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Wear of diesel engine inlet valves and seat inserts

R Lewis, and R S Dwyer-Joyce Department of Mechanical Engineering, The University of SheYeld, Mappin Street, SheYeld, UK

Abstract: Valve wear has been a problem to engine designers and manufacturers for many years. Although new valve materials and production techniques are constantly being developed, these advances have been outpaced by demands for increased engine performance. The aim of this work was to establish the eVect of engine operating parameters on diesel engine inlet valve recession and to screen potential new seat materials using test apparatus designed to simulate the loading environment and contact conditions to which a valve and seat are subjected. These data were then used, along with the mechanisms of wear identi ed during previous work [13], to develop a quantitative model for predicting valve recession. Valve recession was shown to increase with combustion loading, valve closing velocity and misalignment of the valve. Drip feed lubrication of the valve/seat interface reduced valve recession, on the material combination tested, by a factor of 3.5. The lubricant, however, was supplied in a larger amount and at a lower temperature than would be experienced in an engine. Two materials, of those tested, stand out as having improved wear resistance. These are maraging steel and ductile cast iron. Both gave signi cantly higher wear resistance than the other seat materials tested. The semi-empirical valve recession model, based on the fundamental mechanisms of valve and seat wear, provides a good approximation of valve recession for both engine tests and tests run on the hydraulic loading apparatus. Modelling of a diesel engine test indicated that impact was the major cause of valve recession. Keywords: diesel engine valve gear, valve and seat wear, valve recession, wear modelling, tribology

NOTATION A A i c i e h j k K m n N p p P c r RT R i R v valve/seat contact area (m2) initial valve/seat contact area (m2) initial valve clearance (m) valve kinetic energy (J ) penetration hardness (N/m2) empirically determined wear constant sliding wear coeYcient impact wear constant mass of valve+mass of follower +half-mass of valve spring (kg) impact wear constant number of cycles peak combustion pressure (N/m2) contact force at the valve/seat interface (N ) recession (m) room temperature initial seat insert radius (m) valve head radius (m)

v V w w i W s v 1

valve velocity (m/s) wear volume (m3) seat insert seating face width (m) initial seat insert seating face width (m) wear mass (kg) slip at the valve/seat insert interface (m) coeYcient of friction at the valve/seat interface seat insert seating face angle (deg) valve seating face angle (deg)

INTRODUCTION

The MS was received on 20 March 2001 and was accepted after revision for publication on 9 January 2002. * Correspondin g author: Department of Mechanical Engineering, The University of SheYeld, Mappin Street, SheYeld S1 3JD, UK.
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The drive for reduced oil consumption and exhaust emissions has led to a reduction in the amount of lubricant present in the air stream in automotive diesel engines. This, combined with the eVort to lengthen service intervals and increase engine performance, has led to an increase in the wear of inlet valves and seat inserts. Work carried out previously to isolate the fundamental mechanisms of diesel engine inlet valve and seat wear using experimental apparatus [13] has shown that recession originates from two processes: impact of the valve on the seat on valve closure and sliding of the valve
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against the seat as the valve head de ects and wedges into the seat as combustion occurs in the cylinder. These processes produced characteristic wear features on valves and seats. Impact on valve closure led to the formation of a series of ridges and valleys on valve seating faces and surface cracking on seat insert seating faces. Radial scratches as a result of sliding at the valve/seat interface were seen on seat insert seating faces. Parameter studies of wear have mainly focused on the eVect of engine operating conditions such as temperature and load [4]. Little work has been carried out to investigate the eVect of design parameters, material properties, valve closing velocity and the eVect of reducing lubrication at the valve seat interface on wear. The work has generally been focused on large diesel engines rather than those utilized in passenger cars and a greater emphasis has been placed on investigating exhaust valve wear than that found in inlet valves. Modelling approaches used until now for predicting valve wear [5, 6 ] have been simplistic and have focused mainly on the sliding between the valve and seat under the action of the combustion pressure, taking no account of the impact of the valve on the seat on valve closure. Most also only enable a qualitative analysis rather than providing a quantitative prediction of valve recession. The aim of this work was initially to extend work carried out on wear mechanisms to investigate the eVect of engine operating parameters on inlet valve and seat wear and identify potential new seat materials using test apparatus designed to simulate the loading environment and contact conditions to which a valve and seat insert are subjected. The data were then to be used, along with the fundamental mechanisms of wear identi ed previously, to develop a quantitative model for predicting valve recession.
Fig. 1

