PERFORMANCE OF RECYCLED AGGREGATE CONCRETE

M C Limbachiya, A Koulouris, J J Roberts and A N Fried Kingston University, UK

Conference title: RILEM International Symposium on Environment-Conscious Materials and Systems for Sustainable Development Editor(s): N. Kashino and Y. Ohama Print-ISBN: 2-912143-55-1 e-ISBN: 2912143640 Publisher: RILEM Publications SARL Publication year: 2004 Pages: 127 - 136

Abstract
Waste arising from construction and demolition (C & D) constitutes one of the largest waste streams within the European Union (EU) and many other developed countries. Of this a large proportion of potentially useful material disposed of as landfill. The environmental and economic implications of this are no longer considered sustainable and, as a result, the construction industry is experiencing more pressure than ever before to overcome this practice. On the other hand, in recent years the wisdom of continued wholesale extraction and use of aggregates from natural resources has been questioned at an international level. This is mainly because of the depletion of quality primary aggregates and greater awareness of environmental protection. The results of an extensive experimental programme aimed at examining the performance of Portland-cement concrete produced with natural and coarse recycled aggregates are reported in this paper. The effects of up to 100% coarse recycled concrete aggregate on a range of fresh, engineering and durability properties have been established and assessed its suitability for use in a series of designated applications.

1. Introduction
Concrete is the premier construction material across the world and the most widely used in all types of civil engineering works, including infrastructure, low and high-rise buildings, defence installations, environment protection and local/domestic developments. Concrete is a manufactured product, essentially consisting of cement, aggregates, water and admixture(s). Among these, aggregates, i.e. inert granular materials such as sand, crushed stone or gravel form the major part. Traditionally aggregates have been readily available at economic prices and of qualities to suit all purposes. However, in recent years the wisdom of our continued wholesale extraction and use of aggregates from natural resources has been questioned at an international level. This is mainly because of the depletion of quality primary aggregates and greater awareness of environmental protection. In light of this, the availability of natural resources to future generations has also been realised. Given this background, the concept of sustainable development put forward almost a decade ago, at the 1992 Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro, and it has now become a guiding principle for the construction industry worldwide.

In fact many governments throughout the world have now introduced various measures aimed at reducing the use of primary aggregates and increasing reuse and recycling, where it is technically, economically, or environmentally acceptable. For example, the UK government has introduced a number of policies to encourage wider use of secondary and recycled concrete aggregate (RCA- defined as minimum of 95% crushed concrete) as an alternative to naturally occurring primary aggregates. These include landfill and future extraction taxes to improve economic viability, and support to relevant research and development work. The paper explores a theme on the need for recycled aggregates and highlights its potential use as aggregate in new concrete construction. 2. Why recycle construction and demolition waste? Waste arising from construction and demolition (C & D) constitutes one of the largest waste streams within the EU and many other countries. For example, it is estimated that core C & D waste (described as those types of materials which are obtained from demolished building or civil engineering infrastructure) amounts to around 180 million tonnes per year or 480 kg/person/yr in the EU [1]. This ranges from over 700 kg/person/yr in Germany and the Netherlands to under 200 in Sweden, Greece and Ireland. The estimates for the UK are 30million tonnes/yr and just over 500 kg/person/yr respectively, putting the UK in second place behind Germany. At the same time, the results of a recent study undertaken by the CSIR Building and Construction Technology (Boutek) has revealed that nearly a million tonne of C & D waste ends up in landfills in South Africa [2]. This is in addition to large quantities that are dumped illegally [2]. Thus, construction demolition waste has become a global concern that requires sustainable solution. It is now widely accepted that there is a significant potential for reclaiming and recycling demolished debris for use in value added applications to maximise economic and environmental benefits. As a direct result of this, recycling industries in many part of the world, including South Africa, at present converts low-value waste into secondary construction materials such as a variety of aggregate grades, road materials and aggregate fines (dust) [2]. Often these materials are used in as road construction, backfill for retaining walls, low-grade concrete production, drainage and brickwork and block work for low-cost housing. While accepting the need to promote the use of RCA in wider applications, it must be remembered that the aggregate for concrete applications must meet the requirements set in relevant specifications for its particular use. The gap between these interests has to be reduced in steps that are manageable and the use of RCA in structural concrete has to be promoted gradually. Similarly considerable attention is required to the control of waste processing and subsequent sorting, crushing, separating and grading the aggregate for use of the concrete construction industry. In some developed countries C & D waste is now regularly recycled and reused, albeit mainly as fill, drainage and sub-base materials, and there is considerable scope for increasing this market and the use of these materials. In addition, there is an urgent need for legislative or regulatory measures to implement sustainable C & D waste management strategy and encourage recycling for use in value added applications.

