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Contain discrete membrane-bound organelles such as nuclei, mitochondria and chloroplasts. Eukaryotic cells are larger than prokaryotic cells. Not all prokaryotic cells have a cell wall. A generalised animal cell consists of: Nucleus - contains chromosomes and a nucleolus, the DNA in chromosomes contains genes that control the synthesis of proteins. Nucleolus - A dense body within the nucleus where ribosomes are made Rough endoplasmic reticulum (rER) - a system of interconnected membrane-bound flattened sacs. Ribosomes are attached to the outer surface. Proteins made by these ribosomes are then transported through the ER to other parts of the cell. Ribosomes - made of RNA and protein, they are found in the cytoplasm or attached to the endoplasmic reticulum. They are the site of protein synthesis.
Most prokaryotics are very small. Their DNA is not associated with any proteins and lies free in the cytoplasm. A cell wall is always present in a prokaryotic cell. Prokaryotic cells do not have nuclei or other membrane-bound cell organelles. Examples of a prokaryotic cell are bacteria and cyanobacteria.
Prokaryotic cells
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infolding of cell surface membrane (site of respiration) plasmid (small circle of DNA) capsule (slimy layer on surface for protection and to prevent dehydration) pili (thin, protein tubes allow bacteria to adhere to surfaces) flagellum (hollow cylindrical thread-like structure that rotates to move the cell) robosome circular DNA cell surface membrane cell wall (contains peptidoglycan, a type of polysaccharide and peptide combined) cytoplasm
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In cytoplasm: In nucleus:
Release of proteins
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Transcription of DNA to mRNA mRNA leaves the nucleus through a pore in the nuclear envelope
Protein that is made on ribosomes enters the rough ER the protein moves through the ER assuming three-dimensional shape en route vesicles pinched off the rough ER contain the protein vesicles from rough ER fuse to form the flattened sacs of the Golgi apparatus proteins are modified within the Golgi apparatus vesicles are pinched off the Golgi apparatus contain the modified protein vesicle fuses with the cell surface membrane releasing protein, such as extracellular enzymes.
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Gametes
Gametes are highly specialised, with structures and functions that are different from other body cells. The sperm and ovum (egg) cells are the gametes (sex cells), the gametes are adapted for their roles in sexual reproduction. Ovum: Sperm: much smaller and can move by itself to enable it to swim the sperm has a long tail powered by energy released by the mitochondria the sperm consists of the acrosome, nucleus and the mitochondrion large cell that is incapable of independent movement it is wafted along by ciliated cells lining the tubes and by muscular contractions of the tubes. the cytoplasm of the ovum contains protein and lipid food reserves for a developing embryo surrounding the cell is a jelly-like coating called the zona pellucida
nuclei of the ovum and sperm fuse enzymes released from the lysosomes in the ovum thicken the jelly-like layer, preventing entry from other sperm the sperm nucleus enters the ovum the sperm fuses with the ovum membrane and the jelly-like layer surrounding the ovum the enzymes digest through the follicle cells digestive enzymes in the acrosome are released the acrosome swells fusing with the sperm cell surface membrane chemicals released from cells surrounding ovum triggering the acrosome reaction sperm reach ovum
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homologous pair of replicated chromosomes made (chromatids) homologous chromosomes pair up and then separate chromatids separate and gametes are formed, each with half the original number of chromosomes. Meiosis has two important roles in biology. It results in haploid cells, which are necessary to maintain the diploid number after fertilisation. Secondly, it helps create genetic variation among offspring.
Haploid gametes come together to form a diploid zygote. The sperm and the ovum each contain 23 chromosomes, made up of one of each homologous pair and one sex chromosome. So when the gametes fuse the full number of 46 chromosome sis restored. Gametes have half the number of chromosomes found in normal cells (one chromosome from each homologous pair).
Chromosomes
White campion plant cells have 24 chromosomes made up of 11 homologous pairs and no sex chromosomes (as separate male and female individuals are not produced) Fruit fly cells contain 8 chromosomes made up of 3 homologous pairs and one pair of sex chromosomes. Human cells contain 46 chromosomes made up of 22 homologous pairs and one pair of sex chromosomes.
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During meiosis 1, homologous chromosomes pair. At points where they make contact, called chiasmata, the chromatids break and rejoin exchanging sections of DNA. The non-sister chromatids exchange corresponding sections of DNA. Crossing over:
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Maternal and paternal chromosome chiasma, site of crossing over they cross over and the homologous chromosomes separate the chromatids then separate crossing over produces chromosomes that contain new combinations of alleles from both parents
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Fertilisation in plants
In plants: In flowering plants, nuclei from the gametes also have to combine in the process of fertilisation. fertilisation takes place in the embryo sac within the ovule the pollen grain germinates on the style a pollen tube grows down through the style towards the ovary, with its growth controlled by the tube nucleus. the pollen grain contains two nuclei ( the tube nucleus and the generative nucleus on germination of the pollen, the generative nucleus divides to form two haploid gamete nuclei which move down the pollen tube. the tube grows through a microscopic pore into the embryo sac and the two male gamete nuclei enter the sac. one fuses with the egg cell and forms a diploid zygote the second fuses with two nuclei in the embryo sac called polar nuclei to form a triploid cell. This diploid zygote divides to form the embryo. The triploid cell divides to form the seed's storage tissue, endosperm.
