Learning Styles and Teaching and Learning

INTRODUCTION Education institutions play a substantial role in educating towards meeting the goals and aspirations of the National Education Philosophy. The main goal of education is to prepare and equip students to face employment and the real world. To ensure that schools do this job well, then the student's performance recipe.aaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaa School is also an important institution in shaping the desired generation of a country. In line with Vision 2020, the role of education to realize the changes and achievements of Malaysia become a developed nation is an agenda that is so challenging and critical. Thus, the academic achievement of students in the main benchmark in determining the success of the education system.aaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaa Knowledge acquired through the learning process is an important matter to all students before they stepped into the working world. According Sheal (1994) learning is mental or physical processes that lead to changes in behaviour. Wisdom is not a static element, but is a dynamic system, evolving open throughout life. Most significant is the process of learning from what we have done that through the actions and observations. Students learn in many ways that are by seeing and hearing, reflecting and acting, reasoning logically and intuitively and memorizing and visualizing. Teaching methods are also vary. Some instructors lecture, others demonstrate or discuss; some focus on rules and others on examples; some emphasize memory and others understanding. How much a given student learns in a class is governed in part by that students native ability and prior preparation but also by the compatibility of their characteristic approach to learning and the instructors characteristic approach to teaching.

Learning styles are various approaches or ways of learning (LdPride, 2008). They involve educating methods, particular to an individual, which are presumed to allow that individual to learn best. Most people prefer an identifiable method of interacting with, taking in, and processing stimuli or information. Based on this concept, the idea of individualized "learning styles" originated in the 1970s, and acquired "enormous popularity" (Pashler, H.; McDaniel, at all. 2009). Meanwhile Ellis (1985) described a learning style as the more or less

consistent way in which a person perceives, conceptualizes, organizes and recalls information.

LITERATURE REVIEW A benchmark definition of learning styles is characteristic cognitive, effective, and psychosocial behaviors that serve as relatively stable indicators of how learners perceive, interact with, and respond to the learning environment (Curry L.,1981). Learning styles are considered by many to be one factor of success in higher education. Confounding research and, in many instances, application of learning style theory has begat the myriad of methods used to categorize learning styles. No single commonly accepted method currently exists, but alternatively several potential scales and classifications are in use. Most of these scales and classifications are more similar than dissimilar and focus on environmental preferences, sensory modalities, personality types, and/or cognitive styles. (Cook DA, Smith DJ ,2006).

Lack of a conceptual framework for both learning style theory and measurement is a common and central criticism in this area. In 2004 the United Kingdom Learning and Skills Research Center commissioned a report intended to systematically examine existing learning style models and instruments. In the commission report, Coffield et al identified several inconsistencies in learning style models and instruments and cautioned educators with regards to their use (Coffield F, at all., 2009). The authors also outlined a suggested research agenda for this area.

Alternatively, many researchers have argued that knowledge of learning styles can be of use to both educators and students. Faculty members with knowledge of learning styles can tailor pedagogy so that it best coincides with learning styles exhibited by the majority of students. Alternatively, students with knowledge of their own preferences are empowered to use various techniques to enhance learning, which in turn may impact overall educational satisfaction. This ability is particularly critical and useful when an instructor's teaching style does not match a student's learning style. Compounding the issue of learning styles in the classroom has been the movement in many collegiate environments to distance and/or asynchronous education (Lubawy WC ,2003). In my opinion it is true that learning styles can be of use to both educators and student because both of them have different approach in understanding what they want to expose and explore.

This shift in educational modality is inconsistent with the learning models with which most older students and adult learners are accustomed from their primary and high school education. Alternatively, environmental influences and more widespread availability of technological advances for example personal digital assistants, digital video, the World Wide

Web and wireless Internet may make younger generations of students more comfortable with distance learning (Romanelli F, Ryan M , 2003).

I agree that learning styles should be consistent with the type of student that we are handling with. There are no universal learning styles so the educator must know how and when to use the different learning styles to attract the student to understand what they have learnt.

There are also some argument regarding do learning style exist. Many authors have advocated that there are identifiable ways that people learn. They have put forward their views of distinct learning styles and have attracted a great deal of support. One such eminent author is David Kolb (Kolb, 1984), who put forward his learning styles model and experiential learning theory (ELT) in 1984. However his views and those of his counterparts are strongly contested by others and the rejection of these learning styles is gathering momentum.