2 2.1

BENCH TESTWORK Test apparatus and procedure

(a) Hydraulic loading apparatus and (b) motorized cylinder head

Two test rigs were used during the bench test work (see Figs 1a and b ); a test rig designed to t in a hydraulic test machine to study the eVect of combustion loading while approximating valve dynamics [2] and a motorized cylinder head utilizing actual valve gear to study the eVect of impact on valve closure without the application of combustion loading. 2.1.1 Hydraulic loading apparatus

The test rig shown in Fig. 1a was designed to be mounted in a hydraulic test machine. The hydraulic actuator is used to provide the combustion loading cycles required and acts to close the valve. A spring returns the valve to the open position. The control system allows loading or displacement waveforms of varying amplitude and frequency.
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A removable seat insert holder is used to mount the seat insert in alignment with the valve. An additional holder has been designed in which the seat insert is slightly oV-centre in order to misalign the valve relative to the seat insert. Valve rotation is achieved using a motor-driven belt and pulley system. The valve collet, clamped around the valve stem, is able to move up and down in the collet guide while rotating. To simulate what would happen in an engine, a low rotation force ensures that the drive slips when the valve is closed so that rotation does not occur in this position. Heating is provided to both sides of the rig by hot air supplies directed at the valve and seat. Temperature measurements are taken using a contact probe placed on the outer edge of the valve head at the top of the seating face. A sinusoidal displacement waveform was applied, allowing the valve to lift oV the seat. This enabled the
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investigation of the impact of the valve on the seat on valve closure in combination with combustion loading. The sinusoidal waveform was used, as this was the closest available approximation of the motion of an actual valve in an engine [7]. Experimental parameters used during testing (see Table 1) were based on the operating parameters of a 1.8 l, indirect injection (IDI ), naturally aspirated (N/A) diesel engine. A comparison of the valve dynamics and loading of the hydraulic loading apparatus with those of a 1.8 l, IDI, N/A diesel engine is shown in Table 2. Details of the calculations carried out have been reported previously [8]. Valve closing velocities were determined from valve lift curves; closing impact energies were calculated using 1 mv2, where m was taken as a composite 2 valve, follower and spring mass; and work done during combustion loading was estimated by multiplying valve head de ection by the force applied to the valve head. As can be seen, for the operating conditions used, the impact energy on valve closure and the work done on the valve during the combustion cycle in the hydraulic loading apparatus are of the same order as those in the engine. The apparatus is, however, unable to reproduce valve closing velocities that occur in the engine. In the engine an increase in the valve clearance, either because of poor adjustment or misalignment relative to the seat, can massively increase the valve closing velocity and energy. In the rig, however, owing to the operating constraints on the hydraulic actuator, such variation cannot be achieved. 2.1.2 Motorized cylinder head

Table 3

Motorized cylinder head test parameters

0.215 324 0.0096 0.415 960 1600 0.515 0.0845 0.234

Valve lift (mm) Closing velocity (mm/s) Closing energy (J )

used to drive the camshaft at 2700 r/min via a belt and pulley system. This engine uses an overhead camshaft con guration where the cams act directly on to at-faced followers. The cams are oVset from the valve stem to reduce localized follower wear. The use of oVset cams, along with split collets, also promotes valve rotation. In this apparatus the valve closing velocity is controlled. This is achieved by choosing appropriate valve clearances. The thickness of the seat insert holders is then set to obtain these clearances. Details of the clearances used and the closing velocities and energies at each are shown in Table 3. Each test was run for 160 000 cycles. 2.2 Specimen details

The rig (shown in Fig. 1b ) uses a cylinder head from a 1.8 l, IDI, N/A diesel engine. The cylinder head is bolted to an adjustable bedplate which is mounted on a steel frame. An electric motor, housed within the frame, is
Table 1 Baseline hydraulic loading apparatus parameters
13 Sinusoidal 0.6 10 0.25 RT 1

Combustion load (kN ) Displacement waveform Valve lift (mm) Frequency (Hz) Misalignment (mm) Valve temperature (C ) Rotation (r/min)

Two seat insert materials characteristic of those currently in use in diesel engine applications were selected for use in the tests intended to study the eVect on wear of engine operating conditions (see Table 4 for details). Both materials are based on a tool steel. One, however, is cast and the other sintered. Selection of potential new seat materials was based on those properties required to reduce the eVect of the main causes of recession: impact and sliding. One of the most important factors controlling impact wear has been shown to be fracture toughness [9]. The higher the fracture toughness of a material, the lower is the impact wear. The eVect of sliding wear can be reduced by increasing the lubricity of the seat material, especially under dry running conditions. A total of 75 per cent of the heat input to the top of a valve head is transferred through conduction to the seat and into the cylinder head cooling channels [6 ]. Poor conduction can lead to problems such as thermal distortion causing misalignment of the valve relative to the seat which results in increased wear. Thermal conductivity is therefore another important factor in controlling wear.