3. Production and characterisation of RCA A number of different processes are possible for the crushing and sieving of C & D waste. Such material often contains foreign matter in the form of metals, wood, hardboard, plastics, papers etc. Hence, a process scheme has to be adopted which removes large pieces of these materials, mechanically or manually, before crushing and thorough cleaning of the crushed product. To ensure that the study covered the range of potential material supply, samples from four different sources as detailed in Table 1 were used to produce coarse RCA. The original concrete types selected to produce coarse RCA were clean and free from detrimental levels of chemical impurities and other harmful constituents. Table 1: Source of recycled concrete aggregates used in the study. Original concrete type Aggregate characteristics (Original concrete strength) Laboratory cast concrete Known original concrete grade and constituent materials, regular consistency, low contamination (10 70 N/mm) Airport pavement Relatively regular consistency, low contamination, known constituent materials (40 N/mm) Rejected Structural Precast Known constituent materials, regular consistency, low Element contamination, high unhydrated cement paste content (50 60 N/mm) Demolished concrete High contamination, unknown constituent materials, structure irregular consistency (30 40 N/mm) RCA samples were produced in single size fraction (20 - 5mm) using commercial plant for the production of crushed-rock aggregate, comprising primary jaw and secondary cone crushers and screens. The natural aggregates (NA) used were natural gravel of 20mm maximum size and natural sand to BS 882 Zone M [3]. In general, RCAs were found to be coarser, porous and rougher compared to NA. The grading of RCA obtained was found to be within the current limits for crushed-rock aggregate to BS 882. The main physical and mechanical characteristics of recycled (source 3- rejected precast elements) and natural aggregates are given in Table 2. Comparison of physical characteristics of RCA obtained from four different sources showed that RCA had 3 to 10% lower density and 3 to 5 times higher absorption than NA in the saturated surface dry state, reflecting the porosity of cement paste surrounding the RCA.

4. RCA Concrete Performance

A 42.5N PC conforming to BS 12 [4] and superplasticizing admixture- to maintain a nominal slump of 75mm, were used throughout the work for concrete production. An air-entraining admixture based on a synthetic ether sulphate was used to establish entrained air stability and the freeze/thaw resistance of concrete mixes.

Table 2: Typical physical and mechanical characteristics of recycled and natural aggregate. Property Coarse aggregate (20 5mm) RCA NA Physical characteristics 2580 2540 Relative density (SSD), kg/m3 1190 1340 Loose bulk density (OD), kg/m3 5.5 2.5 Water absorption, % 10.2 Attached cement paste, % (m/m) Mechanical characteristics (measured on 14-10mm test samples to BS 812, Parts 110 to 112) 20.0 14.0 ACV, % m/m 23.7 19.7 AIV, % m/m 160 289 10% Fine value, kN The initial series of mixes was tested to examine the influences of coarse RCA on concretes meeting requirements for a variety of applications. These include foundations (mixes A and B), paving (mixes C and D) and reinforced or prestressed concrete in mild and moderate environment (mixes E and F) applications as per BS 5328 [5], Table 3. The mixes tested covered a range of design strength, 10 45 N/mm, within which over half of the total concrete used in the UK fell, and therefore provided a substantial outlet for RCA. Conventional UK mix design method [6] was used for NA concrete mix proportioning, Table 3. RCA concretes (all mixes A-F) were proportioned using natural and recycled aggregate blends, with up to 100% coarse RCA. For these mixes, the free water and cement contents were kept the same as for the corresponding NA concrete, but aggregate contents were slightly adjusted to maintain the yield. A typical set of mix proportions for 35 N/mm2 (mix F) RCA concrete is given in Table 4. Table 3: Mix proportions for NA concrete mixes Mix proportions, kg/m Mix Design strength, N/mm PC Free water A B C* D E F
*