It puts forward the proposition that "Learning Styles are a myth". They are at most an approximation of reality and offer little to the learning process. . This is an 'old' topic but still a controversial one as illustrated by Peter Honey of Honey & Mumford's method (Honey, 1992, 2009) writing 'abusive' emails to a Donald Clark (Clark, 2007) who was presenting Coffield's evidence (Coffield, 2004) and Clark said that As well as Vak, I came across labelling such as activists versus reflectors, globalists versus analysts and left brainers versus right brainers. There is no scientific justification for any of these terms.

There is nothing new in what we have to say, but the implications are profound. One implication is that the teachers should not change the way they teach because students learn in different ways.. With the advent of e-learning the teachers can make learning individual, because, at last, the teachers can do 1:1 teaching (Kruse, 2002). There are many to support the view that Learning styles exist from Kolb (Kolb, 1984) who 'invented' the idea, and a niece of one of the authors who teaches young children and 'knows' that her children learn in different ways, to the wife of one of the authors who says that the author has never taught in a school and hence does not know that some children learn when they are running about.

That, straight away, brings us to models and a belief system. Why do they believe that Learning Styles exist, and don't they know that Learning Styles are only a model and are thus an approximation to reality? One of the models is a Community of Inquiry (CoI) (Garrison, 2003) which says that one should have three things in place, a teaching presence, a cognitive presence and a social presence. This as a model, appeals, but is it based on 3

anything? Models are to be questioned and if they are 'wrong' then the models are to be changed.

That is what the scientific method is all about. 'Wrong' can mean many things, like 'the weight of evidence', but even that can be in doubt when in the ancient Babylonians said 'the earth is flat', and the weight of evidence said that the earth was flat, but it isn't. 'Wrong' can mean the output from the model does not conform to what we see. Hence the forecast from the model is wrong e.g. we see the sail of the boat that is a long way away, before the prow, thus proving that earth is not flat. Thus proving that the model is wrong, but there are still 'flat earthers' who believe that the earth is flat. We will leave belief to another time.

I do not agree with the saying that learning styles does not exist because if it not exist how can the educator deliver knowledge to the student because nowadays there are many ways of learning styles in conjunction with the technologies rapid changes.

MODEL OF LEARNING STYLES David Kolb's learning styles model and experiential learning theory (ELT) This model is one of the models that is widely use when discussing about learning styles. David Kolb published his learning styles model in 1984. The model gave rise to related terms such as Kolb's experiential learning theory (ELT), and Kolb's learning styles inventory (LSI). In turn, Kolb's learning styles model and experiential learning theory are today acknowledged by academics, teachers, managers and trainers as truly seminal works; fundamental concepts towards our understanding and explaining human learning behaviour, and towards helping others to learn. Kolb's learning theory sets out four distinct learning styles, which are based on a four-stage learning cycle. (which might also be interpreted as a 'training cycle'). In this respect Kolb's model is particularly elegant, since it offers both a way to understand individual people's different learning styles, and also an explanation of a cycle of experiential learning that applies to us all. Kolb includes this 'cycle of learning' as a central principle his experiential learning theory, typically expressed as four-stage cycle of learning, in which 'immediate or concrete experiences' provide a basis for 'observations and reflections'. These 'observations and reflections' are assimilated and distilled into 'abstract concepts' producing new implications for action which can be 'actively tested' in turn creating new experiences. 4

Kolb says that ideally this process represents a learning cycle or spiral where the learner 'touches all the bases', ie., a cycle of experiencing, reflecting, thinking, and acting. Immediate or concrete experiences lead to observations and reflections. These reflections are then assimilated (absorbed and translated) into abstract concepts with implications for action, which the person can actively test and experiment with, which in turn enable the creation of new experiences.

Diagram 1 : Kolb s Learning Styles David Kolb has defined one of the most commonly used models of learning. As in the diagram above, it is based on two preference dimensions, giving four different styles of learning. In the vertical Perception dimension, people will have a preference along the continuum between:
y y

Concrete experience: Looking at things as they are, without any change, in raw detail. Abstract conceptualization: Looking at things as concepts and ideas, after a degree of processing that turns the raw detail into an internal model.

People who prefer concrete experience will argue that thinking about something changes it, and that direct empirical data is essential. Those who prefer abstraction will argue that meaning is created only after internal processing and that idealism is a more real approach.This spectrum is very similar to the Jungian scale of Sensing vs. Intuiting.