Table 2

Comparison of valve dynamics and loading in a 1.8 l IDI diesel engine and a hydraulic test machine
1.8 l IDI diesel engine Minimum clearance Aligned Maximum clearance Aligned 375 0.013 0.12 0.25 mm misalignment 1860 0.32 0.12 Hydraulic test machine 13 kN combustion load Aligned 18 0.0081 0.91 0.25 mm misalignment 16 0.0064 0.91

Closing velocity (mm/s) Closing impact energy (J ) Work done during combustion (J )
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288 0.0076 0.12

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Table 4
Fracture toughness (MN m3/2)

Properties of the seat materials

Tensile strength (MN/m2) 250400 250 600 360 1800 96.5 Thermal conductivity ( W/m K ) 40 46 32.5 (300 C ) 43 (400 C ) 20.9 (100 C ) CoeYcient of thermal expansion (m/m K ) 10.312.6 10.8 (20400 C ) 12.5 (20400 C ) 13.95 (20400 C ) 10.1 (24284 C ) 17.64 (20300 C ) Modulus of elasticity (GN/m2) 120 110 174 185 186

Material Cast seat insert Sintered seat insert Grey cast iron (250 ) Ductile cast iron (600 ) Free-cutting mild steel (EN 1A) Maraging steel (250 ) Oilite

Hardness (HV ) 490 490 193 319 205 358 89.4

12 20 120

Seat materials selected using these criteria are shown in Table 4. Maraging steel was selected for its high resistance to impact. Free-cutting mild steel EN 1A was selected as it was thought the alloying elements incorporated to increase the machinability (such as lead ) would help decrease the eVect of sliding while still giving good resistance to impact. Oilite, an oil-impregnate d porous bronze material, was selected exclusively for its resistance to sliding wear. Two types of cast iron were chosen to represent seats formed in situ within the cylinder head: a grey cast iron and a ductile cast iron. Valves commonly used in inlet valve applications made from a martensitic low-alloy steel were selected for use in the tests. The geometries of the valves and seat inserts used are shown in Fig. 2. The materials not available as seat inserts and the cylinder head materials were made up into specimens also shown in Fig. 2. These could be used in both test rigs. 2.3 Wear evaluation

the valve and seat angles were equal and when the valve and seat angles diVered slightly.

2.4 2.4.1

Results EVect of the combustion load

Optical microscopy was used to measure wear scars and study wear features occurring on the valves and seats. In addition, wear scar widths were measured both during and after the tests. These were converted to recession values using equations derived from valve and seat geometry [8]. These were produced for two cases: when

When using the hydraulic loading apparatus, increasing the applied combustion loading, while maintaining the closing velocity, increased the severity of the wear on both the valves and the seats. Observation of the seating faces of both the sintered and cast seat inserts revealed the presence of scratches in the radial direction (see Fig. 3a). They are created as the valve slides against the seat as it de ects under loading. Examination of the wear scars of valves run against cast seat inserts revealed evidence of deformation and the presence of a series of ridges and valleys formed circumferentially around the axis of the valve seating face (as shown in Fig. 3b). They are caused by a deformation or gouging process as the valve impacts against the seat insert. These wear features correspond to those observed during work carried out previously to isolate the fundamental mechanisms of diesel engine inlet valve and seat wear [13]. Figure 3c shows recession rates (calculated from wear scar widths) for valves run against cast seat inserts for combustion loads of 6, 13 and 18.5 kN. The increase in

Fig. 2

Valve, seat insert and seat specimen geometry

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(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

(e)

(f)

Fig. 3

(a) Sintered seat insert seating face showing indentations in the radial direction (major seat diameter is towards top of gure), (b) valve seating face (run against a cast seat insert) showing a series of ridges and valleys formed circumferentially around the axis of the valve (major seat diameter is towards bottom of gure), (c) valve recession for cast seat inserts run at three diVerent combustion loads on the hydraulic loading apparatus, (d) valve recession for a sintered seat insert run aligned and misaligned on the hydraulic loading apparatus, (e) valve recession for cast seat inserts run with diVerent closing velocities on the motorized cylinder head, (f ) valve recession against closing velocity for a cast seat insert on the motorized cylinder head at various cycle numbers

wear as the combustion load rises is caused by the increasing eVect of the sliding of the valve against the seat as a result of the increase in the combustion loading. 2.4.2 Misalignment of the valve relative to the seat

