Detailed report on Laser Cusing, SLA, SLS and Electron Beam Melting (including technical, economical and safety

features)

DL 1.1

FP7-SME-2008-2
GRANT AGREEMENT No 243631

KARMA DL 1.1

Table of contents 1.
1.1. 1.2.

STEREOLITHOGRAPHY ............................................................................. 5
Introduction....................................................................................................... 6 Build process .................................................................................................... 7 1.2.1. Build process......................................................................................... 7 1.2.2. Laser source ......................................................................................... 8 1.2.3. Specifications of the machine ................................................................ 8 1.2.4. Support structure ................................................................................... 9 1.2.5. Build styles .......................................................................................... 10 1.2.6. Finishing and Post-curing .................................................................... 11 1.2.7. Computer & software........................................................................... 12 1.2.8. STL, file types and preparation ............................................................ 13 Economical aspects ....................................................................................... 14 1.3.1. Maintenance........................................................................................ 14 1.3.2. Fabrication costs ................................................................................. 15 Safety features ................................................................................................ 16 1.4.1. Safe Handling of UV-Curable Material ................................................. 16 1.4.2. Storage of UV-Curable ........................................................................ 17 Sustainability .................................................................................................. 18 Design considerations on Stereolitography ................................................. 19 Materials .......................................................................................................... 20 1.7.1. SLA Materials ...................................................................................... 20 Acknowledgment ............................................................................................ 20 Bibliography .................................................................................................... 20

1.3.

1.4.

1.5. 1.6. 1.7. 1.8. 1.9.

2.
2.1. 2.2.

LASER CUSING ........................................................................................ 21

Introduction..................................................................................................... 21 Build process .................................................................................................. 22 2.2.1. Protective atmosphere ........................................................................ 22 2.2.2. Laser source ....................................................................................... 24 2.2.3. Support structure and heat transfer ..................................................... 25 2.2.4. Powder ................................................................................................ 26 2.2.5. Powder coater ..................................................................................... 26 2.2.6. Computer & software........................................................................... 27 2.2.7. STL, file types and preparation ............................................................ 28 2.3. Economical aspects ....................................................................................... 29 2.3.1. Laser Cusing Machine models ............................................................ 29
2.3.1.1 2.3.1.2 2.3.1.3 M1 cusing ............................................................................................................................................... 29 M2 cusing ............................................................................................................................................... 30 M3 linear ................................................................................................................................................ 30

2.4.

2.5. 2.6. 2.7.

2.3.2. Maintenance............................................Error! Marcador no definido. 2.3.3. Fabrication costs ................................................................................. 31 Safety features ................................................................................................ 33 2.4.1. Powder handling & changing ............................................................... 33 2.4.2. Laser system ....................................................................................... 33 Sustainability .................................................................................................. 33 2.5.1. Powder recycling in Laser Cusing ....................................................... 33 Design considerations on Laser Cusing ....................................................... 35 Materials .......................................................................................................... 36 2.7.1. CL 20 (316L) ....................................................................................... 36 2.7.2. CL 50/60WS (Hot Work Steel) ............................................................. 37

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2.8.

Bibliography .................................................................................................... 37

3.
3.1. 3.2.

ELECTRON BEAM MELTING ................................................................... 38

Introduction..................................................................................................... 38 Build Process .................................................................................................. 38 3.2.1. Vacuum ............................................................................................... 39 3.2.2. Electron Gun ....................................................................................... 39 3.2.3. Electron Beam..................................................................................... 40 3.2.4. Heat Transfer and Temperature .......................................................... 40 3.2.5. Wafer Support ..................................................................................... 40 3.2.6. Powder ................................................................................................ 40 3.2.7. Rake ................................................................................................... 41 3.2.8. xyz-directions ...................................................................................... 41 3.2.9. Computer and Software ...................................................................... 41 3.2.10. Net Structures ..................................................................................... 41 3.2.11. STL Files and Preparation ................................................................... 42 3.2.12. MultiBeam........................................................................................ 42 Economical aspects ....................................................................................... 42 3.3.1. EBM Machines .................................................................................... 42 3.3.2. Maintenance........................................................................................ 44 Safety............................................................................................................... 44 3.4.1. Powder Ignition and Combustion ......................................................... 44 3.4.2. Protection Clothing .............................................................................. 45 3.4.3. X-ray ................................................................................................... 45 3.4.4. Trolley ................................................................................................. 45 3.4.5. High Voltage........................................................................................ 45 3.4.6. High Temperatures.............................................................................. 45 Sustainability .................................................................................................. 46 3.5.1. Powder Recovery System ................................................................... 46 3.5.2. Hoover ................................................................................................ 46 3.5.3. Cleaning chamber ............................................................................... 47 Design considerations on EBM ..................................................................... 47 Materials .......................................................................................................... 49 3.7.1. Titanium-6% Aliminium-4% Vanadium ELI .......................................... 49 3.7.2. Cobalt-Chromium alloy ........................................................................ 50 Acknowledgement .......................................................................................... 53 Bibliography .................................................................................................... 53

3.3.

3.4.

3.5.

3.6. 3.7.

3.8. 3.9.

4.
4.1. 4.2.

SELECTIVE LASER SINTERING (SLS) .................................................... 55

Introduction..................................................................................................... 55 Build process .................................................................................................. 55 4.2.1. Build process....................................................................................... 55 4.2.1. Laser source ....................................................................................... 56 4.2.2. Specifications of the machine .............................................................. 56 4.2.3. Support structure ................................................................................. 56 4.2.4. Build time/accuracy ............................................................................. 56 4.2.5. Post-Processing .................................................................................. 56 4.2.6. Computer & software. File types and preparation. ............................... 57 4.3. Economical aspects ....................................................................................... 59 4.3.1. Maintenance........................................................................................ 59 4.3.2. Fabrication costs ................................................................................. 59 4.4. Safety features ................................................................................................ 59 4.4.1. Handling and Storage of material ........................................................ 60 4.4.2. Stability and reactivity.......................................................................... 60 3/62

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4.5. 4.6. 4.7. 4.8. 4.9.

4.4.3. Ecological information ......................................................................... 60 4.4.4. Disposal considerations ...................................................................... 60 4.4.5. Transport information .......................................................................... 60 4.4.6. Regulatory information ........................................................................ 60 Sustainability .................................................................................................. 60 Design considerations on Laser Sintering ................................................... 61 Materials .......................................................................................................... 61 4.7.1. Laser Sintering Materials ..................................................................... 61 Acknowledgment ............................................................................................ 62 Bibliography .................................................................................................... 62

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1. General introduction
According to the work plan and proposal of KARMA, the most relevant technologies of additive fabrication are studied. The idea of KARMA, among other purposes, is to offer the necessary background information on the most used additive technologies to the end user. Data related to these technologies will be stored in a KBE database to help the end user choose the most appropriate combination of machine-material-build parameters for his/her product. Also, after mechanical testing, the processed material for all these technologies will be characterized mechanically and thermally. All these data will also be available in the KBE database. The selection of technologies for this project was based on the desire to cover the most relevant active principles used nowadays for layer-by-layer fabrication. Stereolitography (SLA) is representing the active principle of laser photo polymerization of liquid material while Selective Laser Sintering (SLS) represents the active principle of sintering of polymer in powder. Although at the beginning Digital Light Processing (DLP) was selected, the change was made to introduce SLS upon request of participating SME companies. Regarding metals, Laser Cusing is representing the active principle of metal powder melting with the use of laser beam, while Electron Beam Melting represents the metal powder melting with the use of electron beam. This document is first in a row of deliverables providing information that will be stored in the database. It deals with technical description of the most relevant features such as build process parameters, economical issues, safety features, sustainability of material, design considerations for better manufacturability and basic information on materials. There are four chapters with these data, one per each additive technology.

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2. Stereolithography
2.1. Introduction

Figure 1. Stereolithography machine

Stereolithography or SLA Systems use 3-D CAD data to convert liquid plastic materials and composites into solid cross-sections, layer by layer, to build highly accurate threedimensional parts. An ultraviolet laser cures a liquid resin into very thin layers, including interior and exterior cavities, to closely mimic injection-moulded and other plastic parts. SLA Systems rapidly manufacture parts of different geometries at the same time and are designed to produce prototypes, patterns or end-use parts of versatile sizes and applications. With the invention of the first SLA System in 1986 by 3D systems, the company has built its leadership in the industry by continuously setting new standards for broad features and new innovations in Additive Manufacturing.

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2.2. Build process 2.2.1. Build process

Figure 2. Scheme of fabrication process in Stereolitography

Stereolithography is a three-dimensional printing process that produces a solid plastic model. Using proprietary software, CAD output data is sliced into very thin cross sections. The resulting slice sections are then transformed into files to be used at the Stereolithography Apparatus (SLA) buildstation. A laser generates a small, intense beam of Ultraviolet (UV) light. The laser is moved by a computer-controlled optical scanning system across the top of a vat that contains liquid resin. The laser draws each layer of the part from the data provided by the build data file. When the laser contacts the resin, the beam photo-polymerizes the resin into a solid. When a layer is completed, an elevator lowers the part deeper into the vat, covering it with resin. Levelling and recoating systems establish the thickness and flatness of the liquid layer. When the resin surface is stable, the laser draws the next layer of the part. As each layer is drawn, it adheres to the previous layer, creating a solid part. This process continues until the final layer has been drawn. The part is then removed from the SLA, cleaned and illuminated with high intensity UV energy to complete the polymerization process. The part may be finished by various methods including sanding, sandblasting, painting or dyeing.