10 20 35 45 30 35

175 220 325 415 285 310

185 185 165 160 185 185

Aggregates Coarse 1200 1200 1200 1200 1200 1200

Fine 755 725 570 515 670 650

with air entraining agent (400 ml/100kg cement) to achieve 5-6% air content.

Table 4: Mix proportions for 35 N/mm RCA concrete ( mix F, w/c 0.60)- a typical example Coarse RCA Mix proportions, kg/m content, % PC Free Aggregates water Fine Coarse RCA NA 0 310 185 0 1200 650 20 310 185 240 960 650 30 310 185 360 840 645 50 310 185 590 590 640 100 310 185 1270 0 625

4.1 Fresh properties The workability (slump and compacting factor) and stability (bleeding and segregation) of RCA concrete mixes were determined. In addition, in order to assess the effect of RCA on the retention of the workability and maintenance of entrained air content with time, further tests were carried out up to 150 and 60 minutes respectively. In general, results showed a reduction in slump value with increasing RCA content in the mix, but this remained essentially within the specified tolerances of 25mm, BS 5328 [5]. However, the stability of the mixes containing greater than 50% RCA content was reduced. In the main such mixes were found to be harsh, less cohesive and exhibited increased bleeding when compared to the corresponding NA concrete. However, separate work undertaken by the author has clearly shown that these problems can be overcome by using filler material [7]. In order to assess the effect of RCA content on the maintenance of air content in concrete with time, tests were carried out up to 60 minutes, following alternate mixing and standing for 5 minute periods to simulate transportation and handling conditions in practice. In this case concrete mixes C and D with 5.5% entrained air level were considered. The results obtained, (mix C, Table 3), indicate negligible differences in air loss between NA and RCA concretes, suggesting no identifiable effect of RCA characteristics or source. The workability loss, in terms of compacting factor, of both recycled and natural aggregate concrete mixes was measured up to 150 minutes after casting, at 30 minutes intervals. The relationship between workability loss and RCA content was found to be of uniform nature, with RCA concrete exhibiting lower loss compared to control concrete. 4.2 Compressive strength Compressive strength tests on standard 100mm concrete cubes were carried out at ages up to one year after initial curing in water at 20 C and in air at 20C/55%RH. The influence of coarse RCA on compressive strength development and on 28-day strengths of concrete cured in 20C water is shown plotted in Figure 1. Overall, the results show that up to 30% coarse RCA has no effect on concrete strength, but thereafter a gradual reduction with increasing RCA content occurs. Similar trends were obtained for concrete cured in air (20C/55%RH). Given the RCA effect noted, a means of achieving equivalent strength with high proportions of RCA was required. Using the results of the study, families of w/c ratio versus strength curves were generated for both natural and recycled aggregate concretes. These were then used to establish the adjustments needed to the w/c ratio to take account of coarse RCA content effect, Figure 2. This method was used initially at single design strength with appropriate changes made to the w/c ratio via either the (i) water content or (ii) cement content or (iii) both. All three routes were found to work satisfactorily, but it was slightly difficult to achieve desirable fresh properties of mixes with RCA content greater than 50% when the adjustments made following route (i).

Figure 1: Compressive cube strength test results. 4.3 Bulk engineering properties The results from tests for flexural strength and modulus of elasticity, Table 5 (A), indicated negligible difference in relative performance of NA and RCA concrete mixes. Furthermore, both sets of concrete followed expected behaviour in terms of the effect of design strength on each property. At the same time, the ultimate shrinkage and creep strains were found to increase with RCA content in the mix. This is due to the increased proportions of cement content in such concrete mixes, as the w/c ratio of this mix was reduced by increasing cement content to achieve 28-day strength equivalent to corresponding NA concrete. Previously it has been reported that the presence of attached mortar in the RCA is also a contributory factor for higher shrinkage and creep strains in concrete with high proportions of RCA [15]. 4.4 Durability The results, Table 5 (B), from tests for the common concrete or reinforced concrete deterioration processes, including near surface absorption, carbonation depth, sulphate resistance (exposed to 0.3g/l Na2SO4 solution at 20 C), freeze/thaw and abrasion were assessed.