Misaligning the valve relative to the seat insert in the hydraulic loading apparatus produced a crescent-shaped wear scar on the valve seating face. The widest point of the scar was at the point of initial contact with the seat insert. At this point the wear was more severe than was achieved when the valve was aligned. The comparison of recession for both aligned and misaligned valves run against sintered inserts shown in Fig. 3d gives an indiD03501 IMechE 2002

cation of the increase in the wear, at the point of initial contact, when misaligning the valve. The deformation caused by impact on valve closure is increased as misaligning the valve decreases the initial contact area between the valve and seat. The eVect of the sliding at the valve/seat interface is increased since misalignment leads to an increase in the sliding distance as the valve head exes under the action of the combustion loading. 2.4.3 EVect of closing velocity

Tests run on the motorized cylinder head varying the valve closing velocity clearly indicated that increasing
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(g)

(h)

(i)

Fig. 3

(contd) (g) cast seat insert seating face showing evidence of surface cracking and subsequent material loss (major seat diameter is towards top of gure), (h) valve recession for sintered seat inserts run at two diVerent temperatures on the hydraulic loading apparatus and (i) valve recession for cast seat inserts run lubricated and unlubricated on the hydraulic loading apparatus

closing velocity increased both valve and seat insert wear. As shown in Fig. 3e, valve recession rapidly increased as the closing velocity was increased for tests run using cast inserts. A similar pattern emerged for tests run using sintered inserts. Recession rates, however, were higher. Figure 3f (a replot of data from Fig. 3e) shows the relationship between recession and valve closing velocity for cast inserts. Valve recession is approximately proportional to velocity squared for the cast insert material. Observation of the cast seat insert seating faces (see Fig. 3g) revealed the presence of surface cracking and evidence of subsequent material loss, which again corresponds to wear features observed during previous bench test work [3]. 2.4.4 EVect of temperature

fatigue failure of valves. Such temperatures are usually caused by a reduction in heat transfer from the valve head area as a result of deposit formation. 2.4.5 Lubrication of the valve/seat interface

The majority of the tests were run at room temperature. Running at an increased temperature of 130 C using a hot air supply (see Fig. 1a) was found to have little eVect on the wear rate of the valves or seats (as shown in Fig. 3h). The valves and seats exhibited similar wear features to those run at lower temperatures. It was not possible to run the hydraulic loading apparatus at temperatures higher than 130 C. At higher temperatures it is possible that the hardness of the valve or seat material may be reduced by tempering which could lead to increased valve recession or even
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When running the hydraulic loading apparatus with a steady supply of lubricant to the valve/seat insert interface, evidence of wear on the valve or seat insert seating faces was barely visible. Figure 3i compares valve recession for tests run with and without lubrication. Although the lubricant was supplied in a larger amount and at a lower temperature than would be experienced in an engine, this provides an approximate quanti cation of the eVect of lubrication on valve and seat wear. For this particular case, recession is approximately 3.5 times higher for the test run without lubrication. It is thought, owing to the relatively slow sliding velocity and high load, that the lubrication mechanism occurring during the sliding at the valve/seat interface is that of boundary lubrication. In such a lubrication regime the lubricant lm thickness is too small to give full uid lm separation of the surfaces, and surface asperities come into contact. One of the reasons for the work under discussion is the impending reduction of oil in the air stream of diesel engines which will reduce the amount of lubricant at the inlet valve/seat interface. These results give an indication of the likely increase in wear when this occurs.
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2.4.6