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2.2.2.

Laser source

The laser source used in 3D systems machines are classified as it is shown on this figure depends on the model of the SLA system. The Viper SLA system conforms to Federal Laser Product Performance Standards 21CFR1040.10 Class I laser in normal operation. During field service, emission levels can correspond to Class IV laser product. The type of laser is Solid State Nd:YVO4 (Neodymium Doped Yttrium Vanadate). Nd:YVO crystal is one of the most efficient laser host crystal currently existing for diode laser pumped solid state lasers. The wavelength of it is 354.7 nm, the power at vat is 100mW and it is 7500 hours in operation.

2.2.3.

Specifications of the machine

Laser Type Wavelength Power at Vat Laser Warranty Recoating System Process Build layer capability (depends on part geometry, Build parameters and material) Optical and scanning Beam (diameter @1/e2) Standard mode 0.250+/- 0.025 mm (0.010 +/- 0.001 inch) High Resolution (HR) mode 0.075+/0.015 mm (0.0030+/-0.0005 inch) Elevator Vertical resolution Position reparability Maximum part weight Typical velocity during part building 0.0025 mm (0.0001 inch) 0.0076 mm (0.0003 inch) 9.1 Kg (20lb) 5 mm/s (0.2 inch/s) Zephyr recoating system Minimun-0.02 mm (0.001 inch) Typical-0.1 mm (0.004 inch) Solid state Nd:YVO4 354,7 nm 7500 hours 100 mW available

Vat capacity (Other vat sizes available) Volume Maximum build envelope in Standard mode Maximum build envelope in HR mode Interchangeable vat 32.21 L (8.5 U.S. gal) 250x250x250 mm XYZ (10x10x10 inch) 125x125x250 mm XYZ (5x5x10 inch) Yes

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System controller and Software Control software Operating System Input data file format Network type and protocol Power 100-200 VAC +/- 10% 50/60Hz, 6 amps 220-240 VAC +/- 10% 50/60 Hz, 3 amps UPS power rating Ambient Temperature Temperature range Maximum change rate Relative humidity Size Crated machine Uncoated machine Weight Crated machine Uncoated machine 564 Kg (1242 lb) 463 Kg (1020 lb) W168xD102xH211 cm (W66xD40xH83 inch) W134xD86xH178 cm (W52.2x33.5x70 inch) 23C +/- 3C (73F +/- 5F) 1 C/hour (3.4F/hour) 20-50%, non condensing 15 amp, 115 V 8 amp, 230 V 2KVA minimum Build station software Windows NT (4.0 with service Pack 3 or higher) .stl ; .slc Ethernet, IEEE 802.3 10/100 Base-T

Table 1. Specifications of the Stereolitography System (Viper SLA)

2.2.4.

Support structure

Support structure is essential to insure the correct fabrication of parts. Supports anchor the part to the platform thus preventing floating layers, separate part from the platform for easy removal and supports discourage part curl. Considerations: Minimum Z-height of supports should be 9 mm to allow easier removal from the platform without causing damage to the bottom side of the part. Support spacing is dependent upon resin type and part geometry (acrylates need tighter spacing due to lack of green strength and epoxy can have wider spacing) Support should not be placed on surface where finish is important and where support removal is difficult. For acrylate resins, supports should overlap into parts by four layers For epoxy resins, 3D Lightyear software automatically compensates form layers eliminated by Zslice, beam compensation can eliminate layers with particular geometry (need to drive supports further into the part).

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Figure 3. Support structure

Figure 4. Different options to support a part depends on its orientation

2.2.5.

Build styles

There are two build styles in SLA machine for general applications, the difference between them is, in general, the layer thickness: Standard style: The thickness of the layer is 0.1 mm. High resolution style: The thickness of the layer is 0.05 mm. The surface quality of these parts is better than parts manufactured by standard style.

There is a special build style, called Quickcast. Quickcast build style allows rapid producing of functional metal prototypes without production of hard tooling at a fraction of the cost and time of traditional methods. QuickCast build style patterns replace traditional wax patterns for investment casting with patterns produced directly from your 3-D CAD. It is a mathematical algorithm that will automatically hollow a solid SLA geometry with a honeycomb structure inside, removing up to 90% of the mass. This structure minimizes the mass to burnout during the casting process. Except for creating the 3D design in CAD, there is nothing special required in CAD.

Figure 5. Quickcast build style. (honeycomb Quickcast parts)

Build styles are defined by different parameters, the value of these parameters depends on the material. Here it is a list of the most important parameters: Auto drain

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Draw speed (border) Draw speed (hatch) Nominal laser power Fill speed Scale factor x/y/z Number of sweeps Sweep velocity Resin temperature (during fabrication)

2.2.6.

Finishing and Post-curing

Once a part is built in the SLA machine, these are steps to follow: 1. Dry part and platform with air. 2. Remove the part from the platform. 3. Remove supports from the part. 4. Cleaning the part with clean-up solvent as alcohol. 5. Finishing the part (sanding, buffing, painting, plating, bead-blasting, and dying).

Figure 6. Finishing the part

6. Cure the part in the Post Curing Apparatus (PCA) to final cure of the part. The time the part is inside the PCA is 60 minutes but depends on the volume of the part. 7. It is important to turn the part inside the PCA for fully expose parts (top and bottom) to UV light.

Figure 7. PCA

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2.2.7.
CAD

Computer & software

3D LIGHTYEAR BUILDSTATION

Figure 8. Software involved in the preparation of a SLA part.

There are two types of specific software involve in the preparation and the construction of a part: 1. 3D LightYear. 3D LightYear is a software application for preparing speciallyformatted computer image files for export to, and fabrication on stereolithographic, or "SLA" machines. It is used to prepare STL and SLC three-dimensional model representations into build files that can be "built" on a SLA solid imaging system. It comprises the second phase of the three-phase process for turning ideas on your computer workstation into tangible, three-dimensional, polymeric parts. The 3D Lightyear is use to: Verify that the STL file (the "model") is properly designed, and to automatically perform rudimentary repairs to the format. Orient the part for optimum building resolution. Scale, rotate, and/or move the part around on 3D Lightyear software's virtual build platform; generate scale parts, copies and mirrors of it. Create and edit support structures for the part to help preserve its geometry during the build process (these will be removed during the finishing process, after building on an SLA system.) Create and edit the position of vents and drains on the part, an optional task, this facilitates the removal of liquid resin that would otherwise be trapped in the interior during a build with the QuickCast build style. Assign style parameters to the part, these are the receptacles for the build parameters that will be associated with the part during the fabrication in the SLA system. Finally, the software slice the part, creating the build file (or, as appropriate, the .v, .r, .1, .rpm file suite) that is used in the 3D Systems SLA to build the part. 2. BuildStation. The Buildstation Software runs on the SLA system's computer. The software allows the operator to set-up, modify, and control part building on the

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SLA system. When the operator completes the set-up and commands the system to build, the SLA Buildstation computer controls all SLA system's functions and sub-systems during the build.

2.2.8.

STL, file types and preparation

In the scheme below the procedure to prepare a STL part shown, the software involves in each phase and the kind of files.

Figure 9. Preparation of a SLA part.

CAD Design: Computer Aided Design (CAD) is the process of taking a concept and creating a model. For Stereolithography, the model must be created in or converted to a clearly defined three dimensional model in a CAD, CAM or CAE software package. CAD Translator: A CAD translator, generally included with the CAD package, transforms the surfaces in a CAD model to a model defined by triangles with the appropriate normal orientation. The translation of the CAD file produces a file format called STL, which is compatible with the Stereolithography Apparatus (SLA). Another format that is also acceptable to the SLA is the SLC file. Both formats were developed by 3D Systems, Inc. and are the recognized standard within the ALM community. STL: tessellates the defined model SLC: creates true curves by approximating CAD facets

STL Verification: Since a good Stereolithography part is fundamentally based on a valid STL file, 3D Lightyear will verify the STL file to confirm the integrity and/or provide limited repair before part building. Gaps between triangles, overlapping or redundant triangles and incorrect normal direction are some examples of flaws that can be identified and corrected.

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Orient: The visual inspection and the orientation into position of STL and SLC files are feasible through 3D Lightyear. The program enables the user to manipulate the files to meet the software and hardware constraints, such as the part must entirely reside in the positive X, Y, Z octant in CAD space. Other factors to consider in part orientation include part size and feature limitations, part aesthetics, problematic part building avoidance, and building time reduction. Support: 3D Lightyear offers a powerful tool that automatically generates support files for the object files. The software also contains a graphical user interface that allows the user to modify, edit, delete or add supports while the support and the object files are displayed on the screen. Prepare: Preparing a part for part building entails three stages. The first stage utilizes the spreadsheet format of the Part Manager software. The object and support STL or SLC files are loaded into the spreadsheet and set-up with the appropriate build and recoat style parameters required by the geometry of the part. The second stage uses the ZSlice program to convert the parameter information to a model composed of three-dimensional cross sections or layers. The third and the last stage automatically access the Converge program, which uses both the build parameters and the layer information to form the build, files which are comprehensible to the SLA. Build: This is where the three-dimensional part is actually produced in the Stereolithography Apparatus. After the SLA is set-up properly, data from the build file(s) is used by the controller and the dynamic mirrors to direct the laser beam on the surface of the resin in the vat. As the laser hits the surface, the resin cures and successive cross sectional layers are built. Resin curing is coordinated with the elevator to successfully build the object from the bottom up, one layer at a time. Post Process: After the part has been completed, the required post processing it depends on its intended use. Basically, post processing involves cleaning, post curing and part finishing. Cleaning entails the removal of excess liquid resin by solvent rinsing and the removal of the support structure from the object. Post curing is the final curing of the remnant liquid resin on the cleansed object by placing it inside a Post Curing Apparatus (PCA). Finally, depending on the final application of the part, finishing may include sanding, buffing, painting, plating, bead-blasting, and dying.