Figure 2: Water/cement ratio versus 28-day cube strength relationship. Table 5: Comparison of engineering and durability performance of NA and RCA concrete Property Design Concrete type strength, NA RCA, % coarse content N/mm 30 50 100 A. Engineering properties i) Flexural strength, N/mm 30 4.4 4.3 4.3 4.5 ii) Elastic modules, kN/mm 30 25.5 26.0 25.5 25.0 iii) Shrinkage, microstrain 30 596 600 625 673 iv) Creep coefficient 30 1.25 1.24 1.41 1.93 B. Durability related performance v) ISAT-10, ml/m/sec x 10-2 30 32 32 36.5 51.0 vi) Carbonation depth, mm 30 21 21 20 18.5 vii) Freeze/thaw durability factor, % 35* 99 102 100 97 viii) Abrasion depth , mm 35* 0.69 0.73 0.75 0.78 ix)Sulphate expansion, %, x 10-4 20 38 35 54 56
(i) & (ii) BS 1881, Parts 118 and 121 respectively [8,9] (at 28 days) (iii) 90 day shrinkage at 20C, 55%RH (iv) loading at 28 days, 04cu (v) BS 1881, Part 208 (at 28 days) [10] (vi) 4% enriched CO2, 20C, 55%RH (20 weeks) [11] (vii) ASTM C666, Procedure A [12] (viii) Modified BCA method [13] (ix) 0.3g/l Na2SO4 (180 days exposure) [14] * Air-entrained concrete specimens were wrapped for 7 days and then in air at 20C, 55%RH

The durability factors obtained following procedures described in ASTM C666 [12] showed that the concrete produced using up to 100% coarse RCA had durability factors in excess of 95%, indicating little or no deterioration under freeze/thaw attack. The results also showed minor effect of RCA content on abrasion resistance. Typically, the differences between

concrete made with NA and 100% coarse RCA at design strength 35 and 45 N/mm2 were 0.09 and 0.05mm respectively. These suggest that at a given design strength RCA concrete mixes have abrasion resistance comparable to the corresponding NA concrete, regardless of coarse RCA content used. The liner expansion (on longitudinal surface) measured after 6 months of exposure to 0.3g/l Na2SO4 solution (BS 8110, Class 1 exposure [14]) was found to increase with increase in RCA content in the mix beyond 50%. However, the differences remain within a relatively narrow band (0.0038 0.0056%).

5. Practical and Technical Issues For Use

The study has shown that good quality recycled aggregates can be produced with commercial plants that are used for the production of crushed-rock aggregates. Clearly, this information could encourage clients and demolition contractors to direct C & D waste for production of RCA, while reducing disposal to landfill. Work undertaken has demonstrated the suitability of coarse RCA for use in a range of normal grade concrete applications. Indeed, the results have shown that up to 30% coarse RCA can be used, without any modification in the mix design, in concrete construction with performance similar to natural aggregate concrete. For concrete producers, the use of coarse RCA is unlikely to pose any problem in the production of concrete that is stable in the fresh state and able to develop properties comparable to the corresponding NA concrete in hardened state. This is of great importance to reduce inhibition of concrete specifiers and producers towards using RCA. A method of mix proportioning that takes account of the effect of RCA content (greater than 30%) on concrete strength has been devised. It is simple and can be integrated into existing concrete mix design procedures and production techniques. However it should be recognised, as is the case of existing design methods, that the proposed methodology will give initial proportions for trial mix purposes only. Particular adjustments for individual material characteristics and proportions will have to be established thereafter. The key engineering and durability properties of RCA concrete are similar to corresponding NA concrete, providing the mixes are of equivalent strength achieved through adjustment in the w/c ratio. However, given the influence of the RCA content on the shrinkage and creep strains, their use in structural elements prone to such deformations may require some special considerations. The work suggest that the use of coarse RCA may be extended to high strength concrete (C50 or greater), thus offering further added value outlets for the material. In fact, work recently published by the author has demonstrated the suitability of coarse RCA for use in high-strength concrete production [15]. Overall, the practical benefits resulting from the current work are not only on environmental and economical fronts, but they could also provide the construction industry with technical information on a marketable product, which is presently under-utilised.