In the horizontal Processing dimension, people will take the results of their Perception and process it in preferred ways along the continuum between:
y

Active experimentation: Taking what they have concluded and trying it out to prove that it works.

Reflective observation: Taking what they have concluded and watching to see if it works.

Four learning styles Divergers (Concrete experiencer/Reflective observer) Divergers take experiences and think deeply about them, thus diverging from a single experience to multiple possibilities in terms of what this might mean. They like to ask 'why', and will start from detail to constructively work up to the big picture. They enjoy participating and working with others but they like a calm ship and fret over conflicts. They are generally influenced by other people and like to receive constructive feedback. They like to learn via logical instruction or hands-one exploration with conversations that lead to discovery. Convergers (Abstract conceptualization/Active experimenter) Convergers think about things and then try out their ideas to see if they work in practice. They like to ask 'how' about a situation, understanding how things work in practice. They like facts and will seek to make things efficient by making small and careful changes. They prefer to work by themselves, thinking carefully and acting independently. They learn through interaction and computer-based learning is more effective with them than other methods. Accomodators (Concrete experiencer/Active experimenter) Accommodators have the most hands-on approach, with a strong preference for doing rather than thinking. They like to ask 'what if?' and 'why not?' to support their action-first approach. They do not like routine and will take creative risks to see what happens. They like to explore complexity by direct interaction and learn better by themselves than with other people. As might be expected, they like hands-on and practical learning rather than lectures. 6

Assimilators (Abstract conceptualizer/Reflective observer) Assimilators have the most cognitive approach, preferring to think than to act. The ask 'What is there I can know?' and like organized and structured understanding. They prefer lectures for learning, with demonstrations where possible, and will respect the knowledge of experts. They will also learn through conversation that takes a logical and thoughtful approach. They often have a strong control need and prefer the clean and simple predictability of internal models to external messiness. The best way to teach an assimilator is with lectures that start from high-level concepts and work down to the detail. Give them reading material, especially academic stuff and they'll gobble it down. Do not teach through play with them as they like to stay serious. As with many behavioural and personality models, interesting correlations exist between Kolb's theory and other concepts. Kolb says that his experiential learning theory, and therefore the learning styles model within it, builds on Carl Jung's assertion that learning styles result from people's preferred ways of adapting in the world. Among many other correlations between definitions, Kolb points out that Jung's 'Extraversion/Introversion' dialectical dimension - (which features and is measured in the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator [MBTI]) correlates with the 'Active/Reflective' (doing/watching) dialectic (east-west continuum) of Kolb's model. Also, the MBTI 'Feeling/Thinking' dimension correlates with the Kolb model Concrete Experience/Abstract Conceptualization dimension (north-south continuum). Various resources in the past refer to the terms 'activist', 'reflector', 'theorist', and 'pragmatist' (respectively representing the four key stages or learning steps) in seeking to explain Kolb's model. In fact, 'activist', 'reflector', 'theorist', and 'pragmatist' are from a learning styles model developed by Honey and Mumford, which although based on Kolb's work, is different. Arguably therefore the terms 'activist', 'reflector', 'theorist', and 'pragmatist' effectively 'belong' to the Honey and Mumford theory. Peter Honey and Alan Mumford developed their learning styles system as a variation on the Kolb model while working on a project for the Chloride corporation in the 1970's. Honey and Mumford say of their system:

"Our description of the stages in the learning cycle originated from the work of David Kolb. Kolb uses different words to describe the stages of the learning cycle and four learning styles..." And, "...The similarities between his model and ours are greater than the differences.." (Honey & Mumford) In summary here are brief descriptions of the four H&M key stages/styles, which incidentally are directly mutually corresponding and overlaid, as distinct from the Kolb model in which the learning styles are a product of combinations of the learning cycle stages. The typical presentation of these H&M styles and stages would be respectively at north, east, south and west on a circle or four-stage cyclical flow diagram. 1. 'Having an Experience' (stage 1), and Activists (style 1): 'here and now', gregarious, seek challenge and immediate experience, open-minded, bored with implementation. 2. 'Reviewing the Experience' (stage 2) and Reflectors (style 2): 'stand back', gather data, ponder and analyse, delay reaching conclusions, listen before speaking, thoughtful. 3. 'Concluding from the Experience' (stage 3) and Theorists (style 3): think things through in logical steps, assimilate disparate facts into coherent theories, rationally objective, reject subjectivity and flippancy. 4. 'Planning the next steps' (stage 4) and Pragmatists (style 4): seek and try out new ideas, practical, down-to-earth, enjoy problem solving and decision-making quickly, bored with long discussions. There is arguably a strong similarity between the Honey and Mumford styles/stages and the corresponding Kolb learning styles:
y y y y