To produce a new individual, the nuclei from the gametes have to combine in the process of fertilisation. In mammals:
Fertlisation in mammals
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In mammals the nucleus from one sperm enters the ovum and the genetic material of the ovum and sperm fuse forming a ferlilised ovum called a zygote This cell now contains genetic material from both parents.
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Cell division
Prophase: The chromosomes condense becoming shorter and thicker with each chromosome visible as two strands called chromatids. The two strands are identical copies of one another, produced by replication. They are two chromosomes joined at one rejoin called the centromere. microtubules from the cytoplasm form three-dimensional structure called the spindle. the centrioles move around the nuclear envelope and position themselves at appropriate sides of the cells. these form the two poles of the spindle, and are involved in the organisation of the spindle fibres the spindle fibres form between the poles. (the widest part of the spindle is called the equator.
Metaphase: the breakdown of the nuclear envelope signals the start of metaphase the chromosomes' centromere attach to spindle fibres at the equator
Telophase: The chromosomes unravels nuclear envelope reforms the two sets of genetic information become enclosed in the separate nuclei. Interphase: new cell organelles are synthesised and DNA replication occurs by the end of interphase the cell contains enough cell contents to produce two new cells.
This genetic consistency is important in growth and repair, and also in asexual reproduction. Mitosis ensures genetic consistency by:
making daughter cells genetically identical to each other and identical to the parent cell each daughter cell containing exactly the same number and type of chromosomes as their parent cell this is achieved by:
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DNA replication prior to nuclear division the arrangement of the chromosomes on the spindle and the separation of chromatids to the poles
After as human zygote has undergone three complete cell cycles: Cells in the early embryo:
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it consists of eight identical cells cells are totipotent (as each cell can develop into a human being) five days after conception a hollow ball of cells called the blastocyst has formed the outer blastocyst cell layer goes on to form the placenta the inner cell mass of around 50 cells goes on to form the tissues of the developing embryo these 50 cells are known as pluripotent embryonic stem cells each of these 50 cells can potentially give rise to most cell types
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The cells then divide to form a mass of undifferentiated cells called a callus. By altering the growth regulators in the medium they can be grown into a full plant. Totipotency of plant cells allows plants to be reproduced using plant tissue culture. Small pieces of plant (explants), are sterilised and then placed on a solid agar medium with nutrients and growth regulators.
Most plant cells remain totipotent throughout the life of the plant. In a plant: as the embryo develops into a multicellular body the cells from which it is made become increasingly differentiated. These cells are known as multipotent stem cells, e.g. neural stem cells can develop into cells found in the nervous system. Differentiation is irreversible in animal cells. Cells become more differentiated:
This shows the importance of the nucleus and chemical messengers in the development of the cell.
If the intermediate hats are then removed, new ones grow that correspond to the nucleus in the rhizoid. If the hats are removed and the stalks swapped, the plant develops hats with features of both species. (intermediate hats) The Acetabularia mediterranea and the Acetabularia crenulata have: The nucleus has a role in controlling the development of the individual cell and the whole multicellular organism's phenotype. This was first shown in classic experiments using giant algal cells.
and a lamb is born that is chromosomally identical to mammary cell donor the embryo develops it is implanted into the uterus of a third sheep an early embryo forms it is grown in a culture the nucleus from the mammary cell inside egg cell minus its nucleus cells are fused together sheep 2: egg cell donor sheep. the nucleus from an egg cell found in the ovary is removed. sheep 1: mammary cell donor sheep. mammary cells are grown in culture.
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The repressor molecule is prevented from binding to the DNA, and the #-galactosidase gene is expressed. mRNA coding for #-galactosidase is transcribed and traslation of this mRNA produces the enzyme.
If lactose is present in the environment: A lactose repressor molecule binds to the DNA and prevents the transcription of the #galactosidase gene. If lactose is not present in the environment: These bacteria only produce the enzyme #-galactosidase to break down the carbohydrate lactose when it is present in the surrounding medium.This enzyme converts the disaccharide lactose to the monosaccharides glucose and galactose. Some French geneticists studied the control of genes in the prokaryote Escherichia coli.
A group of organs working together to carry out a particular function. For example, the circulatory system.
Organ systems: A group of tissues working together to carry out one function. For example, muscle, nerve and epithelium work together in the heart. Organ: A group of specialised cells working together to carry out one function. For example, muscle cells combining to form muscle tissue, and epithelial cells forming epithelial tissue. Tissue: In multicellular organisms cells are specialised for a particular function. For example,muscle cells and epithelial cells.
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Cell:
The expression of genes in cells across the meristem determines which structures will form. When only gene A is expressed sepals form, when only gene C is expressed carpels form. Petals form when A and B are expressed, and stamens when B and C are expressed. When a plant starts to flower, cells in a meristem become specialised to form the organs that make up the flower.Most flowers contain the organs: sepals, petals, male stamens and female carpels. These are arranges in concentric whorls.
The ABC of flowering plants: Master genes control the development of each segment.The master genes produce mRNA which is translated into signal proteins. These proteins switch on the genes responsible for producing the proteins needed for specialisation of cells in each segment. Master genes: The precise sequence of transcription and translation of genes determines the sequence of changes during development.
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