Seat materials

Figure 4 shows valve recession from tests run on the hydraulic loading apparatus for the seat materials listed in Table 4. The materials selected mainly for their resistance to sliding exhibited the largest amount of recession. Of these, free-cutting mild steel provided the best performance, but this material was expected to have a greater resistance to impact than grey cast iron and oilite. It is clear that resistance to impact wear is a key material property in reducing the likelihood of valve recession. The ductile cast iron recessed less than might have been expected. Given its low fracture toughness compared with maraging steel, a higher recession relative to this material would have been anticipated. The low wear may be explained by its higher hardness combined with the presence of graphite, which can act as a solid lubricant, providing improved resistance to sliding wear over maraging steel. On examination of the wear scars from all the tests, it was found that the material combinations exhibiting the greatest recession gave the least severe valve wear and the most severe seat wear. On examination of the Oilite seat before testing, it was found that the seating face was covered in cracks and in places chunks of the material had been torn away on machining. However, after testing it was found that the cracks had disappeared. The only explanation was the occurrence of material ow at the seating face. A similar pattern of results was observed for tests run on the motorized cylinder head, except that less recession was recorded for the grey cast iron seat than for the sintered material. Clearly, the sintered material is less resistant to impact wear than grey cast iron, but more resistant to sliding wear. A similar relative position for the ductile cast iron veri es that, as expected, it has high resistance to impact. This explains the good performance shown by this material in the hydraulic loading apparatus. Two materials stand out as having improved wear resistance. These are maraging steel and ductile cast iron.

Both gave far higher wear resistance than the two seat insert materials tested. While more power is consumed machining the ductile cast iron, it is relatively cheap compared with the other materials. Maraging steel is, however, both expensive and diYcult to machine. 3 MODELLING VALVE RECESSION

A model was required that would provide a quantitative analysis of valve recession. In order to achieve this, it needed to encompass all wear mechanisms occurring at the valve/seat interface. To allow a range of inlet valve and seats to be considered, valve design parameters and material properties also needed to be included. 3.1 Development of the model

In developing the model it was decided to consider the two fundamental wear mechanisms identi ed as causing valve recession (impact and sliding) separately, as they occur as two de nable events in the valve operating cycle. Approaches for modelling the wear mechanisms were appraised and parameters were then derived either directly from the valve and seat design and engine operating conditions or from test results. An allowance for eVects such as misalignment and variation in lubrication was also built in at this stage. The two parts were then combined to form the nal valve recession model. It should be noted that it is possible that the mechanisms could contribute to each other and that the actual wear could be higher than the value given by simply adding the separate contributions. For example, the surface damage caused by impact could weaken the seat material and increase the likelihood of sliding wear due to plucking of material. It is also possible that a very small amount of sliding occurs on valve impact. 3.1.1 Sliding at the valve/seat interface

Abrasive, adhesive and fretting wear were observed to have occurred as a result of the frictional sliding between the valve and seat under the action of the combustion pressure. Archards equation [10] is commonly used for deriving the wear volume, V, in sliding: V= kP x c h (1)

Fig. 4

Valve recession for the seat materials on the hydraulic loading apparatus

where k is the wear coeYcient, P is the contact force c (N ), x is the sliding distance (m) and h is the penetration hardness of the softer of the two contacting surfaces (N/m2). Equation (1) was originally developed for modelling adhesive wear, but it has also been used successfully to model both abrasive wear [11] and fretting wear [12]. Calculation of the parameters to be used in equation (1) is outlined below.
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Load. The peak load normal to the direction of sliding at the valve/seat insert interface, P , was calculated using c the peak combustion pressure, p , and the valve head p geometry (as shown in Fig. 5): p R2 p v P = c ( 1+ ) sin (2)

Table 5

Inputs and typical outputs for engine test recession predictions

Seat material Cast Sintered Poor Y 510 5 3.510 14 0.3 2 16.85 211.7 18 45 0.1 490 13 8053 5.24 288 10 144 106 0.0289 17.1 2.26 241.5 0.877 0.266

v where is the valve seating face angle (deg) and is v the coeYcient of friction at the valve/seat interface. The load on the valve seat is initially zero, then rises to P and falls back down to zero. For the purposes of c calculating the sliding wear volume, an average load, P, was assumed to be equal to half P . In the absence of c other data, was estimated to be 0.1 for the valve/seat interface, which is a typical value for boundarylubricated steel surfaces. Sliding distance. Slip at the interface can be found either by measurement of scratches or by using nite element analysis. Data generated by Mathis et al. [13] using the latter were utilized in this model. In the absence of other data, it was assumed that slip at the interface, , is proportional to combustion load, P . The total slidc ing distance is calculated by multiplying the slip, , by the number of loading cycles, N. Wear coeYcient. Rabinowicz [14] carried out a series of studies systematically to generate wear coeYcients for sliding metals. These were derived from wear volumes using equation (1). DiVerent states of lubrication and material compatibility (the degree of intrinsic attraction of the atoms of the contacting metals for each other, as demonstrated by the solid solubility or liquid miscibility [14]) were investigated. The published data were used to construct a chart of wear coeYcients. The lubrication states and material compatibilities for valve/seat insert material pairings used in engine tests are shown in Table 5. The wear coeYcients, also listed, were taken from the published data. Hardness. The penetration hardness of the softer of the two materials (valve and seat) was used. The hardnesses