Activist = Accommodating Reflector = Diverging Theorist = Assimilating Pragmatist = Converging

LEARNING STYLES IN THE CLASSROOM Learning styles are various approaches or ways of learning. They involve educating methods, particular to an individual that are presumed to allow that individual to learn best. Most people prefer an identifiable method of interacting with, taking in, and processing stimuli or information. There are 3 basic types of learning styles. The three most common are visual, auditory, and kinesthetic. To learn, we depend on our senses more than the others. Visual learners learn best by seeing what they are being taught. Visual learners typically prefer images, maps, graphs, and other visual representations over other forms of instruction. They will find that if they include images, mind maps, lists, and other visual techniques in their notes then they will have a better chance of remembering key information. Auditory learners learn best by listening and talking aloud. They typically notice and remember sounds. They are good at remembering things that they hear. They are also good with words and language. They often read to themselves as they study. They are also often distracted by noise and sounds. Kinesthetic learners typically learn best by doing. They are naturally good at physical activities like sports and dance. They enjoy learning through hands-on methods. They typically like how-to guides and action-adventure stories. They might pace while on the phone or take breaks from studying to get up and move around. Some kinesthetic learners seem fidgety, having a hard time sitting still in class.

RATIONALE JUSTIFICATION Students have different levels of motivation, different attitudes toward teaching and learning, a different response to the classroom environment and teaching practices. Students learn in different ways by looking and listening, think logically and intuitively, and memorize, remember and reflect. Learning is not only associated with increased knowledge and recall of learned information, but the activity and understand the concept of knowledge and further information can be applied into the lives (Hargreaves, 1996).

Learning involves developing skills and knowledge as well as attitudes. Research in psychology and education has shown that individuals have different skills to process information. Individuals find their own method, store and reproduce information, known as learning styles (Felder and Henriques, 1995). Therefore, to succeed, individual students should have learned the nature of the learning method to obtain the knowledge and skills. 9

However, the possibility of a student who is faced with a conflict to learn when you do not have the appropriate learning styles. The problem occurs when the student's learning style cannot be adapted to the activities and teaching styles of teachers. As a result students become bored and not paying attention; cause they failed to get high marks in examinations, less interested in a particular subject and then give up. (Darman Abu, 2000; Felder & Silverman, 1988; Godleski, 1984; Oxford et al., 1991; Smith & Renzulli, 1984). A study by Bass and Greary (1996) concluded that one way of determining the efficiency or performance of an individual to learn and control knowledge is to recognize learning styles.. Owned learning styles also help a person to identify learning situations and enhance learning performance (Dunn and Stevenson, 1997). Students who know how to use appropriate learning style that suite with them will be easier to help them achieve better results in examination.

RECOMMENDATION Teachers can help students learning style and study skills to plan and implement activities that will give more experience to students. Examples include learning workshops, seminars or courses relevant. The school may invite experts in this field to give talks. The aim is to raise awareness about the importance of students learning styles and level of study skills. Seminars and courses not only to students, but teachers also take part in this activity. This is because, as a teacher they should try to understand students' learning styles and skills. With this, the planning process will be more effective teaching and attract more students on a subject yet. Teachers need to expose the practice of proper study skills to students. The application of learned skills does not necessarily directly, but can cultivate this good practice to students during the teaching and learning.aaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaa Counselling unit should play a more effective role by attracting students to sessions construction of attitudes and behaviors so that it can foster an interest and inspire students to learn. With this, students can identify their own strengths and weaknesses in learning. In addition, students should be exposed to a lot of skills in order to develop personal character and leadership important to future careers of students. In addition, the school management should also improve and provide good basic facilities and appropriate to the needs of teachers such as science laboratories equipped with facilities so that students can enjoy optimal comfort during the process of teaching and learning. Parents also play an important role to expose their children's with learning style that suits the child's abilities. In this way can give an initial overview of these children learning about the 10

