, determinative=.93, and

generative=.86) were also high. Factor analysis was also conducted for each

scale in a measurement model where each items were cross-loaded for each

of the factors. The placement of the items was based on its significant paths

for a construct.

Procedure

The final form of the FSRBQ and MSRBQ was constructed and it was

administer to 586 parents. Purposive sampling was used where the parents

to be selected should have at least one child studying in grade school or in

college level. Since majority of the parents were working, the parents who

are not working or full time in the household were not included to have a

homogenous sample. When a mother was selected to answer the

questionnaire, the father was also requested as well to answer the

questionnaire. In administering the questionnaire, the parents were informed

that a study was being conducted to construct and test a scale that is being

developed. Once the parent agreed to participate they were given the scale

and most participants answered it for 3o minutes. After completing the

questionnaires, the parents were debriefed about the purpose of the study.

Data Analysis

t-test for Two Independent Samples. The t-test for two independent

samples was used to compare the parents with a grade school child and

parents with a college child on each of the subscales of the FSRBQ for fathers
 Parental Involvement 13

and MSRBQ for mothers. The level of significance is set at .05 margin of

error.

Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA). The CFA was used to test whether

the subscales of the FSRBQ and MSRBQ are significant components of

parental involvement based on their parameter estimates. The CFA also

enables to test whether the data obtained fits the measurement model. The

goodness of fit indices was compared whether the data fits better for

involvement in grade school or with college students. The Noncentrality and

Single sample Fit Indices were used as goodness of fit indices.

Multidimensional Scaling (MDS). The MDS was used to determine the

distances of the subscales in a two dimensional plane. The closer the

distance between two subscales mean a similarity on a specific dimension.

Two multidimensional planes were generated each for fathers and mothers

with a total of four MDS analysis: Fathers with a grade school child, fathers

with a college student, mothers with a grade school child, and mothers with

a college student. The distances of the subscales were compared for a grade

school child and a college child to account for further differences in the

patterns of parental involvement. The stress level of the dimensions

produced was also obtained to determine whether the data fits the

dimension produced.

Results

The means for parental involvement for grade school and college

student were compared for each subscale of the MSRBQ and FSRBQ. The

subscales of the two measures were also confirmed through CFA. The
 Parental Involvement 14

distances of the subscales of the MSRBQ and FSRBQ for grade school and

college student were compared to see developmental trends.

When the mothers involvement were compared for their grade school

child and college child, there were significant differences for permissive,

loving, and indifferent, p<.05, but not for controlling. Permissiveness

(M=2.62) and autonomy (M=2.68) was higher for college and loving

(M=2.81) was higher for grade school.

In comparing fathers involvement for their grade school and college

child, significant difference was found for procreator and determinative,

p<.05, but not for dillitante and generative. The father being procreator

(M=2.40) and determinative (M=2.53) was significantly higher for the grade

school child.

The factors of the MSRBQ and FSRBQ were structured in a

measurement model to determine if they will significantly load in one latent

variable. The goodness of fit of each measurement model for grade school

and high school ere compared to determine the best fitting model.

In the measurement model for mothers’ involvement with their grade

school child, all subscales had a significant paths to one latent variable,

p<.05 (see Figure 1). This means that controlling permissive, loving and

autonomy are valid constructs of the MSRBQ. The same results were

obtained when the scale was tested for mothers’ involvement with their

college child where all paths are significant, p<.05 (see Figure 2). This means

that the subscales for mothers’ involvement hold true for involvement with

grade school and college child.

 Parental Involvement 15

Figure 1

CFA Mothers of Grade School

Figure 2

CFA Mothers of College Students

When the two measurement model was tested for goodness of fit, the

data for mothers’ involvement for the grade school child fits better as

compared to the mothers’ involvement for the college child. The obtained

chi-square (χ2=43.17), discrepancy function (0.12), Root Mean Square

residual (.092) had smaller values for the mothers’ involvement for a grade

school child. It is also consistent for the noncentrality fit indices where higher

values were obtained for the mothers’ involvement for a grade school child.

The same pattern was observed for the single sample fit indices (see

Appendix A).

When the model for the fathers involvement was tested for the grade

school child, all subscales had significant paths in one latent variable, p<.05.

The same significant paths were obtained for each subscale for the fathers

involvement for a college child, p<.05. This shows that the susbscales for the
 Parental Involvement 16

FSRBQ holds true for fathers’ involvement for the grade school and college

child.

Figure 3

CFA Fathers of Grade School

Figure 4

CFA Fathers of College Students

The two measurement models for fathers’ involvement when tested

had an adequate goodness of fit. However there is a pattern that the model

favors fathers’ involvement for college students. Lower values for chi-square

(χ2=47.6), discrepancy function (0.143), and Root Mean Square Residual

(.089) were obtained for the fathers in involvement in college child data. For

the noncentrality measures, higher values were consistently obtained for the

fathers’ involvement in college child data. Similar pattern was observed for

the single sample fit indices where fathers’ involvement for the college child

is better (see Appendix B).