2.3. Economical aspects 2.3.1. Maintenance

There is an annual maintenance contract that includes some components of the machine: Head Refurbishment Viper Tripler crystal 355 nm Doubler crystal 535 nm Viper diode 1024 nm Multivoltage power supply Viper Q switch Viper Q switch driver Viper AOM Viper

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AOM driver Viper 5 v power supply Cannon Rotary encoder Scanning Mirror Levelling diode IM805 motor driver Optical switch Heater coil PCA lamp Mirror driver board Vacuum Pump Binaca Technical assistance Telephone assistance

In the annual maintenance contract are included, two preventive maintenance visits and two repair visits if it is necessary. The cost of this maintenance contract is approximately 15.000 .

2.3.2.

Fabrication costs

The costs of SLA fabrication depends on these parameters: Volume of the part. Cost of materials. Cost of consumables. Height of the part. Height of supports. Number of slices

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BUILD COSTS
MACHINE COSTS

Estimated on 5 yrs depreciation

Years 5 Active weeks/yr 45 Builds/week 9 h/build 10 Estimated build hours 20.250 Machine price/h 7,41 [/h]

[h]

Machine price 150.000 MAINTAINANCE Years 5 Active mth/yr 11 Monthly price 1.250 []

[]

68.750 Maint/h 3,40

[]

[/h]

FUNGIBLES Laser Useful lifetime 7.500 Laser price 18.900 [] Laser / h 2,52 3D Light Year licence; Build Station [/h]

Software

[/yr]

0,00

[/h]

Total estimated build costs

13,33

[/h]

Table 2. Structure of estimated initial costs of parts fabricated in SLA.

Regarding material costs, Protogen 18420 has a price of 180 /kg of resin, while Somos NeXt reaches 260 /kg of resin1. In other words, the contribution of 18420 to the part cost can be expressed as 0.2 /cm3, while NeXt contributes with 0.3 /cm3. Though the initial estimation of the total fabrication costs can be given by the following formula: TFC = n build hours x TEBC [/h] + part volume x material price [/cm3]

2.4. Safety features 2.4.1. Safe Handling of UV-Curable Material

Conventional coatings are generally dissolved in organic solvents or dispersed in water. Curing (or hardening) then proceeds by solvent evaporation and/or a chemical reaction. In

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the case of UV-curable coatings, the curing reaction is initiated by exposure to intense ultraviolet light. Typical components of DSM Desotechs UV-curable products may include: a reactive resin, a multifunctional cross-linker, a reactive diluents and, in some cases, a solvent (or solvents) to aid in application. Depending upon end-use and application, these components may be formulated with photo-initiators, stabilizers, pigments and other additives. The safe handling of these materials includes wearing protection gloves and abstaining of inhaling the gases that might be produced by evaporation of solvents.

2.4.2.

Storage of UV-Curable

UV-curable materials are composed of reactive monomers and oligomers. If improperly stored, these compositions may undergo polymerization with the evolution of heat. Improperly stored UV materials increase in viscosity and eventually result in a gelled (polymerized) product in the storage container. For this reason, products should always be stored according to storage and handling recommendations, as well as applicable fire department and insurance recommendations. Containers: Most products are supplied in lined (baked phenol) steel, plastic or fibre containers with plastic linings or inserts. Polyethylene bottles or liners are acceptable as long as they are opaque to ultraviolet light and not used to hold solvent containing materials. UV-curable products containing acrylates should not be allowed to come in contact with iron, copper or copper containing alloys to insure product stability. Plastic containers made from organic soluble materials such as polystyrene or polyvinyl-chloride (PVC) should not be used for storage. Container lids should be tightly sealed in order to protect UV products from contamination and/or stray light when not in use. Also, a tightly sealed container will prevent product spillage if the container is accidentally dropped during handling. Shelf Life: Most products are usable for at least six months from the date they are shipped. Provisions should be made to insure inventory rotation: first in, first used. In general, UV-curable products are usable for periods up to one year or even longer. Products are marked with a retest date on the label. This date is determined through the use of retain program and indicates when the product should be checked by the supplier of the material to its use. Light: UV-curable materials should be shielded from sunlight or other sources of actinic radiation such as fluorescent or mercury vapour lights. Exposure to actinic radiation will lead to increased product viscosity and eventually to product polymerization. Temperature: Containers or bulk storage tanks containing UV materials should be kept indoors at temperatures between 15 (59 an d 30 (86 Temperatures C F) C F). above 30 will accelerate the depletion of the sta bilizers contained in the product. C Once the stabilizers are exhausted, polymerization will occur. For pigmented materials, elevated temperatures will increase the rate of pigment settling. Refer to specific data sheets for individual products. Temperatures below 15 may lead to C phase separation (individual components separating from solution) or possible precipitation of stabilizers. If the product is believed to have been below 15 for a C prolonged period of time, it should be checked for performance before being used in production. Product that has undergone phase separation can be fully restored to

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initial properties by gently warming and mixing the contents of the container. Care should be taken not to induce bubbles into the material during mixing. Contamination: Free radical sources, such as peroxides and iron contaminants, can initiate polymerization of acrylate based products. Epoxy based products will undergo rapid polymerization when contaminated with strong acids. Introduction of free radical scavengers (phenol compounds and others) will retard the cure rate of acrylate based products. Alkali or amine contamination will retard the cure rate of epoxy based products. Accidental contamination with polymerization inhibitors will result in slower cure speed. It is also important to prevent accidental product contamination with organic solvents or water. Dilution of UV-curable products with non-reactive solvents will result in slower cure speed, if they are not first evaporated.

2.5. Sustainability
The SLA process and SLA materials do not permit substantial material recovery. However, it is important to mention the way to dispose the waste of material. Fully cured UV materials ordinarily present no safety or health related disposal hazards. Nonetheless, some areas may still regulate cured coatings as hazardous industrial waste. Contact the governmental body in your area which regulates waste disposal to determine the specific requirements for cured UV coating waste. Partially or uncured UV material waste may be classified as hazardous in some areas, thereby requiring special packaging, transportation and disposal. Check with the governmental body which regulates waste disposal in your area to ascertain what, if any, specific disposal requirements exist. The packaging, transportation and disposal methods which are used must prevent any form of human contact with the waste, even if it is classified as nonhazardous or unregulated. This precludes the use of disposal methods which will result in groundwater or surface water contamination. Clean-up solvents (containing UV curable material) should be isolated in a sealed, marked container and disposed of as Hazardous Waste in accordance with all applicable laws and regulations. Clean-up materials, soiled clothing, empty containers, etc., should be disposed of in accordance with the preceding guidelines. Whenever any of these contain uncured or partially cured UV-curable materials, the disposal method must preclude any form of human contact, including any which could result in groundwater or surface water contamination. Generally, non-solvent containing UV-curable materials may be disposed of as non-hazardous waste. Contact a reputable waste hauler for a complete analysis and classification of all waste streams. A. Discard contaminated shoes by isolating in a sealed container and disposing of as solid waste in accordance with local legislation. B. Empty plastic bottles should be punctured, drained thoroughly and disposed of as solid waste. C. Empty drums should be drained, triple rinsed and sent to a qualified drum reconditioner.

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2.6. Design considerations on Stereolitography

There are some design considerations that are showed in the next table. Part design consideration Layer thickness Minimum wall thickness (mm) Draw Value 0.1 mm (Standard) 0.05 mm (Minimum) 0.5 mm

Minimum horizontal diameter

0.4 mm

Maximum horizontal diameter without support.

1 mm

Minimum vertical diameter

0.4 mm

Areas that need supporting

Angles less than 30

Overhangs without supports

0.5 mm

Bridges without supporting

0.5 mm

Figure 10. SLA design considerations

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2.7. Materials 2.7.1. SLA Materials

The SLA technology uses laser to perform the photopolymerization of material. This way, the material that is initially liquid becomes hard and consistent. SLA is capable of processing different resins that emulate thermoplastic material performance. Actually, there are many types of resins, capable of resisting different loads and temperatures. Hence, many different resins are developed: some for general purpose (like Somos 18420) and others when thermal resistance, surface quality, elasticity, dimensional precision or other specific property is required. Both the technology provider (3dSystems; http://www.3dsystems.com/products/materials/sla/index.asp) and material providers (such as DSM SOMOS; http://www.dsm.com/es_ES/html/dsms/home_dsmsomos.htm) offer a wide range of materials capable of being processed successfully. In the following table it is mentioned the materials that are considered in Karma.
Type Somos18420 White SomosNeXt Description ABS-like resins. Long lasting water resistant resins with good mechanical properties. White coloured and opaque. New generation of SL resin technology: creates durable, accurate parts with high feature detail and excellent finishing characteristic, combined with exceptional moisture resistance and improved thermal properties. Figure 11. Table of SLA materials involved in the project

2.8. Acknowledgment
Thanks to everyone in the laboratory of ALM of AIMME, in particular the SLA technicians and thanks to Philippe Barcet from DSM Somos.