techniques that are appropriate to them. This can result when they enter school they will easily understand what is being taught by teachers and apply appropriate learning styles that to receive and understand the information communicated by teachers. The use of interactive multimedia at present influence student learning styles. Students can choose their own learning materials and learning at a rate suited to their own interests and needs. Multimedia is a combination of text, graphics, audio, video and animation. With a combination of these elements in a lesson, teachers can create a learning environment that is full of audio-visual presentation that not only attracts students and to stimulate the senses in learning, but also can serve a variety of learning styles. Apart from a tendency to treat the student's learning style as visual, reflective and global. The use of multimedia can also encourage students to learn to use their learning styles are less likely. This will help students develop learning styles so that students become more flexible in learning and learning is not limited to their own learning style preferences. Facilities such as the resource center, computer labs and other facilities must be improved. For a resource, there is a reference book in which shall be adequate to the ratio of the number of students there and also meet the requirements of the syllabus specific topics. This is because these students also made additional references to add to existing knowledge and also for the purpose resolve questions provided by teacher training. Similarly, computer labs, a computer should be sufficient for the purpose of completion of the assignment together with the printer. Lack of equipment is difficult to cause the students to complete an assignment as a result student motivation will fall and so do their work. The most important aspect is the students themselves. As a student must have a desire to increase the knowledge and discipline in implementing effective study skills to improve their performance in their studies. Students should earnestly seek knowledge and skills required. Students need to instill the spirit to succeed in learning. Students must take their own initiative to review the learning styles and study skills most appropriate to their own. Students are also required to be disclosed with the knowledge of learning styles and study skills so that they can identify the strengths and weaknesses in learning. Students need to strengthen and improve weaknesses in strength

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CONCLUSION Each student has a learning style and their learning skills. As a teacher with students, parents with children or students themselves need to understand the learning styles that they practice. In this way, teachers can provide appropriate teaching methods that can enhance students' interest for the subject being taught. As a parent can give a boost or encourage and provide facilities and supportive environment for their children so that their children feel comfortable while studying. In addition to learning styles, students also need to know the practice of their own learning skills. Not every skill that is used is correct; the student must find the most appropriate study skills with their self in order to achieve an effective learning process. Thus, the objective existence of the school is to equip students with knowledge and skills to face many challenges in the world of work will be achieved.

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References Ellis, R. (1985). The study of second language acquisition. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Education Press Coffield F, Moseley D, Hall E, Ecclestone K.(2009). Learning styles and pedagogy in post-16 learning. A systematic and critical review. London: Learning and Skills Research Centre. Cook DA, Smith DJ (2006). Validity of index of learning style scores: multitrait-multimethod comparison with three cognitive/learning style instruments. Med Educ;40:9007. Curry L.(1981). Learning preferences in continuing medical education. Canadian Med Assoc J. ;124:5356. LdPride. (n.d.). What are learning styles? Retrieved October 17, 2008 Lubawy WC(2003). Evaluating teaching using the best practices model. Am J Pharm Educ.;67(3) Article 87.

Pashler, H.; McDaniel, M.; Rohrer, D.; Bjork, R. (2009). Learning styles: Concepts and evidence. Psychological Science in the Public Interest 9: 105119. Ronald R. Sim, Serbrenia J. Sim (1995). The Importance of Learning Styles. Westport : Greenwood Publishing Group Romanelli F, Ryan M (2003). A survey and review of attitudes and beliefs of Generation X pharmacy students. Am J Pharm Educ.;67(1) Article 12.

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http://www.lsda.org.uk/files/PDF/1543.pdf Accessed January 12, 2009. http://www.excellencegateway.org.uk/page.aspx?o=152477 http://www4.ncsu.edu/unity/lockers/users/f/felder/public/Papers/FLAnnals.pdf http://www.itslifejimbutnotasweknowit.org.uk/files/LSRC_LearningStyles.pdf http://www.sciencebuddies.org/science-fair-projects/project_apa_format_examples.shtml (tulis references APA) http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2690881/#__sec1 http://teknologimalaysia.academia.edu/JuhazreenJunaidi/Papers/295037/FaktorFaktor_Yang_Mempengaruhi_Penggunaan_EPembelajaran_Di_Kalangan_Pelajar_Tahun_Akhir_Fakulti_Pendidikan_Universiti_Teknologi_Malaysi a http://www.scribd.com/doc/3932226/kepelbagaian-gaya-pembelajaran-dan-kemahiran-belajar http://www.scribd.com/doc/2064597/Corak-dan-gaya-pembelajarankajian-tindakan http://www.docstoc.com/docs/19707885/57-GAYA-PEMBELAJARAN-DAN-PENGGUNAANMULTIMEDIA-DALAM-PENGAJARAN

Books
Format: Author's last name, first initial. (Publication date). Book title. Additional information. City of publication: Publishing company.