6. Conclusions
The study shows that plain as well as reinforced concrete can be crushed using primary and secondary crushers to provide crushed aggregate with an acceptable quality to current BS 882 requirements. Because of the attached cement paste in the RCAs, the density of these materials is about 3-10% lower and water absorption is about 3-5 times higher than the corresponding natural aggregates. It is therefore important that density and water absorption of RCA are determined carefully, prior to their use in concrete production. This must be done in order to

avoid large variations in properties of hardened concrete as well as in achieving fresh concrete of adequate workability, stability and cohesiveness. The results also indicate that for RCA samples obtained from four different sources, there was no significant variation in strength of concrete at a given RCA content, indicating no significant effect if adequate provisions for RCA characteristics are made. The RCA concrete mixes were found to possess bulk engineering and durability properties similar to the corresponding natural aggregate concretes, providing they were design to have equal strength. Overall, it is recognised that the recycling and reuse of demolition waste may not always be economic or practical and in some cases may be impacted by the external issues such as regulatory and planning controls. However, if the construction industry as a whole question need for aggregates and review alternatives on a case by case basis then it is possible that the result may give both economic and environmental benefits.

Acknowledgements
The experimental results given this paper are based on research work funded by the UKs London ReMade and Day Group Ltd. The author acknowledges the financial support and technical advice received during the course of reported work.

References
[1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] [7] [8] [9] [10] [11] [12] Aggregates Advisory Service-UK, Digest no. 016, Construction and demolition waste management practices and their economic impacts- study for DGXI- European Commission, May 1999. CSIR Building and Construction Technology, Reusing construction and demolition waste, Technobrief, June 2000. BS 882: 1992, Specification for aggregate from natural resources for concrete, London: British Standards Institution, 1992. BS 12: 1996, Specification for Portland cement, London: British Standards Institution, 1996. BS 5328: 1991, Guide to specifying concrete, London: British Standards Institution, 1991. Teychenne, D.C. Franklin, R.E. and Erntroy, H.C. eds, Design of normal concrete mixes, Building Research Establishment: 1988, pp.13-39 Dhir, R.K. Limbachiya, M.C. Leelawat, T. Suitability of recycled concrete aggregate for use in BS 5328 designated mixes, Proceedings of Institute of Civil Engineers: Structures & Buildings, Vol. 134, Aug. 1999, pp.257-274 BS 1881: Part 121: 1983, Method for determination of static modulus of elasticity in compression, London: British Standards Institution, 1983. BS 1881: Part 118: 1983, Method for determination of flexural strength, London: British Standards Institution, 1983. BS 1881: Part 208: 1996, Testing for concrete: Recommendations for the determination of the initial surface absorption of concrete, London: British Standards Institution, 1996. Dhir, R.K. Jones, M.R. and Munday, J.G.L. A practical approach to studying carbonation of concrete, Concrete, Vol. 19, 1985, pp. 32-34 ASTM C666-88, Standard test for resistance of concrete to freezing and thawing, American Society for Testing and Materials, 1988.

[13] [14] [15]

Dhir, R.K. Hewlett, P.C. and Chan, Y.N. Near surface characteristics of concrete: Abrasion resistance, Materials and Structures, Vol. 24, 1991, pp. 122-128 BS 8110: Part 1: 1985, Code of practice for design and construction, London: British Standards Institution, 1985. Limbachiya, M.C. Leelawat, T. and Dhir, R.K. Use of recycled concrete aggregate in high-strength concrete, Materials and Structures, Vol. 33, Nov. 2000, pp. 574-580.