2.9. Bibliography
1. 3D Systems Webpage: http://www.3dsystems.com/ 2. DSM Somos. Webpage: http://www.dsm.com 3. DSM Somos information about safety guidelines 4. Laser information: www.u-optic.com

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3. Laser Cusing
3.1. Introduction

Figure 12. Concept laser M2 Cusing.

The term Laser CUSING , made up of the letter C from CONCEPT Laser and word FUSING (complete melting), describes the technology patented by Concept Laser, the company situated in Lichtenfels, little town in upper Franconia, located some 95 km from Nuremberg. The technology is one of the Selective Laser Melting technologies and represents a fusion process capable of generating large-volume components layer-by-layer using 3D CAD data. The process allows complex component geometries to be manufactured without tools. It is worthy of mentioning that CONCEPT Laser GmbH is a member of the Hofmann Innovation Group AG that has around 500 employees who work on production areas covering over 17.000 sqm. This group of enterprises has a vast experience in injection moulding a mould making. This is why the development of the Cusing technology has been firstly employed in fabrication of mould inserts. Conformal cooling channels are possible for highly complex components in the 3D sector. The optimally cooled mould inserts allow the production of parts without distortion at much shorter cycle times. However, further development of the technology allowed inclusion of other important sectors of industry in the scope of Laser CUSING capabilities. Nowadays, this technology is used to fabricate medical devices such as implants and surgical devices, dental parts, electronic devices, automotive parts, etc.

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3.2. Build process

Figure 13. Scheme of fabrication process in Laser Cusing.

Laser Cusing is an additive fabrication process based on layer-by-layer formation of 3D physical part from an electronic model. The schematic representation (Figure 13) shows that the build chamber is divided in two parts: one that stores the building platform on which the part is built and the other that serves as a deposit of powder. During the fabrication, the build platform descends as the layers are being formed. During the same time, the platform inside the deposit lifts up while the powder distributor (coater) moves from left to right (Figure 14) in order to distribute the powder over the working surface in thin layers. Powder layer is melted by the action of the laser beam that performs a complete fusion of one layer to the below one. Only the part of powder that corresponds to the part model slice is fused, while the rest of powder stays loose and can be recycled.

Figure 14. Physical principle of metal fusion in Laser Cusing.

3.2.1. Protective atmosphere

In order to prevent the loss of quality in fabricated parts, caused mainly by oxidation, there must be a protective atmosphere inside in the build chamber. In case of Laser Cusing

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machines, there are two types of protective atmosphere. The machine models that process steel (M1 and M3) use nitrogen, while the machine model M2, which can process non ferrous alloys, uses noble gas Argon. Since the scope of this project includes steel materials, in this report the emphasis is put on the nitrogen.

Figure 15. Nitrogen generator for Laser Cusing.

The nitrogen in Laser Cusing is provided by a nitrogen generator. N2 generating systems are an integral part of Laser Cusing technology. They use the principle of adsorption which consists on a separation process based on the phenomenon of fixing various gas mixture components by a solid substance called an adsorbent. The principal advantage of adsorption nitrogen generators is the high purity of nitrogen produced from air: up to 99.9995%, being very convenient for the laser melting technologies. Other important advantage of this concept are low production costs, since the net cost of nitrogen produced by nitrogen generators is 20 to 30 times less than the cost of bottled or liquefied nitrogen. The characteristic of the nitrogen generator used in Laser Cusing technology are summarized in the following table:
Generator type: Delivery: N MIDI 600 > 3.9 Nm/h with 0.5 % residual oxygen content at 6 bar gauge higher delivery / depending on compressed air admission pressure Compressed air: ISO 8573.1:2001 Classes 1 / 4 / 1 Min supply pressure in generator: 6 bar gauge Max supply pressure in generator: 9.5 bar gauge Compressed air needs to produce 1 Nm N = Factor 3.5 Power supply: 230 V 50 Hz Power consumption: 120 watts per hour Dimensions: 600 x 590 x 1100 mm (dxwxh) special sizes too Weight: 180 kg Compressed air supply connection: N supply connection: Manufactured According to European PED Directive Production-free time: Automatic operation with Economy switch, no compressed air is consumed in Economy mode N purity: Specified by Concept Laser GmbH, Lichtenfels Buffer boiler: A buffer boiler is needed for a continuous supply of the N consumer with a storage volume of 90 litres Table 3. Nitrogen generator characteristics on Laser cusing M3 system.

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3.2.2. Laser source

The laser source used in Laser Cusing machines is a Nd:Yag type laser. Nd:YAG (neodymium-doped yttrium aluminium garnet; Nd:Y3Al5O12) is a crystal that is used as a lasing medium for solid-state lasers. The dopant, triply ionized neodymium, typically replaces yttrium in the crystal structure of the yttrium aluminium garnet (YAG), since they are of similar size. Generally the crystalline host is doped with around 1% neodymium by atomic percent. Nd:YAG lasers are optically pumped using a flashlamp or laser diodes. They are one of the most common types of laser, and are used for many different applications. Nd:YAG lasers typically emit light with a wavelength of 1064 nm, in the infrared. However, there are also transitions near 940, 1120, 1320, and 1440 nm. Nd:YAG lasers operate in both pulsed and continuous mode. Pulsed Nd:YAG lasers are typically operated in the so called Q-switching mode: An optical switch is inserted in the laser cavity waiting for a maximum population inversion in the neodymium ions before it opens. Then the light wave can run through the cavity, depopulating the excited laser medium at maximum population inversion. In this Qswitched mode, output powers of 250 megawatts and pulse durations of 10 to 25 nanoseconds have been achieved. The high-intensity pulses may be efficiently frequency doubled to generate laser light at 532 nm, or higher harmonics at 355 and 266 nm.

Figure 16. Laser head at Concept Laser M3 Linear machine.

The characteristics of a Laser Cusing laser are summarized in the following table.
Laser source characteristics Formula: Y3Al5O12 Molecular weight: 596.7 Crystal structure: Cubic Hardness: 88.5 (Moh) Melting point: 1950 (3540 C F) Density: 4.55 g/cm3 Fabrication parameters: Laser beam diameter: 70-200 m Laser beam power: 100 W Precision of positioning 0.002 mm cm3 Nominal build speed 25 /h + Nominal precision /- 0.1 - 0.2 mm Laser current: 38 A mm Scanning velocity: up to 7000 /s Operational mode: continuous or pulse Table 4. Nitrogen generator characteristics on Laser cusing M3 system.

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3.2.3. Support structure and heat transfer

The support structure commonly used in Laser cusing technology is the wafer type support. The role of support structure is dual: it provides mechanical support to downfacing surfaces and provides heat transfer for the excess of heat introduced by laser source. The most commonly used types of structures used on Laser Cusing are Block, Combo, Contour, Point and Web.

Figure 17. Block support structure.

Figure 18. Combo support structure.

Figure 19. Contour support structure.

Figure 20. Point support structure.

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Figure 21. Web support structure.

Although all support type are given with recommended values of parameters, modification can be made and the support structure geometry can be modified to allow better support or better heat transfer.

3.2.4. Powder
Powder in Laser Cusing materials has a nominal range of particle diameters comprehended between 25 and 52 m. On the following graph, the particle size distribution in CL 20 powder can be seen:

d5=14,0 m d50=26,9 m d95=49,2 m

Figure 22. Particle size distribution in CL20.

More details on powder characteristics will be found in the DL 1.2 since it deals with the characteristics of materials that are the scope of KARMA project.

3.2.5. Powder coater

There are two types of coating systems for Laser Cusing machines: the rigid and the flexible one. The flexible one is recommended for smaller parts which can be easily damaged when scratched by the rigid coater. The advantage of the rigid coater is the process speed since it can distribute the powder in both directions. The later is commonly used in the fabrication of mould inserts.

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Figure 23. Rigid (up) and flexible (down) coater.

3.2.6. Computer & software

The computer system used on up-to-date Concept Laser machines is presented through the basic characteristics shown in the following table. Base system PC tower Power supply Mainboard Processor RAM memory Floppy disk Harddisk SATA-II Western CaviarRE 160GB
Table 5. M3 Linear PC characteristics.

IPC-9400/M8.0 ECR9400W Fortron FSP400-60GLN 400WATT Intel Frostburg DG33FB Intel Core2Duo E4600/2,4 GHz 800 2x512MB CL4 DDR II

The fabrication control is done through the Concept Laser software. The software allows defining all build parameters and positioning on the build plate, but it also offers control and monitorization of the build process.

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Figure 24. Concept Laser machine software outlook.

3.2.7. STL, file types and preparation

The fabrication on Laser Cusing machines is commonly prepared in Materialise Magics software. STL format is imported, positioned over the start plate and the support structure is generated when necessary.

Figure 25. Magics environment.

Once the part has been positioned and the support structure generated, the parts are sliced into a CLS type file. This file defines the module you will use for fabrication (M3 linear has an erosion module apart from the cusing module) and the slice (layer) thickness. The CLS file is imported into the machine and the position of the build as well as build parameters are set up. All these information is then saved into the CLO file, which is the source of information for the machine while performing the fabrication.