Examples: Allen, T. (1974). Vanishing wildlife of North America. Washington, D.C.: National Geographic Society. Boorstin, D. (1992). The creators: A history of the heroes of the imagination. New York: Random House. Nicol, A. M., & Pexman, P. M. (1999). Presenting your findings: A practical guide for creating tables. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. Searles, B., & Last, M. (1979). A reader's guide to science fiction. New York: Facts on File, Inc. Toomer, J. (1988). Cane. Ed. Darwin T. Turner. New York: Norton.
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Encyclopedia & Dictionary

Format: Author's last name, first initial. (Date). Title of Article. Title of Encyclopedia (Volume, pages). City of publication: Publishing company.

Examples: Bergmann, P. G. (1993). Relativity. In The new encyclopedia britannica (Vol. 26, pp. 501508). Chicago: Encyclopedia Britannica. Merriam-Webster's collegiate dictionary (10th ed.). (1993). Springfield, MA: MerriamWebster. Pettingill, O. S., Jr. (1980). Falcon and Falconry. World book encyclopedia. (pp. 150-155). Chicago: World Book. Tobias, R. (1991). Thurber, James. Encyclopedia americana. (p. 600). New York: Scholastic Library Publishing.

Magazine & Newspaper Articles

Format: Author's last name, first initial. (Publication date). Article title. Periodical title, volume number(issue number if available), inclusive pages. Note: Do not enclose the title in quotation marks. Put a period after the title. If a periodical includes a volume number, italicize it and then give the page range (in regular type) without "pp." If the periodical does not use volume numbers, as in newspapers, use p. or pp. for page numbers. Note: Unlike other periodicals, p. or pp. precedes page numbers for a newspaper reference in APA style.

Examples: Harlow, H. F. (1983). Fundamentals for preparing psychology journal articles. Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology, 55, 893-896. Henry, W. A., III. (1990, April 9). Making the grade in today's schools. Time, 135, 28-31. Kalette, D. (1986, July 21). California town counts town to big quake. USA Today, 9, p. A1. Kanfer, S. (1986, July 21). Heard any good books lately? Time, 113, 71-72. Trillin, C. (1993, February 15). Culture shopping. New Yorker, pp. 48-51.

Website or Webpage

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Format: Online periodical: Author's name. (Date of publication). Title of article. Title of Periodical, volume number, Retrieved month day, year, from full URL

Online document: Author's name. (Date of publication). Title of work. Retrieved month day, year, from full URL Note: When citing Internet sources, refer to the specific website document. If a document is undated, use "n.d." (for no date) immediately after the document title. Break a lengthy URL that goes to another line after a slash or before a period. Continually check your references to online documents. There is no period following a URL. Note: If you cannot find some of this information, cite what is available. Examples: Devitt, T. (2001, August 2). Lightning injures four at music festival. The Why? Files. Retrieved January 23, 2002, from http://whyfiles.org/137lightning/index.html Dove, R. (1998). Lady freedom among us. The Electronic Text Center. Retrieved June 19, 1998, from Alderman Library, University of Virginia website: http://etext.lib.virginia.edu/subjects/afam.html Note: If a document is contained within a large and complex website (such as that for a university or a government agency), identify the host organization and the relevant program or department before giving the URL for the document itself. Precede the URL with a colon. Fredrickson, B. L. (2000, March 7). Cultivating positive emotions to optimize health and well-being. Prevention & Treatment, 3, Article 0001a. Retrieved November 20, 2000, from http://journals.apa.org/prevention/volume3/pre0030001a.html GVU's 8th WWW user survey. (n.d.). Retrieved August 8, 2000, from http://www.cc.gatech.edu/gvu/usersurveys/survey1997-10/ Health Canada. (2002, February). The safety of genetically modified food crops. Retrieved March 22, 2005, from http://www.hcsc.gc.ca/english/protection/biologics_genetics/gen_mod_foods/genmodebk.html Hilts, P. J. (1999, February 16). In forecasting their emotions, most people flunk out. New York Times. Retrieved November 21, 2000, from http://www.nytimes.com

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