 Parental Involvement 17

The distances of the subscales of the FSRBQ and MSRBQ were

analyzed using Multidimensional scaling. The distances of each subscale

were estimated using Eucledian distances. Higher values in the Eucledian

estimates indicate dissimilarity of the two variables, small values indicates

similarity of the variables. For each MDS analysis, a two dimension plane was

selected because the subscales of Tan (1989) and Umali-Razon (1981) runs

in two dimensions: Activity and affect. This was further proven in the analysis

because stress levels for each MDS model had low values. The stress level of

each MDS model indicates goodness of fit of the data for the selected

configurations that was analyzed: Mothers’ involvement for grade school

child (stress=.000), mothers’ involvement for college child (stress=.000),

fathers’ involvement for grade school child (stress=.000), fathers’

involvement for college child (stress=.000).

Figure 5

Distances of the Subscales for MSRBQ

 Parental Involvement 18

Distances for the MSRBQ (Grade School)

Distances for the MSRBQ (College)

For the involvement of mothers for their grade school child, loving and

permissiveness were positioned in the same quadrant (Eucledian

distance=.87). Controlling and autonomy are in two separate dimensions.

The pattern changes for mothers’ involvement for the college child. This

time, all four subscales were separated each in its own quadrant. Controlling

was placed in a higher dimension and permissiveness to a lower dimension.

 Parental Involvement 19

The subscale on loving separated with permissiveness for the college data

(Eucledean distance=2.09).

Figure 6

Distances of the Subscales for the FSRBQ

S c a t t e r p lo t 2 D
F in a l C o n f ig u r a t io n , d im e n s io n 1 v s . d im e n s io n 2
1.2
d illit a n t e

1.0

0.8

0.6

0.4
Dimension 2

0.2

0.0
p ro c re a to r g e n e r a t iv e
-0 .2

-0 .4

-0 .6
d e t e r m in a t iv e
-0 .8

-1 .0
-1 .2 -1 .0 -0 .8 -0 .6 -0 .4 -0 .2 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
D im e n s io n 1

Distances for the FSRBQ (grade school)

S c a t t e r p lo t 2 D
F in a l C o n f ig u r a t io n , d im e n s io n 1 v s . d im e n s io n 2
1.2
g e n e r a t iv e
1.0

0.8

0.6

0.4
Dimension 2

0.2
p ro c re a to r
0.0

-0 .2

-0 .4 d illit a n t e

-0 .6 d e t e r m in a t iv e

-0 .8
-1 .2 -1 .0 -0 .8 -0 .6 -0 .4 -0 .2 0 .0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2
D im e n s io n 1

Distances for the FSRBQ (college)

For the subscales of the FSRBQ for their grade school child, the

procreator and generative are in the same quadrant (Eucleadean

 Parental Involvement 20

distance=0.96). Dillitante and determinative are in two separate quadrants

each. Procreator, generative and determinative are all positioned in the lower

region while dillitante in the highest region. The pattern completely changes

for when the scale was used for the fathers’ involvement in the college child.

Each subscale separated in their own quadrant. Dillitante was positioned in

the lowest region and procreator moved in a higher position. Determinative

maintained its distance with all other subscales.

Discussion

The study aimed to determine differences in the pattern of paternal

involvement between fathers’ and mothers’ involvement with children in

grade school and college . The mean for the mothers’ involvement

showed a difference only for permissive, loving and autonomy. For fathers,

differences were observed for the procreator type and determinative type. It

was found that mothers tend to be more permissive for the college son or

daughter because they are seen to be more independent in making their own

decisions and choices as compared with the child in grade school where the

mothers still assume more roles for the child (Mendez & Jocano, 1979;

Licuanan, 1979; Lagmay, 1983; Mindoza et al., 1984; UP CHE, 1958).

However, the mother exhibits more loving care with the young child because

their increased involvement develops a bond with the child (Asprer, 1980).

The mother assumes extended roles to the child at an early age because of

developmental limitations (Sycip, 1982). In this stage, the mother decides

for the personal and general aspects of the child’s life. This extended role

creates a loving connection with the child. However, with gaining

 Parental Involvement 21

independence the mothers’ involvement lessens and results to decreased

manifestations of loving . On the other hand, fathers seem to opt for the

procreator and determinative style with their child in the grade school.

What is common between procreator and determinative is the negative

affect of the father .attributed to his expectations of the child.. The father

when getting involved with his young child sets distinguished achievements

for the child to accomplish. This ideal expectation on the child is created

because the father lacks an emotional bond with the child (Keller, 2005). To

overcome this negative affect the father needs to know the child more. The

father is inconsistent in getting involved with the child as characterized at

times by low activity (for procreator) and low activity (for determinative).

It was also found in the study that Tan’s fathering styles is better fit for

involvement with a child in the college level, on the other hand Umali-

Razon’s typology is better fit for involvement with a child in grade school..

Tan’s fathering style is very specific which points out negative affect and low

activity which captures exactly how a college child is treated. The low

activity and negative affect are not all characterizations of involvement but

rather giving more autonomy for the child to make decisionsforthemselves.

This kind of involvement is found to be more appropriate in handling a child

in college. For mothers, the characteristics of being controlling, permissive,

loving, and autonomous are more appropriate for the grade school child.