Lubrication state Compatible materials Sliding wear coeYcient, k Impact wear constant, K Impact wear constant, n Initial seat insert facing width, w (mm) i Initial seat insert radius, R (mm) i Initial seating face area, A (mm2 ) i Valve head radius, R (mm) v Seating face angle, (deg) v CoeYcient of friction at interface, Seat hardness, h (HV ) Maximum combustion pressure, p (MPa) p Average contact force at interface, P (N ) Slip at interface, (m) Valve closing velocity, v (mm/s) Wear constant, j Number of cycles Total wear volume (mm3) Seat insert radius (mm) Seat insert seating face width, w (mm) Seating face area, A (mm2) A /A i Recession, r (mm)

Poor Y 5 10 5 5.310 14 1 2 16.85 211.7 18 45 0.1 490 13 8053 5.24 288 10 18.72 106 0.0087 16.9 2.08 221.0 0.958 0.057

of the valve and seat materials used during engine and rig tests are shown in Table 4. 3.1.2 Impact

The deformation observed on the valve seating faces and the surface cracking on the seat inserts are characteristic of wear features attributed to processes leading to wear by single or multiple impact of particles [15]. Fricke and Allen [16 ] used a relationship of the same form as that used in erosion studies to model the impact wear, W, of poppet valves operating in hydropowered stoping mining equipment: W =KNen (3)

where e is the impact energy per cycle (J ) and K and n are empirically determined wear constants. Here e= 1 mv2 (4) 2 where m is the mass of the valve and follower added to half the mass of the valve spring (kg) and v is the valve velocity at impact (m/s). Fricke and Allen [16 ] justi ed the use of such a relationship for impact wear of valves, citing work by Hutchings et al. [17] in which it was shown that erosion can be satisfactorily modelled by the impact of large particles. In their work they used hard steel balls of up to 9.5 mm diameter. It was thus assumed that a relationship exists between impacts on a macroscale (greater than 1 mm) and impacts on a microscale ( less than 1 mm), such as those found typically in erosive wear. The similarity of the wear features observed during testD03501 IMechE 2002

Fig. 5

Valve geometry and loading

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ing to those attributed to erosive wear (deformation and surface crackingsee Figs 3b and g) further supports this approach, as well as the fact that wear was found to be approximately proportional to the square of the closing velocity (see Fig. 3f ). It was therefore decided that an equation of this form would be appropriate to model the wear caused by the impact of the valve on the seat on valve closure. Calculation of the parameters used in equation (4) is outlined below. Velocity. Valve closing velocity was determined from the initial valve clearance, c , using valve velocity curves i derived from the valve lift curve. This was achieved by rst tting a line to the lift curve to obtain lift as a function of time, and then diVerentiating this equation to give velocity as a function of time. Velocity was then plotted against lift, and a further line t gave velocity as a function of lift. As the valve recesses, the valve clearance at closure will decrease, thereby decreasing the valve closing velocity. This needs to be considered in the application of the model. Wear constants K and n. Values of K and n for the seat materials used in these studies were derived using an iterative process to t equation (4) to experimental data from tests run on the motorized cylinder head. Equation (6) was used to calculate wear volumes rather than wear mass to t in with Archards sliding wear equation (equation (1)) when combining the two to create the nal model. These were then used to calculate recession values using equations derived from the seat geometry [8]. At each data point the velocity was recalculated to take account of the change in lift due to recession. The results of this process for tests run with cast seat inserts are shown in Fig. 6. As can be seen, the values of K and n derived give

good correlation over a range of velocities. The values of K and n for the sintered and cast insert materials are listed in Table 5. 3.1.3 Final model Putting together the equations for sliding and impact wear (equations (1) and (4)) gives the nal wear model as V= kPN +KNen h (5)

In order to incorporate the change in pressure at the interface and any other eVects likely to lead to a reduction in the wear rate with time, a term consisting of the ratio of the initial valve/seat contact area, A , to i the contact area after N cycles, A, to the power of a constant, j, was included. Constant j was determined empirically using bench and engine test data: V=

Equation (6) gives a wear volume which is then converted to a recession value using equations derived from the seat geometry [8]. The geometrical relationship between r and V for the case where the valve and seat angles are equal is given by V (7) +w2 w sin i i s R cos sin i s s where R is the initial seat insert radius, is the seat i s insert seating face angle and w is the initial seat insert i seating face width (as measured ). Radius R can be cali culated using w and the radius and seating face width i as speci ed for the seat insert, R and w . d d Valve closing velocity is related to valve recession which needs to be considered in the application of the model. Closing velocity decreases as recession increases. R=

kPN +KNen h

BA B

A j i A

(6)