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3.3. Economical aspects 3.3.1. Laser Cusing Machine models

There are three models of machines that use Laser Cusing technology: 3.3.1.1 M1 cusing
Technical data Processed materials Stainless steel CL 20ES ( 1.4404 ) Hot-work steel CL 50WS ( 1.2709 ) CL 60DG ( 1.2709 ) Stainless CL 90RW hot-work steel CL 91RW Nickel-based alloy CL 100NB ( Inconel 718 ) 250 x 250 x 250 mm ( x, y, z ) 20 - 80 m 2 10 cm3/h ( depending on material ) 200 W ( cw ) 7 m/s 70 200 m EROWA, System 3R ( others on request ) 7.4 kW 3/N/PE AC 400 V, 32 A 5 bar 2 gas connections provided ( optional ) < 1 m3/h 2362 x 1535 x 2308 mm ( W x D x H ) 1500 kg 15 - 35C

Build envelope Layer thickness Production speed Laser system Fibre laser Max. scanning speed Focus diameter Reference clamping system Connected loads Power consumption Power supply Compressed air Inert gas supply N2 generator external Inert gas consumption Dimensions Weight Operating conditions

Table 6. M1 cusing technical data.

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3.3.1.2

M2 cusing
Technical data Processed materials Stainless steel CL 20ES ( 1.4404 ) Hot-work steel CL 50WS ( 1.2709 ) CL 60DG ( 1.2709 ) Stainless CL 90RW Aluminium CL 30AL (AlSi12) Aluminium CL 31AL (AlSi10Mg) Titanium CL 40TI (TiAl6V4) Nickel-based alloy CL 100NB ( Inconel 718 ) 250 x 250 x 280 mm ( x, y, z ) 20 - 50 m 2 20 cm3/h ( depending on material ) Fibre laser 200 W ( cw ) 7 m/s 70 200 m EROWA, System 3R ( others on request ) 7.0 kW 3/N/PE AC 400 V, 32 A 5 bar 2 gas connections provided ( optional ) < 2.5 m3/h 2440 x 1630 x 1992 mm ( W x D x H ) 1500 kg 15 - 35C

Build envelope Layer thickness Production speed Laser system Max. scanning speed Focus diameter Reference clamping system Connected loads Power consumption Power supply Compressed air Inert gas supply N2 generator external Inert gas consumption Dimensions Weight Operating conditions

Table 7. M2 cusing technical data.

3.3.1.3

M3 linear
Technical data Processed materials Stainless steel CL 20ES ( 1.4404 ) Hot-work steel CL 50WS ( 1.2709 ) CL 60DG ( 1.2709 ) Stainless CL 90RW (comp. 1.2083) hot-work steel CL 91RW (comp. 1.2083) 250 x 250 x 250 mm up to 300x350x300 mm ( x, y, z ) 20 - 80 m 2 20 cm3/h ( depending on material ) Diode-pumped solid state laser 100W ( cw + pulsed ) Fibre laser 200 W ( cw ) (optional) 7 m/s 70 200 m EROWA, System 3R ( others on request ) 7.4 kW 3/N/PE AC 400 V, 32 A 7-8 bar 2 gas connections provided ( optional ) < 2.5 m3/h 2362 x 1535 x 2308 mm ( W x D x H ) 1500 kg 15 - 35C

Build envelope Layer thickness Production speed Laser system Max. scanning speed Focus diameter Reference clamping system Connected loads Power consumption Power supply Compressed air Inert gas supply N2 generator external Inert gas consumption Dimensions Weight Operating conditions

Table 8. M3 Linear technical data.

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3.3.2. Maintenance
For Laser Cusing technology, three types of maintenance contracts/services are available: Basic Contract. 1 anual visit that includes preventive maintenance: cleaning, filter change and software actualization. Price: 13.900 /yr2. Confort contract. Includes Basic contract features and one additional 2-day service visit as well as fusible parts (filters, computer filters, joints, etc.) Price: 22.900 /yr. Premium Contract. Includes all the features of Confort contract plus all machine parts that are broken in condition of normal use and extra 2-day service if necessary. Price: 45.900 /yr.

3.3.3. Fabrication costs

Based on the experience of AIMME, the following table can be offered to illustrate the estimated fabrication costs in Laser Cusing.

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BUILD COSTS
MACHINE COSTS

Estimated on 5 yrs depreciation

Years 5 Active weeks/yr 45 Builds/wee k 2 h/build 20 Estimated build hours 9.000 Machine price/h 53,89

[h]

Machine price 485000 MAINTAINANCE Years 5 Active mth/yr 11 Monthly price 1910 []

[/h]

[]

105.050 Maint/h 11,67

[]

[/h]

FUNGIBLES Laser Useful lifetime 10000 Laser price 60000 [] Laser / h 6,00 Coater Coater/week 1 Build plate Plate /week 0,2 Included maintenance contract 0,00 Magics licence + maintanance [/h] Price coater 45 Plate price [average] 50 [/h]

[]

Coater / h 1,13

[/h]

[]

Plate / h 0,25

[/h]

Misc fungibles

Software

13.000

[/yr] Total estimated build costs

7,22

[/h]

80,16

[/h]

Table 9. M3 Linear estimated build costs.

Regarding material costs, CL 20 has a price of 95 /kg of powder, while CL 50/60WS reaches 150 /kg of powder3. In other words, the contribution of CL20 to the part cost can be expressed as 0,741 /cm3, while CL50/60WS contributes with 1,125 /cm3. Though the initial estimation of the total fabrication costs can be given by the following formula:

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TFC = n build hours x TEBC [/h] + part volume x material price [/cm3]

3.4. Safety features 3.4.1. Powder handling & changing

The following risks may be experienced while working with Concept Laser systems: 1. Risk or damage to respiratory tract and lungs when handling metal powders and filter dust and suspected carcinogenic effect of the metal powder and filter dust. It is strongly recommended to wear breathing protection (respiratory mask; particle filter P2D or P3D) and NEVER inhale the dust when filling, emptying and cleaning the build envelope (build module, dosing chamber, coater, powder overflow) and when emptying the collecting container and filter cartridge of the extraction and filter unit. 2. Risk of eye damage when handling metal powder and filter dust. It is strongly recommended to wear eye protection (close-fitting safety goggles) when filling, emptying and cleaning the build envelope (build module, dosing chamber, coater, powder overflow) and when emptying the collecting container and filter cartridge of the extraction and filter unit. 3. Risk of compressed air outlet. Compressed air can escape if compressed air lines and union joints are opened or damaged. It is strongly recommended to wear safety gloves due to risk of skin damage. The toxic nickel in the metal powder and filter dust can cause irreversible damage or a sensitisation through skin contact (allergic reaction). 4. Risk of suspected carcinogenic effect of the metal powder and filter dust. A longer period inhaling of powder dust may cause accumulation of powder in lungs, blood and other organs which has a strong carcinogenic effect.

3.4.2. Laser system

The principal risks of the laser system are the following: 1. Laser is invisible (Class 1). This means that the human eye cannot detect the beam if it impacts the eye. It is highly recommended to activate the laser only when the door is closed due to protective action of the door crystal. 2. Special precaution should be made with docking/undocking of the build chamber. The laser may impact with the part and suffer severe damage.

3.5. Sustainability 3.5.1. Powder recycling in Laser Cusing

Once the fabrication has been finished, the part is extracted from the machine. The proper extraction of the part, apart from providing safety, results in a recycling of a huge amount of

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powder. The information provided by the technology provider states that not more than 2% of powder is non recyclable.

Figure 26. Control parts for manufacturability estimation.

The proper part extraction consists of the following steps: Undocking the technology module (cusing module). Displacing the coater to the right side of the machine Lowering the powder platform to the initial position Slowly raising the build platform while removing the powder to the powder jar deposits using metal palletes. Sucking the rest of the powder kindly with the special purpose vacuum cleaner. Sifting of the powder from the jars and vacuum cleaner to eliminate burned particles.

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3.6. Design considerations on Laser Cusing

a)

b)

c)

d)
Figure 27. Control parts for manufacturability estimation.

In the following table, the recommended values for different design features are shown. These values are indicative for a proper design and necessity of support structure.
Part design consideration Layer thickness Illustration Value 0.1 mm (Standard) 0.05 mm (Minimum) 0.5 mm

Minimum wall thickness

Minimum horizontal diameter

0.5-1 mm

Maximum horizontal diameter without support.

8 mm

Minimum vertical diameter

0.5 mm

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Areas that need support

Less than 45

Overhangs without support

0.3-0.4 mm

Bridges without support

0.4-0.5 mm

Thread

No

Machining thickness for nice surface

0.5-1 mm

Table 10. Design considerations on Laser Cusing.

3.7. Materials 3.7.1. CL 20 (316L)

The chemical composition of CL20 powder corresponds to the inox steel 316L with the following chemical composition: Carbon Sulphur Silicium Manganese Nickel Copper Chromium Molybdenum Vanadium Cobalt 0,015 0,007 0,7 0,54 11,55 0,029 16,53 2 0,06 0,062

Table 11. Chemical composition of CL20.

The nominal density is 7.72 gr/cm3. The principal application field of this material is the production of acid- and corrosion resistant parts or tool components for pre-production tools.

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3.7.2. CL 50/60WS (Hot Work Steel)

The chemical composition of CL20 powder corresponds to the hot-work steel DIN 1.2803 with the following chemical composition: Carbon Sulphur Silicium Manganes e Nickel Copper Chromium Molybdenu m Vanadium Cobalt 0,036 0,020 0,087 0,041 >6,60 0.073 0,150 >2,88 0,020 >2,52

Table 12. Chemical composition of CL20.

The nominal density is 7.? gr/cm3. The principal application field of this material is the Powder material for the production of components as well as tool components of production moulds for injection of plastic components.