These characteristics emphasize more care, guidance, and nurturance which

are very much applicable for a younger child because these are their

immediate needs from the mother Because the mother provides these
 Parental Involvement 22

nurturing characteristics, then the mother’s role is deemed important for a

child in the grades.

In the study, the movement of the subscales is further characterized

by analyzing their similarity and dissimilarity in a two dimensional plane.

Mothers’ involvement was found to be permissive and loving for a grade

school child but the subscales all separate for the involvement with a

collegiate child. For fathers involvement, the same pattern is observed where

procreator and generative are more similar for grade school and the

subscales all separate when the involvement is for a college. The pattern

occurring for both mothers and fathers involvement here is that two

subscales are close in proximity (making it more similar) when the

involvement is for a grade school child but all subscales separate when the

involvement is for a college child. This suggests that certain characteristics

overlap in dealing with a grade school child because the approach can be

more complex. This complexity is described as one action related or leading

to another. For example, mothers need to be permissive to their child to

express their love or a father who provides the child’s needs is his way of

fulfillment in supervising the child. However, these characteristics become

independent and exclusive in handling a college child. At this point the

parent is now more experienced in dealing with the child and acts

appropriately on certain occasions which explains exclusivity of the

characteristics.

The pattern of differences for mother’s and father’s found in the study

extends further characterizing the developmental pattern of parental

 Parental Involvement 23

involvement. Most models stop at identifying key characteristics of mothers

and fathers. The present study was able to establish how these

characteristics change on the involvement for a grade school child and

college child.

Conclusion

It is concluded in the study that mothers and fathers involvement

changes in handling their grade school and college child. Mothers and

fathers school-related involvement are more similar where the

characteristics are more related in handling a grade school child but these

involvement characteristics become exclusive for a college child. This is

explained not only by the child’s development but parents’ changing

perspectives in handling the child.

Recommendations

It is recommended in future studies to investigate the changes in the

parents’ involvement in a larger age range or involvement across a wider

development of the child (ex. Preschool, grade school, high school, college).

Inferring about the changes in parents involvement is explained better if the

behavior is studied in a longitudinal design where parents’ involvement will

assessed as their child progresses in different school or age levels. In terms

of the variables in parental involvement, it is recommended that other

factors be identified by interviewing parents. With this method, more

characteristics of parental involvement can be identified and used as a basis

for developing a scale.

 Parental Involvement 24

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Appendix A

Goodness fit Indices Indices for MSRBQ

Estimates
MSRBQ for Grade
School MSRBQ for College
Discrepancy Function 0.129 0.348
ML Chi-Square 43.178 86.565
Degrees of Freedom 2 2
RMS Standardized Residual 0.092 0.16
Noncentrality Indices
Population Noncentrality
Parameter 0.135 0.363
Steiger-Lind RMSEA Index 0.26 0.426
McDonald Noncentrality Index 0.935 0.834
Population Gamma Index 0.937 0.846
Adjusted Population Gamma
Index 0.683 0.232
Single Sample Fit Indices
Joreskog GFI 0.934 0.843
Joreskog AGFI 0.67 0.217
Akaike Information Criterion 0.177 0.412
Schwarz's Bayesian Criterion 0.269 0.525
Browne-Cudeck Cross Validation
Index 0.178 0.413
Independence Model Chi-Square 327.409 282.709
 Parental Involvement 30

Independence Model df 6 6
Bentler-Bonett Normed Fit Index 0.868 0.694
Bentler-Bonett Non-Normed Fit
Index 0.616 0.083
Bentler Comparative Fit Index 0.872 0.694
James-Mulaik-Brett Parsimonious
Fit Index 0.289 0.231
Bollen's Rho 0.604 0.081
Bollen's Delta 0.873 0.699

Appendix B

Goodness fit Indices Indices for FSRBQ

Estimates
FSRBQ for Grade School FSRBQ for College
Discrepancy Function 0.222 0.143
ML Chi-Square 55.213 47.6
Degrees of Freedom 2 2
RMS Standardized
Residual 0.104 0.089
Noncentrality Fit
Indices
Population
Noncentrality
Parameter 0.13 0.187
Steiger-Lind RMSEA
Index 0.306 0.254
McDonald
Noncentrality Index 0.911 0.937
Population Gamma
Index 0.914 0.939
Adjusted Population
Gamma Index 0.572 0.696
Single sample Fit
Indices
Joreskog GFI 0.911 0.937
Joreskog AGFI 0.555 0.683
Akaike Information
Criterion 0.286 0.19
Schwarz's Bayesian
Criterion 0.282 0.399
Browne-Cudeck Cross
Validation Index 0.191 0.287
Independence Model
Chi-Square 307.122 345.888
 Parental Involvement 31

Independence Model
df 6 6
Bentler-Bonett
Normed Fit Index 0.845 0.84
Bentler-Bonett Non-
Normed Fit Index 0.546 0.53
Bentler Comparative
Fit Index 0.849 0.843
James-Mulaik-Brett
Parsimonious Fit Index 0.282 0.28
Bollen's Rho 0.535 0.521
Bollen's Delta 0.851 0.845