AS

3.2

Application of the model

Fig. 6

Modelling of valve recession for cast seat inserts run with three diVerent closing velocities on the motorized cylinder head (solid line, experimental data; broken line, model prediction)

A ow chart outlining the use of the model is shown in Fig. 7. As can be seen, in order to incorporate the change in clearance, c, and hence closing velocity, v, with increasing valve recession, the wear volume is calculated in steps of N cycles. At the end of N cycles the recession is calculated using the total wear volume. This value is then used to recalculate the clearance and closing velocity for use in calculating the wear volume for the next N cycles. In order to validate the model, valve recession predictions were calculated for engine tests and tests run on the hydraulic loading apparatus. Inputs used for the engine test simulations are shown in Table 5, as well as
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Fig. 7

Valve recession model application ow chart

typical outputs. Figure 8a shows the model prediction for an engine test run using cast and sintered inserts. Figure 8b shows the model prediction for a 750 h durability test using cast inserts. As can be seen, the model produces a good prediction of valve recession for the cases shown. In order to determine which parameters were having the largest in uence on the wear, the percentage split of the total wear between impact and sliding for the engine test predictions shown in Fig. 8a was calculated (see Fig. 8c). Clearly, the contribution of impact wear to the total was higher than that of sliding. The parameters having the largest in uence on wear are therefore valve closing velocity, valve mass and the impact wear constants K and n which are related to the resistance to impact wear of a seat material. Figures 9a and b illustrate recession predictions for the hydraulic loading apparatus tests simulated. As can be seen, the model produces a good approximation of valve recession. Figure 9c shows the contributions of impact and sliding wear to the total wear for each case. In general, the eVect of impact is reduced, compared with the engine test prediction, as a result of the lower valve closing velocities experienced in the hydraulic loading apparatus. The two exceptions are the lubricated cast insert, where the lubricant reduced the sliding wear to about 0.1 per cent of the total, and the Oilite seat, which has a very low resistance to impact. 4 DISCUSSION

could clearly be used, therefore, to give a quick assessment of the valve recession to be expected with a particular material pair under a particular set of engine/test rig operating conditions. This will help speed up the process undertaken in selecting material combinations or in choosing engine operating parameters to give the least recession with a particular combination. It can also be used to give a qualitative assessment of how wear can be reduced by varying engine operating parameters and material properties. For example, reducing valve closing velocity, valve mass and valve seating face angle or increasing the valve head stiVness and seat material hardness will reduce valve recession. By studying the individual contributions of impact and sliding wear it is possible to focus on the particular parameters that need to be altered in order to produce the largest reduction possible in the total wear for a particular material combination. The model does have limitations; no account can be taken of the role of the possible chemical action of the fuel, and the procedure for determining wear coeYcients is likely to lead to inaccurate sliding wear predictions. In order to improve the model, the following could be carried out: (a) simple sliding wear tests using the material combinations tested to provide more accurate wear coeYcients; (b) acquisition of hardness data throughout the duration of a test to establish whether any changes take place and how signi cant they may be to valve recession; (c) tests with diVerent seat materials to attempt to relate impact wear constants K and n to material properties; (d ) further engine tests to provide additional validation data for the valve recession model.
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It has been shown that the valve recession model produces good quantitative predictions of valve recession for both engine tests and bench tests (it is encouraging to predict wear within a factor of 10 in any event). It
Proc Instn Mech Engrs Vol 216 Part D: J Automobile Engineering

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(a) (a)

(b) (b)

(c)

Fig. 8

(a) Model predictions versus engine test data, (b) model prediction for a 750 h durability test and (c) percentage of total wear caused by impact and sliding from recession predictions for engine tests using cast and sintered inserts

(c)

Fig. 9

CONCLUSIONS

1. The prevailing wear mechanisms have been shown to be related to critical operating parameters. The valve/seat interface is subjected to impact during valve closing and to frictional sliding during combustion loading. 2. Increasing the combustion loading increased the eVect of the frictional sliding at the valve/seat interface, leading to increased recession. Raising the valve closD03501 IMechE 2002