3.8. Bibliography
1. Concept Laser Webpage, www.concept-laser.de 2. Concept Laser documentation and formation courses 3. Installationshandbuch N2 Generator, Concept Laser GmbH 4. Koechner, Walter (1988). Solid-State Laser Engineering (2nd ed.). Springer-Verlag. ISBN 3-540-18747-2.

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4. Electron Beam Melting

4.1. Introduction
During the last decade lots of methods for rapid prototyping and adaptive manufacturing has been developed. New materials and applications are still in progress. This item describes the adaptive manufacturing technique Electron Beam Melting process delivered by Arcam AB. Apart from the Technology some security is described which is important to minimise the risks for the machine operators, though all safety is not covered. Powder materials approved for EBM are briefly described. Main purposes of the EBM are manufacture of parts with complex geometries or fast production of single components.

Figure 28: Above left, Powder rake. Right: Electron beam melting a layer. Lower left: Vacuum pump. (1)

4.2. Build Process

When building an object in the EBM machine, a model has to be prepared in a CAD based program. The model has to be sliced digitally with a thickness typically ranging from 0.05mm to 0.2mm. Each layer will then be melted together in a weld like way, layer by layer.

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Figure 29: An Arcam EBM machine. Left: Entire machine. Right: Inside the build chamber (2) Before starting a build, the bottom of the build tank is raised to the level of the build table, parts are presented in Figure 2. A start plate is then placed upon a 40mm thick layer of powder, which acts as a heat insulator, at the level of the build table. On both sides of the table there are powder hoppers. From each powder hopper, powder flows out and forms a pile. A rake moves from one side to the other fetching powder and spreads it out evenly on the start plate. The electron beam heats the plate and semisinters the powder until it gets the texture of a dried mud cake. Then the melting starts. The area represented by the slice from the CAD model is melted. The build tank lowers the start plate, a new layer of powder is spread out and the next level starts in the same manner. When the build is finished the process stops and the parts are left in the build tank of the machine. Cool down starts naturally when no more heat or energy is added to the system. Helium is let into the chamber, which is a good heat conductor. The cake containing the actual parts can be removed from the machine once the build is raised above the build table. The semisintered caked powder is then removed by the powder recovery system (PRS) which basically is a blaster.

4.2.1. Vacuum
The machine has a vacuum pump, evacuating the air. The electron beam is in need of a low pressure atmosphere, approximately 10-4mbar. A small amount of helium is let in to keep the pressure at an even level, since heating the powder sometimes affects the vacuum. This is called controlled vacuum, and ensures a stable atmosphere.

4.2.2. Electron Gun

The electron beam originates from a Tungsten filament. When the filament is subjected to a current and there is a potential difference of up to 60kV between the anode and the cathode, electrons will accelerate from the filament. Once the electron has reached the anode it has about half the speed of light. The electrons travel through magnetic fields induced by coils which focus the beam and direct it to the powder bed. When the electrons hit the powder bed the kinetic energy transforms to heat. This technology is analogous to how a picture is projected in an old TV. 39/62

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4.2.3. Electron Beam

The electron beam also has the nature of a propagating wave. The wave has its first node or focus at the anode. Passing through the cavity with regulating coils the beam is disseminated and assembles with a second focus close to the powder bed. The beam has a focus off set shifting the position of the second focus from the bed changing the spot size which is the appearance of the beam.

4.2.4. Heat Transfer and Temperature

During the building process the heat is transferred from the top down to the start plate. The vacuum and the powder are considered insulated. At the bottom of the start plate there is a thermo couple measuring the temperatures continuously. The temperature in the build should always be higher or equal to the temperature of the start plate. When the cooling has started heat transfer may appear in all directions but mainly due to radiation through the melted surfaces at the top. Keeping an even controlled temperature in the build will prevent already solidified parts from tensions which otherwise could destroy the shape. When the temperature is controlled the melting at the top layer will have a temperature where sparks and spatter is minimised. Evaporation of the material is also minimised with temperature awareness. (3)

4.2.5. Wafer Support

Wafer is built up between parts and start plate. It is needed if the surface compared to the star plate is more parallel then vertical. Objects with only vertical surfaces do not need Wafer support. The main purpose of wafer is to allow heat transfer instead of having the melted parts moving to get a more effective heat transfer path. This support material is easily bent of once a build is done. The wafer has a structure of blades or thin walls.

4.2.6. Powder
The powder grain size is usually in the range of 45-100m. (4) It is important for the temperature in the powder not to extent the evaporation temperature. Then there is a risk of the powder to evaporate instead of forming a product. When using an electron beam there are charges. The powder must be semisintered until it is conducting. Otherwise there will be a charge build up destroying the powder bed. (3) The amount of ions in closed vicinity is controlled, with the effect of reducing build up of clouds. (5)

Figure 30. Powder grains with the size of 45-100m. (6)

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4.2.7. Rake
The powder rake has a triangular cross section, which means powder will not get stuck on top of it. The shape is not limited to a triangle, it can easily be changed. Underneath it is a comb like blade distributing the powder while passing by over the build envelope. There are 5 rake positions. On each side are fetch positions and rest positions, and in the middle there is mid position. Moving to fetch position the rake crashes into the powder slope and some powder will fall over it. The height of the opening in the powder hopper might vary from powder to powder. The angle of a sand castle like pile will have an effect on how much powder will pour out. When there is vacuum in the build chamber the powder will flow easier and the pile angle will change significantly. This must be considered when setting the rake at 1 atmospheric pressure with an open door. During setting fetch positions the size of the powder piles at the start will be adjusted. This is done before starting every build. If this is done incorrectly there wont be enough of powder for the first layers, which will affect the build. An extra raking can be done manually in these occasions. Between the build tank and the powder hopper there are one hole on each side. There will run a stream of powder each time the rake passes by. Sensors connected to a regulator will adapt the fetch positions to where the right amount of powder is distributed during the build process. (7)

4.2.8. xyz-directions
Positioning and orientation off a build are some of the most important setting for a build. When a part is sliced each slice will be a xy-plane. The slices are then assembled in the zdirection. The distribution in z-direction is directly related to build time and cost. Surface appearance and the need of wafer support are dependent of the orientation and a shifting could be visible by the naked eye.

4.2.9. Computer and Software

The machines have built in computers with specialised software. Arcam AB delivers service, support and updates of the software. Build themes with already set parameters for each material and application are pre programmed for the average user.

4.2.10.Net Structures
As well as solid parts, net-structures can be manufactured. Compared to traditional production methods the EBM is specialised on complex geometries. Net structures can be manufactured with 2 different approaches. Firstly any net structure can be imported from a cad based program. Secondly, when melting, the path of the electron beam can be set so that the melted lines do not overlap with the result of gaps. Net-structures have excellent material properties if strength to density ratio is compared.

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Figure 31. EBM manufactured net-structures.

4.2.11.STL Files and Preparation

Builds can be made in lots of different software or medical 3D-pictures can be used. It is imported as an STL file to the software Magics were surface errors are fixed and the object is positioned. In Magics, wafer support are also prepared.

4.2.12.MultiBeam
When making surfaces MultiBeam is an option. It uses the ability of fast movement of the beam to melt many points of the surface at the same time. This will lead to a smoother surface when the melt pool solidifies faster, with less ability to flow away. (1)

4.3. Economical aspects 4.3.1. EBM Machines

Arcam A1 is a specialized machine for implant manufacture. The A1 has an insulated powder bed for faster build cycles and a cooling system which makes it possible to complete the final cooling at an optimum time. The machine is ultimate for building netstructures with controlled material properties to mimic bone properties. The machine is suitable for both standard and customized implants, with application specific build themes. (8)

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Table 13. Content of support and maintenance agreements. The Arcam A2 machine is specialised on larger objects such as demanding aerospace components. It has 2 sizes of build tanks, one higher and one wider. (6)

Table 14. Content of support and maintenance agreements.

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4.3.2. Maintenance
There are two levels of support and maintenance agreements for the EBM systems, namely Base and Premium, and the content of these are presented in Table 1.

Table 15. Content of support and maintenance agreements.

4.4. Safety
It is important to follow the safety regulations using the EBM machine. If the powder reacts with air the reaction is exothermal and could lead to devastating consequences. Other risk factors are high voltage, high temperatures and small amounts of x-ray.

4.4.1. Powder Ignition and Combustion

The door must not be opened at elevated temperatures. If air is let in the powder might combust. The minimum size of the powder is set according to the ability to combust. In the PRS when recycling the powder, too small grains are collected in a fire safe container. Emptying this container is done by ARCAM personnel. When removing the build, wait until the temperature inside the chamber is less than 100 C (212 before opening. It is due to the risk of ex plosion at elevated temperatures, and F) partly to minimize the pick-up of atmospheric gases. Opening at high temperatures is pointless since the build cannot be handled by hand because of the high heat transfer capacity.

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Figure 32. Metal powder. (4) It is the fine powder size that makes the powder explosive. If the powder combust, the fire must not be quenched by water or carbon dioxide. The chemical reaction if water is added will produce hydrogen gas, which is also explosive. All equipment must be grounded to eliminate the risk of sparks.

4.4.2. Protection Clothing

When handling the powder, gloves and mask are important for protection. It is for preventing getting powder in the lungs or in wounds and cracks in the skin. Gloves are also for protecting the powder from fatty acids and other impurities from our hands.

4.4.3. X-ray
There is radiation coming from the electron beam. It is of the same quantity as for ordinary medical x-ray equipment. The walls of the machine have a blocking effect. The glass of the window is leaded and an extra glass with metallisation is put in front of the permanent glass in order to minimize the x-ray. When all doors are closed the x-ray level outside the machine is below threshold values.

4.4.4. Trolley
Powder hoppers and batches are heavy. There is a trolley with lift devise specialised to carry containers containing powder. When shifting build tank the trolley also has hooks fitting the build tanks.

4.4.5. High Voltage

The electron gun is in need of high voltage to function. Cables supplying the gun are differently insulated compared to other cables. Always make sure which one is which when working inside the back door of the machine, and contact the service support first.

4.4.6. High Temperatures

Objects and parts have high temperatures. Even when the door is opened it sometimes is too warm for our hands to work in the environment. Always think before doing anything related to temperature. The thermo couple might show a different temperature then the actual object. If the thermo couple cable is damage it will show an incorrect temperature, the temperature shown will then be the temperature at the cable injury.

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4.5. Sustainability
Almost all powder can be used again. Which means there are little waist.

Figure 33. Inside the Powder Recovery System.

4.5.1. Powder Recovery System

The powder can be used again. All powder from the Powder Recovery System (PRS) and from the Hoover is clean and once it is sieved it is ready to go back into production. The powder cannot be used too many times since an increase of interstitials might appear when it is exposed to high temperatures end energy during builds in the. The vacuum protects the powder from atmospheric gases. Cleaning of the PRS is very hard. If more than one material is used one PRS per material is recommended. The inside of the PRS is made of steal. Try not to blaster with the beam towards it. A plate of the right material is placed in the middle were blastering is recommended. In the powder circulation system there are magnets which are designed to pick up steal peaces if released. Too small powder grains are collected in a fire safe case.

4.5.2. Hoover
Hoovers remove powder from unwanted areas in the build chamber. The Hoovers used when preparing the machine before and after a build needs to be grounded to eliminate the risk of sparks. The Hoovers for metal powder must be certified.

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Figure 34. Left in picture: Trolley. Middle of picture: EBM machine. Right in picture: Hoover.

4.5.3. Cleaning chamber

Powder and evaporations will nestle into wherever there is a small gap. The evaporations impair the mechanical functions when deposited. Therefore it is important to unscrew parts situated in the build chamber while cleaning. Especially when changing material. When changing powder cleaning is necessary in order not to contaminate the new powder with the old powder.

4.6. Design considerations on EBM

Manufacturability of critical features is depending on several factors and Table 2 states some general rules for fabrication without using supports. Critical feature Minimum wall thickness Value 0,5 mm

Minimum horizontal diameter

1-2 mm

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Critical feature Maximum horizontal diameter

Value 5-6 mm

Minimum vertical diameter

0,5 mm

Downfacing surface angle

>45

Maximum overhang

1 mm

Maximum bridge

2 mm

Thread

> M10 can be made but has to be machined

Machining thickness to smooth poreless surface

get

0,5 2 mm* (depending parameters) on build

Table 16. Critical features for the EBM process (9).

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4.7. Materials
Metal powders delivered by Arcam AB are certified for use in the EBM. Powder size are usually in the range of 45-100m which is safe if safety instructions are followed.

4.7.1. Titanium-6% Aliminium-4% Vanadium ELI

Titanium and its alloys are corrosion resistant, are light weighted and have high strength. It is used for aerospace industry, chemical plants, oil and gas expansions, and medical surgeries, all with great performance at high demands. (10)

Figure 35. EBM manufactured gearbox. (11) Titanium alloyed with 6% Aluminium and 4% Vanadium is the most common Titanium alloy. One of its abbreviations is Ti6Al4V. It is corrosion resistant and one of its characteristic mechanical property is its toughness. (11) The alloy is an alpha-beta alloy. For titanium, aluminium is an alpha-stabiliser and vanadium is a beta-stabiliser. The alpha has an HCP (hexagonal close packed) structure and the beta has a BCC (body centred cubic) structure. Slow cooling will give a two-phase Widmansttten structure. Alfa-phase precipitates shaped as needles or plates appear in grains with beta-matrix. (4). ELI stands for Extra Low Interstitials. Its pureness will decrees the number of crack initiation points and have better fatigue resistance which is important for loaded implants. ELI stands for Extra Low Interstitials. Its pureness will decrees the number of crack initiation points and have better fatigue resistance which is important for loaded implants.

Figure 36. Medical device manufactured with EBM technology. (13)

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Interstitials of atmospheric gases changed the material properties of titanium by influencing the alpha-beta ratio. Hydrogen is a beta stabiliser while Carbon, Nitrogen and Oxygen are alpha-stabilisers. (12) The microstructure of the EBM titanium has finer grains and a higher density compared to cast material. There is a fast cooling of the melt pool, and the products are kept at an elevated temperature for a long time with slow cooling, giving the material a naturally aged condition. (4) Ti6Al4V ELI for implant materials is mostly treated to improve fatigue resistance. If heated to near the beta-transus temperature and worked, then annealing will give fine alpha-grains with beta-particles at the grain boundaries. The structure has about the same ultimate strength but is now more resistant to cyclic loading. (4)

Table 17. Specifications and properties of Ti6Al4V ELI. (4)

Table 18. Mechanical properties of Ti6Al4V ELI. (4)

4.7.2. Cobalt-Chromium alloy

Cobalt-Chromium is used for prosthetic implants, dental implants, and for demanding applications like gas turbines.

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The CoCr Alloy for EBM is an ASTM F75. The products are recommended to be treated by Hot isostatic pressing (HIP) and/or Homogenisation (HOM) treatment in order to get the best fatigue resistance. Both treatments are done using both heat and high pressure. (14)

Figure 37. CoCr dental framework. (15) CoCr alloys are mostly used for its corrosion resistance. It has a protecting surface of Cr2O3. It is widely used in airplanes and as biomaterial. Traditionally the F75 CoCr products are made by investment casting, of which the lost wax process is a method. Sometimes the shrinkage when cooling leads to micro cracks in the material. HIP might reduce the impact of micro cracks in the sintering like condition. HIP will also give finer grains and finer distribution of carbides. The finer distribution of carbides will slightly harden the material. For better fixation sometimes adding surfs porosity is done at high temperature, but it can decrease the fatigue strength. (16)

Table 19. Chemical composition of F75 CoCr. (14)

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Table 20. Material properties of CoCr. (14)

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4.8. Acknowledgement
Thanks to everyone at Arcam AB who helped out with the information needed for this report.

4.9. Bibliography
1. EBM Process. [Online] Arcam AB. [Cited: http://www.arcam.com/technology/ebm-process.aspx. 9 September 2010.]

2. [Online] Arcam AB. [Cited: 5 February 2010.] http://www.arcam.com/CommonResources/Files/www.arcam.com/Images/Technology/EB M%20Hardware/ebm-machine-design.jpg. 3. Larsson M, Andersson LE. Anordning samt metod fr framstllande tredimentionell produkt. 520 710 Sweden, 5 December 2001. Patentskrift. 4. Ti6Al4V ELI Titanium Alloy. [Online] Arcam AB. [Cited: 11 October 2010.] http://www.arcam.com/CommonResources/Files/www.arcam.com/Documents/EBM%20Ma terials/Arcam-Ti6Al4V-ELI-Titanium-Alloy.pdf. 5. Ackelid, U. Method and device to produse three-dimantional objects. WO 2008/147306 A1 International, 4 December 2008. 6. Arcam A2, Setting the standard for addaptive manufacturing. [Online] Arcam AB. [Cited: 11 October 2010.] http://www.arcam.com/CommonResources/Files/www.arcam.com/Documents/Products/Arc am-A2.pdf. 7. Wallgren G, Ackelid U, Svensson M. Powder application system . US 2009/0072405 A1 USA, 19 Mars 2009. 8. Arcam A1, The future in implant manufacturing. [Online] Arcam AB. [Cited: 11 October 2010.] http://www.arcam.com/CommonResources/Files/www.arcam.com/Documents/Products/Arc am-A1.pdf. 9. AIMME, Internal report. 10. Grade 2 Titanium. [Online] Arcam AB. [Cited: 11 October 2010.] http://www.arcam.com/CommonResources/Files/www.arcam.com/Documents/EBM%20Ma terials/Arcam-Titanium-Grade-2.pdf. 11. Ti6Al4V. [Online] Arcam AB. [Cited: 11 October 2010.] http://www.arcam.com/CommonResources/Files/www.arcam.com/Documents/EBM%20Ma terials/Arcam-Ti6Al4V-Titanium-Alloy.pdf. 12. Smallman RE, Bishop RJ. Modern Physical Metallurgy & Materials Engineering. Oxford : Butterworth-Heinemann, 1999. ISBN 0 7506 4564 4. 13. [Online] Arcam AB. [Cited: 8 September 2010.] http://www.arcam.com/CommonResources/Files/www.arcam.com/Images/Industry%20Seg ments/Medical%20Implants/total-medical-standard.jpg . 14. ASTM F75 CoCr Alloy. [Online] Arcam AB. [Cited: 11 October 2010.] http://www.arcam.com/CommonResources/Files/www.arcam.com/Documents/EBM%20Ma terials/Arcam-ASTM-F75-Cobalt-Chrome.pdf. 53/62

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15. lookingfordental.com. [Online] [Cited: 11 October http://dentalcatalog.lookingfordental.com/view_piecesofwork.php?Id=251.

2010.]