(a) Model predictions versus bench test rig data for a sintered seat insert, a cast seat insert and a lubricated cast seat insert, (b) model predictions versus bench test rig data for Oilite, grey cast iron and ductile cast iron seats and(c) percentage of total wear caused by impact and sliding for each bench test modelled

ing velocity caused wear to increase rapidly. Surface cracking and subsequent material loss was prevalent on seat inserts, and greater plastic deformation on the valve seating faces was observed. Recession was approximately proportional to the square of the closProc Instn Mech Engrs Vol 216 Part D: J Automobile Engineering

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R LEWIS AND R S DWYER-JOYCE

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ing velocity. Misalignment of the valve caused the valve wear scar widths at the point of contact to increase massively, leading to increased sliding and hence greater wear. Lubrication of the valve/seat interface using a drip feed system reduced valve recession, on the material combination tested, by a factor of 3.5. The lubricant, however, was supplied in a larger amount and at a lower temperature than would be experienced in an engine. Material choice is clearly critical in addressing valve and seat insert wear problems. Two materials, of those tested, stand out as having improved wear resistance. These are maraging steel and ductile cast iron. Both gave far higher wear resistance than the two seat insert materials tested. While more power is consumed machining the ductile cast iron, it is relatively cheap compared with the other materials. Maraging steel is, however, both relatively expensive and diYcult to machine. A semi-empirical wear model for predicting valve recession has been developed on the basis of the fundamental mechanisms of wear determined during bench test work carried out to establish the causes of valve recession. Constants required for the model were taken from curves tted to experimental data. The model provides a good approximation of valve recession for both engine tests and tests run on the bench test rig. Modelling of an engine test indicated that, for the data studied, impact was the major cause of valve recession.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The authors would like to acknowledge the nancial support of the Ford Motor Company and the help and support of G. Josey of the Diesel Engines Group. REFERENCES
1 Lewis, R., Dwyer-Joyce, R. S. and Josey, G. Investigation of wear mechanisms occurring in passenger car diesel

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engine inlet valves and seat inserts. SAE paper 1999-01-1216, 1999. Lewis, R., Dwyer-Joyce, R. S. and Josey, G. Design and development of a bench test-rig for investigating diesel engine inlet valve and seat wear. Trans. Mech. Engng IEAust, 2000, 24(1), 3946. Lewis, R. and Dwyer-Joyce, R. S. An experimental approach to solving valve and seat insert wear problems. Proceedings of the 27th LeedsLyon Symposium on Tribology, Elsevier Tribology Series No. 39, 2001 ( Elsevier, Amsterdam), pp. 629640. Wang, Y. S., Narasimhan, S., Larson, J. M., Larson, J. E. and Barber, G. C. The eVect of operating conditions on heavy duty engine valve seat wear. Wear, 1996, 201, 1525. Pope, J. Techniques used in achieving a high speci c air ow for high-output medium-speed diesel engines. Trans. ASME, J. Engng for Power, 1967, 89, 265 275. Giles, W. Valve problems with lead free gasoline. SAE paper 710368, 1971. Stone, R. Introduction to Internal Combustion Engines, 1992 (Macmillan, Basingstoke). Lewis, R. Wear of diesel engine valves and seats. PhD thesis, University of SheYeld, 2000. Kawachi, R., Tujii, H., Kawamoto, M. and Okabayashi, K. On the impact wear of carbon steel and cast iron. J. Jap. Inst. Metals, 1983, 47 (3), 225230. Archard, J. F. Contact and rubbing of at surfaces. J. Appl. Phys., 1953, 24(8), 981988. Suh, N. P. and Sridharan, P. Relationship between the coeYcient of friction and the wear rate of materials. Wear, 1975, 34, 291299. Stower, I. F. and Rabinowicz, E. The mechanism of fretting wear. Trans. ASME, J. Lubrication Technol., 1973, 95, 6570. Mathis, R. J., Burrahm, R. W., Ariga, S. and Brown, R. D. Gas engine durability improvement. Gas Research Institute paper GRI-90/0049, 1989. Rabinowicz, E. The wear coeYcientmagnitude, scatter, uses. Trans. ASME, J. Lubrication Technol., 1981, 103, 188194. Zum-Gahr, K. H. Microstructure and Wear of Materials, Tribology Series No. 10, 1987 (Elsevier, Amsterdam). Fricke, R. W. and Allen, C. Repetitive impact-wear of steels. Wear, 1993, 163, 837847. Hutchings, I. M., Winter, R. E. and Field, J. E. Solid particle erosion of metals: the removal of surface material by spherical objects. Proc. R. Soc. (Lond.) A, 1976, 348, 379392.

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