16. Rettner, DB. Biomaterials Sciense. San Diego, USA : Elsevier Academic Press, 2004. ISBN-10: 0-12-582463-7.

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5. Selective Laser sintering (SLS)

5.1. Introduction

Figure 38. Laser Sintering machine

Laser sintering consists of layer by layer fabrication. However, this is a powder-bed technology where the powder is distributed by a roller after each slice fusion. The microspheres that the powder is consisted of are capable of supporting the downfacing surfaces, which is why it is not necessary to provide any support structure.

5.2. Build process 5.2.1. Build process

Figure 39. Laser Sintering process - principle

The fabrication chamber, though, is at increased temperature. The temperature is 1C below the fusion temperature for a given material. In that way, the laser used for fusion only needs to contribute with a small quantity of energy to fuse the material. Anyway, a special care must be taken for avoiding the part warping due to high temperatures gradients. Regarding the technology providers, the main ones are 3D Systems (www.3dsystems.com) and Electro Optical Systems GmbH EOS (www.eos.de).

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5.2.1.

Laser source

The type of laser for Laser Sintering technology is CO2 laser. The carbon dioxide laser (CO2 laser) was one of the earliest gas lasers to be developed (invented by Kumar Patel of Bell Labs in 1964), and is still one of the most useful. Carbon dioxide lasers are the highest-power continuous wave lasers that are currently available. They are also quite efficient: the ratio of output power to pump power can be as large as 20%. The CO2 laser produces a beam of infrared light with the principal wavelength bands centering around 9.4 and 10.6 micrometers.

5.2.2.

Specifications of the machine

Machine Specifications (EOSINT P385) Type of laser Nominal laser power Laser beam diameter Build envelope Machine weight Max build speed Layer thickness xyz accuracy CO2 50W 0.66 mm 340x340x620mm 1430 kg up to 25 mm/h 0.15 mm 0.1mm

Table 21. Specificiations of the SLS system

5.2.3.

Support structure

The laser sintering process always works without supports because the unsintered powder stays in the bed and supports the model. Depending on the geometry of the model and the material being used it has proved to be useful to build a platform (base) as well and to build on this base.

5.2.4.

Build time/accuracy

Build times and accuracy depend on the geometry and therefore on the positioning of the component in the build chamber. The build time in the x-y direction is much higher than that in the z-direction. Typical build times are approx. Up to 10 mm/h. The accuracy is limited by the laser beam diameter. Beam diameters of about 0.4 mm result in accuracy of 0.15 up to 0.2 mm and finest details such as freestanding walls of 0.5 mm thickness minimum.

5.2.5.

Post-Processing

After the build process is finished the model is completely enclosed in a powder cake. Most sintering process take place at a temperature of between 170C and 200 C, specially when plastic materials are sintered, to ensure a uniform cooling it is important that after the last layer an additional layer of powder several centimetres thick is applied. After the compound has cooled completely, which may take several hours owing to the poor heat conduction, the powder cake is carefully removed from outside .

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Although, in theory, the compound is merely embedded in a loose powder cake only needs to be taken out and the powder blown off, in practice it is wise to proceed carefully. First the compound can easily be damaged because its position is not exactly known; second, there are, depending on the temperature control, slightly sintered areas especially around the model (fleeces) that have to be removed with great care by using special tools. Therefore, it demands patience and skill to clean sinter models especially those with internal hollow spaces, drillings and fine details. To exacerbate the situation, models and powder have the same colour. After the parts are cleaned in a so-called post-processing, the surface is treated further by manual polishing or sand blasting. Parts of models or broken off parts of models can be glued on with cyanoacrylate glues or with epoxy resins. To finish the models drums with polishing material can also be used. It has to be taken into account that the type of abrasive used determines the amount of material removed. There is a high risk of rounding sharp edge corners. Because sinter models are generally porous, all infiltrating surface sealings may be used. This includes all kinds of hard wax, epoxy resins, and also primers on an enamel base.

Figure 40. Laser sintering post-processing, principle.

5.2.6.

Computer & software. File types and preparation.

The machines accept complete STL files and CLI contour data. There are two different softwares to prepare a SLS fabrication: EOS RP Tools; EOSTATE 1.2; Magics RP (Materialise)

Magics RP (Materialise). Magics is a rapid prototyping software enables to import a wide variety of CAD formats and to export STL files ready for rapid prototyping, tooling and manufacturing. Its applications include repairing and optimizing 3D models; analyzing parts; making process-related design changes on your STL files; designing fixtures; documenting your projects; production planning and much more.
Main tasks to do in magics are:

Error Fixing of STL file Part placement and orientation Shrinkage Compensation

Eos RP tools. Specific software to slice the files EOSTATE software, which monitors and reports on laser-sintering production 57/62

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The procedure to prepare a part is showed in the next diagram:

Figure 41. Preparation of a SLS fabrication.

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5.3. Economical aspects 5.3.1. 5.3.2. Maintenance Fabrication costs

Estimated on 5 yrs depreciation
Years 5 Active weeks/yr 45 Builds/wee k 9 h/build 10 Estimated build hours 20.250 Machine price/h 14,81

BUILD COSTS
MACHINE COSTS

[h]

Machine price 300.000 MAINTAINANCE Years 5 Active mth/yr 12 Monthly price 2.500 []

[/h]

[]

150.000 Maint/h 7,41

[]

[/h]

FUNGIBLES Laser Useful lifetime 75.000 Laser price 35.000 [] Laser / h 0,47 [/h]

Total estimated build costs

22,69

[/h]

Table 22. SLS estimated build costs (EOSINT P390).

Regarding material costs, nylon based materials (i.e. PA 2200) has a price of 60 /kg of powder. In other words, the contribution of this materials to the part cost can be expressed as 0,056 /cm3. Though the initial estimation of the total fabrication costs can be given by the following formula: TFC = n build hours x cost per hour of machine depreciation [/h] + (part volume x material price x 1.4) [/cm3]. where 1.4 is a coefficient that reflects 40% of material refresh rate.

5.4. Safety features

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5.4.1. Handling and Storage of material

Handling: Avoid formation of dust, provide adequate ventilation and dust extraction at the machine. In case of thermal processing, provide for extraction of the vapours or adequate ventilation. Protection against fire/explosion: Observe usual fire prevention measures. If dust is produced: take measures against electrostatic charge, keep away sources of ignition. Storage: No special measures required

5.4.2. Stability and reactivity

No hazardous decomposition products known products and no hazardous reactions known. Thermal decomposition > 300 C

5.4.3. Ecological information

The material is a water-insoluble, solid polymer which, under environmental conditions, is not expected to have a detrimental effect on plants, animals or microorganisms

5.4.4. Disposal considerations

Observe local regulations, e.g. dispose of in a waste incineration plant. It is not possible to define a waste code number as per the European list of wastes, as allocation is only possible on definition of the purpose by the user. The waste code number is to be defined as per the European list of wastes (EU decision as regards the list of wastes 2000/532/EC) in consultation with the disposer / manufacturer / the authorities.

5.4.5. Transport information

Not a hazardous good in the context of the transport regulations.

5.4.6. Regulatory information

Labelling (EU): Not subject to labelling provisions as per GefStoffV (German law on hazardous materials and directive 67/548/EEC. National regulations D: Strfallverordnung (German regulations on incidents):Not listed in Annex I (StrfallV 2000) Water pollution class: not water-polluting, code number 766

5.5. Sustainability
Material in SLS can be reused after the fabrication. The low density of SLS powders has the advantage of avoiding support structure. However, the disadvantage of the process is that the material located in the immediate envoltory of the fabricated part loses its properties and must be refreshed.

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An exact number of the refreshment rate depends on the build chamber size, fabricated part size, material, etc. That is why it is different from one to another fabrication. However, we may state that the average refreshment rate is rounding 40%.

5.6. Design considerations on Laser Sintering

There are some design considerations that are showed in the next table.

Part design consideration Layer thickness Minimum wall thickness (mm)

Draw

Value 0.8-0.15 mm 0.5 mm

Figure 42. SLS design considerations

5.7. Materials 5.7.1. Laser Sintering Materials

This technology uses laser to fuse powder and create a part layer by layer. Normally, it uses polyamide powder sometimes even with the glass fibre or aluminium load. The main advantage of polyamide is its high mechanical properties as well as a good rigidity which permit to avoid the use of support structure, a feature generally necessary for model downfacing surfaces. One of the majorly present technologies for SLS is the one provided by Electro Optical Systems GmbH. They have a variety of machines such as Formiga P 100, EOSINT P 390, etc. Regarding plastic material, in the following table the most relevant and employed ones are shown. EOS offers a variety of materials for use in their laser-sintering systems. These materials are based on PA 12 or polystyrene. Polyamide is resistant to most chemicals, and the material itself is uncritical with regard to environmental and health aspects. There is a wide spectrum of material variants for the special requirements of different applications. These materials can be distinguished, among other things, by the filling, for example with aluminium, glass or carbon fibre.

PA 2200

A fine-powder on the basis of polyamide 12. Typical applications of the material are fully functional prototypes with high end finish directly from the process. They easily withstand high mechanical and thermal load. Glass-filled Fine Polyamide. Typical applications of the material are housings and thermally stressed parts. Figure 43. Table of SLS materials

PA 3200 GF

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5.8. Acknowledgment
Thanks to Ibon Mitxelena of Castmol, SME that participates in KARMA project.

5.9. Bibliography
1. 3D Systems Webpage: http://www.3dsystems.com/ 2. EOS webpage: www.eos.info 3. Indian Institute of Technology Delhi. Rapid prototyping laboratory information. http://www.iitd.ac.in/facility/rapidproto.html 4. Spanish association of Rapid Manufacturing: http://www.aserm.net.

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